Progr	Volume	Issue	Year	Abstract
1	1	2	1971	" The aim of the studies was to assess the effects of social categorization on intergroup behaviour when, in the intergroup situation, neither calculations of individual interest nor previously existing attitudes of hostility could have been said to have determined discriminative behaviour against an outgroup. These conditions were satisfied in the experimental design. In the first series of experiments, it was found that the subjects favoured their own group in the distribution of real rewards and penalities in a situation in which nothing but the variable of fairly irrelevant classification distinguished between the ingroup and the outgroup. In the second series of experiments it was found that: 1) maximum joint profit independent of group membership did not affect significantly the manner in which the subjects divided real pecuniary rewards; 2) maximum profit for own group did affect the distribution of rewards; 3) the clearest effect on the distribution of rewards was due to the subjects §s  attempt to achieve a maximum difference between the ingroup and the outgroup even at the price of sacrificing other objective advantages. The design and the results of the study are theoretically discussed within the framework of social norms and expectations and particularly in relation to a generic norm of outgroup behaviour prevalent in some societies. "
2	1	2	1971	 An attempt was made to extend social exchange theory to a situation in which the outcomes available for exchanges were of qualitatively different sorts. Male Ss judged the creativity of sentences constructed by female accomplices under conditions of high versus low attractiveness (presence or absence of smiling and eye contact) of the accomplice and high versus low cost of judgemental accuracy to the S. An interaction between Attractiveness × Cost was predicted and found in experiment 1. Experiment 2 replicated that finding and added two control conditions. The results indicated that for the high attractiveness manipulation the positive reciprocity tendency which occurred under low cost was not found under higher cost. In addition, both studies showed a non significant negative reciprocity tendency under high attractiveness and high cost. Jones §s  theory of ingratiation was examined for its relevancy, but it does not appear to be more appropriate in this situation than the reward cost model. 
3	1	2	1971	" The theories of social influence assert that: a) the existing dependence on the source of influence and hence the presence of the latter, is the cause of the above changes, b) the effective qualities of the stimulus or those which are attributed to it   ambiguity, clarity and certitude, etc.,   can be seen in the divergence or convergence of the estimations made on the stimulus have an independent effect from the relations which exist between this source and its target. In this research OUI aim is to question both postulates by using a very well know phenomenon. On the one hand we have shown that the style of behaviour of the source, its consistency, is sufficient to produce the desired influence. On the other hand, we have shown that if this behaviour creates a conflict of response, the subject will adopt the proposed response on the condition that he has done so of his own free will and not because of having given in under pressure. That is why an absent source of influence can be successful; the subject has the impression of approaching it without giving in to it, while the presence of a source of influence causes the polarization, this being the only means for the subject to preserve his independence. The experimental paradigm used is the same as that of Sherif. Dozens of experiments have shown that the greater the distance between the stooge subjects and the naive subjects, the greater the tendency for response polarization. In the control situation where subjects were confronted with a constant stodge for the entire duration of the experiment, we obtained the same results. In the experimental situation where the stooge would leave the room with a justified excuse before the end of the experiment, we have found a trend converging towards his judgements. The polarization phenomenon is therefore due to the relation between the source and the target of influence, to the meaning which is assigned to the distances of judgment rather than to the distances themselves. Moreover, the withdrawal of the source in no way diminishes its influence and so, those who are absent are sometimes right. "
4	1	2	1971	 Seventy two male subjects from lower technical schools were divided into groups of three and assigned to three conditions in which they expected to work together in competition with another group, to work together but independently of the other group, or did not anticipate to work together at all. Subjects who anticipated working together showed a more favourable attitude toward their group and its members than subjects who did not. Moreover, actual social interaction increased in group attractiveness. Intergroup competition led to a more differentiated leadership structure and a greater consensus about the distribution of influence in the group. Contrary to our predictions, intergroup competition produced no greater in group solidarity, nor any over evaluation of the group §s product. Low influence persons felt comparatively more positive about their group even before they actually had the opportunity to work together. An attempt was made to relate this finding to the ordinal position of the low status figure, his affiliative tendencies under stress, and his greater social dependence. 
5	1	2	1971	 A method is presented to explore, empirically, patterns of social and personal identity: the social identity inventory (SII). The SII is based on free associations describing a person §s principal group memberships (first order data). The responses obtained are used as stimuli to generate second order data through focused introspection. The results reveal patterns of relationship between self representation and group representation, the differential probability of different group memberships to elicit self representations, and the cognitive processes underlying the natural representations of group memberships. 
6	1	2	1971	" This study contrasts the interactions and influence choices amongst line managers in three organizations. The organizations were selected because of their contrasting formal structures (degree of bureaucratization, etc., after Pugh et al., 1968). The relations between the sociometric indicators and the various aspects of organization structure are explored across different sub parts of the line management systems. The overall results are that the effects of aspects of organization structure on social processes are generally in the directions predicted, though the relationships are not large; and that the effects of one aspect of organization structure can be moderated by other structurat features. Global generalizations about the effects of, say, bureaucracy on social behaviour are therefore inadvisable. "
7	1	3	1971	 Ajter a brief discussion of work on experimenter bias, it is suggested that the possibility of less well documented biases should be considered. A number of such biases are suggested. They are presented in terms of their source, namely the political ideologies, cultural backgrounds, biographical characteristics and personal characteristics of scientists. In considering implications of biases, three reactions are discussed: ignoring, controlling and understanding them. In particular, it is proposed that understanding the operation of bias might be furthered by working towards a taxonomy of biases, organized in terms of the sources of biases and the points in the research process at which they intrude. 
8	1	3	1971	 This article attempts to introduce and investigate a new variable in the experimental study of groups: the representation system. This study deals more specifically with the rile played by the representation of the task. This representation of the task constitutes the theory, the system of hypotheses individuals work out with respect to the nature of the task and the means to use in order to carry it out. The key results of this study are that group performance depends on the representation of the task, with optimum effectiveness achieved when the representation of the task and its objective nature coincide. Another finding is that the structure of communications within the group is determined by the representation of the task rather than by its objective character. It was also established that the representation of the task determines the cognitive process adopted by the group. Thus the entire group activity is tied to the representations in its midst. The group organizes itself, regulates itself interactions, and determines its priorities in terms of these representations. 
9	1	3	1971	 The Pollyanna hypothesis is extended into the field of intertrait inference to predict that inferential thresholds for positively evaluated characteristics will be lower than those for negatively evaluated characteristics. This prediction is confirmed, and is shown to have important implications for models of inference rules. Data from several studies are analysed to reveal that the Pollyanna threshold effect is reliably greater for women than for men, and it is shown that this effect is unrelated to sex differences in extremity of responding. 
10	1	3	1971	 This study explored the different interpretations of the 4 3 2 power pattern (Caplow, 1956) in the standard pachisiboard situation, originated by Vinacke and Arkoff (1957). The results show that A (4) does not misperceive his power more than B (3) or C (2), as Kelley and Arrowood (1960) and Vinacke and Arkoff (1957) assumed. The results also did not fit the predictions of game theory (Shapley and Shubik, 1964). Gamson §s (1964) explanation was not confirmed either. The conspiracy hypothesis (Hoffman et al., 1954), which states that if the players perceive that they are comparable and one of the players is given an initial advantage, then the two other players will conspire against him, can explain the results of this study reasonably well. 
11	1	3	1971	 This paper, which draws on follow up data collected from English subjects first tested as adolescents and then, 1I years later, as young inen of 24–25, falls into three parts. Part I examines the structuring of responses to authoritarian statements. No general authoritarian factor could be isolated in either adolescence or in adult life. Instead, four separate authoritarian response tendencies, each with its own antecedents, significance and predictive value, were obtained. Only the adolescent measures correlated significantly with ability level. This, together with the greater stability across time of the responses of the more able 13–14 year olds, led us to hypothesize that some of the variance in adolescent scores was cognitively, not motivationally, determined. Part II reports a series of experimental studies (using additional data from the follow up investigation) testing the cognitive and developmental hypothesis, which received support. Part III proposes a general model for the consideration of attitudes, in which any given attitudinal response is located in a three dimensional space of cognitive complexity, personality needs and social structure. 
12	1	3	1971	" Two experiments are reported here in which Ss were asked to rate videotapes of a performer reading friendly, neutral and hostile messages in a friendly, neutral or hostile non verbal style. These messages and non verbal styles had previously been presented independently to a separate group of Ss jor rating, in order to obtain an estimate of their individual strengths in terms of six rating scales, and thus permit a matching of verbal (messages) and non verbal (styles) cues in the experiment where both types of cues were presented in combination. The results of both experiments indicate that non verbal cues had a greater effect on ratings made on 7 point scales, such as hostile friendly, than verbal cues. The magnitude of this greater effect of non verbal cues, however, was dependent on the relative strength of non verbal as opposed to verbal cues. In the first experiment, both types of cues were approximately equal in strength when ruted alone; here non verbal cues accounted for 12.5 times us much variance us verbal cues, and produced 5.7 times as much shift on the ratitig scales. In the second experiment the verbal cues were much stronger than the non verbal cues when rated alone. Here the relative effect of non verbal cues in the second experiment was diminished; the ratio of non verbal : verbal variance was now 1.67:1. When verbal and non verbal signals were inconsistent, the performance was rated as insincere, unstable and confusing   which was not found in earlier experiments on the superior inferior dimension. "
13	1	4	1971	 Judgments of attitude statements with the method of equal appearing intervals have been found to vary as a function of the judges §s  attitudes. In this paper explanations of the relationship between judges §s  attitudes and judgments of attitude statements in terms of models of psychophysical judgment are discussed. It is argued that psychophysical models such as adaptation level theory, the range frequency model, and the rubber band model and its derivations, cannot account satisfactorily for judges §s  performance of the attitude rating task in a great number of studies. The reason for this failure, it is argued, is that the stimulus series employed in the psychophysical judgment research on which these models are based typically varied only on the dimension being judged. The sets of statements judged in attitude rating studies, however, vary not only on the dimension of interest (favourability Unfavourability) but also on a number of other dimensions. It is suggested that this incidental stimulus variation of attitude statements may account for the failure of psychophysical models to predict accurately the performance of judges in the attitude rating task. It is argued that if principles which could account for the effects of this incidental stimulus variation on attitude ratings could be incorporated into psychophysical models, the predictive qualities of these models could be improved considerably. One such model is discussed. 
14	1	4	1971	 Cognitive consistency theories predict changes in evaluation within an existing frame of reference. This frame of reference must be defined in terms of those dimensions or aspects of the situation that appear most salient to the individual concerned. The same situation may appear balanced or unbalanced, depending on which dimensions are seen as salient. The tendency to maintain balance may therefore reveal itself in a tendency to see as salient those dimensions in terms of which a given situation will appear most balanced. This is consistent with evidence from the judgment of attitude statements, which suggests that individuals will regard as most salient those dimensions along which their own evaluations of a set of statements will be most congruent with the value connotations of the terms by which the judgment scale is labelled. 
15	1	4	1971	 Positivity bias is approached from three viewpoints: (a) It may be the effect of purely cognitive dispositions. (b) As such, it may function as an hypothesis about reality. The related dynamic factor would be a tendency toward cognitive validity which may lead to an orientation toward the negative as a means to test the positivity hypothesis. (c) Finally, the subject may seek rewarding behavioural interactions with entities within his life space. In this context cognitive positivity bias may reflect a behavioural approach bias which can be related to the dynamics of mere survival and self actualization. 
16	1	4	1971	" In three parallel experiments, subjects rated their impressions of hypothetical 20 year old males described by means of single or combined personality trait adjectives on 36 bipolar (Semantic Differential) scales. These ratings were a) intercorrelated across the scales (Q technique) and factor analysed separately for each subject, and b) submitted to an analysis of variance separately for each scale. It was shown that 1) when contradictory adjectives were combined the major portion of the variance of judgments fell on dimensions independent of that which characterized the contradiction; 2) there were substantial inter individual consistencies in the direction of the deviation from that dimension; and 3) the utility of a linear model for the prediction of judgments of combined adjectives increases with increases in the extent to which the subject experiences the combination as consistent. However, the utility of the linear model decreases considerably and consistently if the combined adjectives are experienced as non consistent. "
17	1	4	1971	" There are two aims to this paper; to report in brief preliminary form a number of studies on group risk taking that have been carried out in Bristol in the past two years, and to relate these studies to an explanation of group risk taking phenomena primarily in terms of group polarization. The paper has five sections. The first section supplies some background material regarding basic phenomena and previous attempts at explanations. The second section relates to initial individual decisions and the third section to decisions following group discussion and consensus. In the fourth section a tentative explanation of group risk taking effects is proposed in terms of group polarization processes, together with something like an overall value for risk. Group polarization itself is discussed in terms of normative and informational aspects of social influence. The final section deals with two implications of the proposed explanation, one relating to the role of individual familiarization and the other to the generality of group polarization processes. "
18	1	4	1971	 A reanalysis of data obtained by Kogan and Wallach, 1966 is presented. Wherever the original analysis showed the extremity of unanimous group judgments in general not to be different from the average extremity of individual judgments, the present analysis indicates that these group judgments differ from the average of individual judgments: they are significantly more extreme than the average positions of the individuals. 
19	1	4	1971	" The relationship between riskiness of decisions and confidence in decisions was examined using Choice Dilemma items. Graphs show a clear curvilinear relationship between riskiness and confidence; on both risky items and cautious items greater confidence is associate with extremely risky and extremely cautious decisions than with moderate ones. it was also demonstrated that individual subjects have more confidence in their extreme decisions than in their moderate ones. "
20	2	1	1972	 Thirty two groups of four naive Ss and one accomplice participated in this 2 × 2 × 2 experiment designed to test conditions facilitating imitation of a competent model played by the accomplice. It was assumed that the psychological distance between the competent model and the Ss would be lessened so that imitation would increase: 1. if the model was friendly rather than hostile, 2. if the situation was non frustrating rather than frustrating, and 3. if aggression was permitted rather than forbidden. Imitation was measured by the Ss §s  reproduction of the model §s two mannerisms, and was found to be significantly influenced in the predicted way by the three variables. However, the freedom to aggress did not lessen psychological distance. Alternative explanations are provided for these results. 
21	2	1	1972	" The aim of first study, carried out by an English investigator, was to assess the extent to which Asian immigrant children had moved away from the values of their culture of origin. For this purpose some novel techniques were employed, including an identikit task and one focusing on Scottish versus Asian names. The outcome suggested that the children had been very powerfully influenced by the values of the host community. Since it was suspected that these results might have been in part a function of the ethnic membership of the investigator and/or the specific methods employed, the study was repeated on a comparable sample with an Indian psychologist and using modified test materials. The results of the second study remained unchanged as far as factual aspects were concerned; however, preferences expressed changed significantly in the direction of Asian cultural values. The theoretical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed, and it is argued that studies of this type are likely to have an inherent element of uncertainty which calls for caution in making generalizations. "
22	2	1	1972	" In a learning experiment 10 Ss as receivers judged looking signals of a sender. Providing feedback about the real direction of gaze produced learning in the direction of an improvement of discrimination performance; the improvement was independent of visual acuity of receivers and was not correlated to extraversion and neuroticism. Performance at the beginning was poorer and learning progress better for fixation points which were further away from the face. Results are discussed with reference to improving accuracy of observers on the variable looking behaviour, important in studies on nonverbal communication. A pre training of observers which allows explicit feedback about the real direction of gaze is proposed. "
23	2	1	1972	 Dissonance theory and incentive theory call for different predictions concerning the relation of reward and attitude change after a person has performed some counter attitudinal behaviour. According to dissonance theory a negative, and according to incentive theory a positive relationship is expected. An experiment was conducted in West Germany testing the interactions of choice versus no choice and public versus anonymous (private) essay writing. A dissonance effect was predicted for the choice/public condition and an incentive effect for the no choice/anonymous condition. The results support these predictions. 
24	2	1	1972	 Data obtained from four national samples of 6–11 year old children are presented, showing preference for four countries, perceived friendship of these countries with the subject §s own country and perceived relationships among the target countries. Two quantitative analogues of Heider §s balance theory are used to examine the relations between these sets of data, one employing a multiplicative and the other a distance approach. Both models were found to fit the data adequately, further research being needed to discriminate between them. An explanation in terms of ethnocentric correspondence is given to explain why prediction is noticeably better for British and Austrian than for Belgian and Greek samples. 
25	2	1	1972	 The analysis of the responses from certain questions in a series of guided interviews suggests that the views of workpeople §s motivation held by executives relate more to the size and type of company in which they are employed than to their age, training, education or amount shop floor of contact arising from periods of apprenticeship or of line management experience. The ways in which their view of the motivation of workpeople differs from their own attitudes to work are indicated. In particular, the commonly held dictum that apprenticeship is valuable in creating an understanding of workpeople and their viewpoints does not appear to be supported. The limitations of the study are discussed and future work indicated. 
26	2	1	1972	" An experiment was conducted to determine the nature of position biases in the cognitive representation of hierarchical social structures. A position in such a structure reflects the relative influence of its occupants. Using DeSoto §s technique, 24 Dutch and 24 French Ss learned either a completely ordered or incompletely ordered structure. No significant differences were found between countries. The completely ordered structure was found easier to learn than the incomplete ones. According to the results of previous studies (Van Kreveld and Zajonc, 1966; Poitou, 1970) the learning curves for completely and incompletely ordered structures were expected to be respectively curvilinear and monotonic. The results did not support this expectation. "
27	2	2	1972	 Three dependent variables, derived from an extended Signal Detection paradigma, were used in each of 3 experiments: memory performance, confidence level, and response bias. Each memory item was first judged by S and then fictitiously by 2 confederates providing different degrees of agreement and disagreement. As compared to agreement moderate disagreement yielded both better recognition performance and, if S §s judgements were false, less confidence. Strong disagreement failed to repeat these findings. Balanced agreement/disagreement raised the level of both performance and confidence relative to a situation without information from the group. In all the experiments correct decisions yielded higher confidence than errors. Festinger §s theory of social comparison processes accounts for all results in performance, but for explaining the confidence shifts assumptions on internal cues should also be incorporated. The response bias was not affected by social treatment differences, thus supporting the view of some Signal Detection theorists. Proposals towards a general theory of stimulus processing in social context are outlined and some of its consequences are discussed by taking as examples some conformity experiments. 
28	2	2	1972	 This research shows that in an experimental game it is the perception of an actual relationship, of an interaction with the other person more than the nature of the game which creates a climate in which cooperative responses can be established. Cooperative sets can be induced through the Representation of the partner: a reactive partner promoting cooperation, and a rigid one promoting competition. In addition it is noted that in order to understand the reactions induced by the partner §s behaviour, the behaviour in itself it not sufficient. Indeed it is interpreted and understood in terms of the initial representation. The analysis of a person §s behaviour when in relation with another, should be based on a joint study of the existing representations and of the actual behaviour observed. 
29	2	2	1972	 The purpose of this experiment was to explore psychological mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of extremization of judgments (accentuation) under stress. Specifically the question was raised whether accentuation was due to some change of the internal representation of the objective scale (the personal reference scale, Upshaw, 1969). In the case of no indication for such a change a further analysis of accentuation concerning the nature of response shifts was intended. Four different degrees of stress were induced by varying levels of white noise stimulation. Induction of stress was monitored by measures of electrodermal and cardiac activity. Ss in each of the stress conditions rated statements on social issues for degree of socialist or communist attitude expressed. In part I of the experiment Ss were free to choose any bipolar scale comprising 2–13 categories. In part II they repeated their judgments on a 9 point bipolar scale. As degree of stress was not systematically related to scale selection in part I, there was no support for the hypothesis of a change of personal reference scale. A linear function between a general instability of the judgmental frame of reference and stress was found, however. Again an increasing tendency to accentuate under intermediate stress levels was observed. Under medium degree of stress an increased tendency to vary scales was also observed. 
30	2	2	1972	 Differential vocal emphasis in the tape recorded instruction reading for a standard person perception task was manipulated by mechanically raising or lowering the volume of the key words describing the success or failure response alternatives on the rating scale. In a series of three experiments, Ss exposed to success emphasis in the instructions rated the stimulus persons as more successful than did Ss exposed to failure emphasis. This trend was reversed for Ss who listened twice to the instructions. None of the Ss reported awareness of the influence attempt. 
31	2	2	1972	" The purpose of the present experiment was to show that the occurrence of psychological reactance is diminished when a person a) estimates the freedom eliminating source of social influence as highly attractive, and b) shows strong need for social approval and that c) psychological reactance might be stored up when the actual freedom eliminating social influence is too strong. In an experiment with 3 phases female students served as Ss. Two partners (S and stooge) had to decide whether or not to answer an item from a set of everyday questions with two choice alternatives. In the case of a positive decision they had to give their judgments covertly. In the first phase the S decided whether to answer or not; then the stooge urged the S not to answer a special set of questions. In the second phase the stooge announced her decision whether to answer a question or not and she left out the crucial items. In the third phase the S answered the items alone since the stooge left the room for a short time having good reasons. The independent variables were interpersonal attraction: high vs. low (manipulated by instruction) and social desirability: high vs. low (measured by median split half of the scores of a German version of the Marlowe Crowne scale). Reactance was measured as the number of answers to the crucial items in phase 3 in relation to the previous phases. The delay effect of psychological reactance was tested by a comparison of answers in phase 2 and 3. The data lent support to the first (attraction) and third (delay) experimental hypotheses stated. "
32	2	3	1972	 The discovery of the effects of risky shift focusses the interest on the study of decision processes. Nevertheless the researches carried on until now have always shown confusion between the theoretical and experimental analysis of these processes and the risk related behaviour. In the first part of the article the authors try to clear this confusion as well as to define the conditions of a systematic study of the mechanisms of decision leading either to an averaging or to a polarization of individual views. The authors insist on the necessity to compare groups rather than individuals to groups. To start with, one hypothesis concerning the effects of group organization on the degree of polarization of views is proposed. The experiment described in the second part of the article confirms the hypothesis: A group in which individuals have the possibility to communicate with each other and to interact directly take more extreme decisions than a group deprived of this possibility. It is presumptuous and inexact to state that groups take more extreme risk than individuals whereas it is right to say that certain groups take risks when circumstances are favourable. 
33	2	3	1972	 Different sets of expectations were induced in groups of observers before asking them to observe a film. Four aspects of Hall §s notation system for the observation of proxemic behaviour (1963) were adopted for the purposes of this study and another observation aspect was added. All Ss observed the same scenes of the film. They only differed in the kind of information on experimenters §s  beliefs and the hypotheses of the observation study. Results indicate that induced expectancies influenced the recordings of the observers. Implications of these outcomes are discussed. 
34	2	3	1972	 Twelve four person female groups of subjects displaying the typical underestimation of their peers §s  (relative to their own) risk acceptance were compared with twelve groups of subjects who (slightly) overestimated their peers §s  risk acceptance. Risk level was measured by responses to a set of hypothetical decision situations known to elicit risky shift on the basis of previous research. Risky shift following group discussion was not found to be different for the two types of groups, casting doubt on the widely suggested role of peer underestimation in risky shift. Nor was risky shift affected by whether or not group members stated their individual decisions publicly at the close of discussion. Larger group risky shifts were accompanied by higher self ratings given by group members on a number of polarity scales. In discussing the findings, we outline an explanation of group induced shifts in risk taking, emphasizing the motivational and informational inducements provided by group discussion whereby group members come to discard their prior positions in favour of more aspired ones. 
35	2	3	1972	 In this study expectancy and equity theory were compared. An experiment was carried out on the effect of overpayment. Overpayment was manipulated by varying perceived input (perceived qualifications) and received outcome (financial compensation). The experiment consisted of a 2 × 3 design: two levels of payment (4 guilders p.h. and 8 guilders p.h.) and three levels of perceived qualifications (high, medium, low). Sixty six subjects were hired through the students placement service to decode personality questionnaires. Overpayment by manipulation of monetary rewards did not lead to greater production, as was hypothesized by Adams §s  equity theory (1965). As far m overpayment has been manipulated by perceived qualifications for the job the data confirmed equity theory. Several other theories (e.g. expectancy theory: Lawler, 1968b) can explain both results. 
36	2	3	1972	 Hypotheses derived from the Harvey, Hunt and Schroder personality organization system were tested in an attitude change situation. Female subjects selected for extremeness of conceptual structure and negative attitude toward women §s equality were subjected to a sensory deprivation, a normal control or an overstimulation environment in which a high salience (HS) or a low salience (LS) communication was presented. The main prediction of a three way interaction among conceptual structure, communication salience and environmental complexity received some support. Concrete individuals who received the HS communication showed significantly more change than those who received the LS communication. The expected reversal of this effect for abstract individuals was not found. The HS communication produced significantly greater change than the LS communication, and this difference was significantly related to environmental complexity. These findings were discussed in terms of McGuire §s and Berlyne §s respective proposals concerning comprehension yielding, and arousal reduction. 
37	2	4	1972	 The present study consists of three related experiments which are concerned with the development of national attitudes in children between the ages of seven and twelve. It was predicted on the basis of a structural interpretation of Allport §s three stage developmental theory of prejudice that national attitudes will increase at first due to increasing consistency of judgment and decrease afterwards due to cognitive differentiation. The hypothesis is partially confirmed with respect to the attitudes of children towards other countries but not confirmed with respect to the attitudes of children towards people who are perceived as foreigners. A tentative explanation is offered for the last finding. It was shown moreover that the attitudes of older children display more cognitive balance than those of younger children. In connection with the last problem, a quantified modification Bf Heider §s theory of balanced states was introduced. 
38	2	4	1972	 Ten introverts and 10 extraverts were selected from a student population on the bask of their responses to the E.P.I. The groups contained 5 men and 5 women and were matched for Neuroticism. Each subject took part in two 4 minute conversations, one with a male confederate, one with a female confederate. The same two confederates were used throughout the experiment, and no attempt was made to programme any aspect of their behaviour. Two trained observers, who sat behind a one way screen situated close to the speakers, recorded the visual and speech behaviour of both subject and confederate by means of a four channel event recorder. The recordings were made for the last 3 minutes of each interaction. Extraverts Looked more frequently than introverts, but there were no differences between the two groups in the proportions of time spent in Looking and eye contact, or in the mean length of Looks. Extraverts also spoke more frequently than introverts, a finding which may complement that for the number of Looks. The findings could not be explained by the behaviour of the confederates, since they behaved consistently across the two groups of subjects. The experiment is discussed with particular reference to Mobbs (1968) and Kendon and Cook (1969). Comparisons of methodology are made. 
39	2	4	1972	" In the context of a labour management simulation study, three man union teams were made to believe that they had either a very strong or a very weak bargaining position vis à vis the other party. In half of each of these conditions, a cooperative and a competitive orientation toward the other group was induced. In preparation for the intergroup negotiations, the subjects were first asked to indicate their individual aspirations for three negotiation issues. After a group discussion, their collective aspirations were obtained. Regardless of the experimental conditions. groups set significantly higher aspiration levels than individuals on the most important issue but were more conservative and cautious on less important issues. In general, for all three topics, significant or near significant interactions were found between bargaining strength and the direction of the group induced shift. In the strong bargaining condition, groups set higher aspiration levels than the average of prior individual judgments; in the weak bargaining condition the opposite trend occurred. An effort was made to relate these findings to the various theories developed in the risky shift literature. "
40	2	4	1972	" Moscovici and Zavalloni (1969) suggest that both risk shifts and attitude shifts after group discussion are examples of a general group tendency to polarize opinions. In the present experiment, using both attitude and risk items, group discussion did not make individual opinions more extreme; only the group average became more extreme. This group extremity increase was not simply a more general way of conceptualizing the directional shifts in attitude and risk; group extremity increase appeared to be an effect of discussion that was independent of the risk and attitude shifts. Also, subjects in the co working pretest of the standard risk shift paradigm were found to be less extreme and more agreeing than pretest subjects who were truly alone. This co working/alone difference persisted after discussion and was not related to group extremity increase. On both attitude and risk items, group extremity increase was strongly correlated with group opinion convergence. It is argued from this correlation that group extremity increase may be an effect of some aspect of conformity influence. "
41	2	4	1972	 An implication was examined of three assumptions of Personal Construct Theory. Personal and supplied construct systems were compared for their capacity to account for 34 subjects §s  behaviour in an independent sorting task. It was found that either construct system tended to account for a significant amount of the variance in sorting behaviour, but that more was accounted for by personal Construct systems. Observations were made on the way in which this phenomenon varied between subjects, sub tasks, and parts of construct systems. The assumptions examined were held to be relevant to Social perception and cognitive theories. 
42	2	4	1972	" Discussions of intergroup behaviour (e.g., Rabbie and Wilkens, 1971; Tajfel, Flament, Billig and Bundy, 1971) have drawn attention to the influence of both assumed similarity and anticipated future interaction between an individual and other members of his group on his tendency to assign more favourable outcomes to members of his own group than to members of another group. This note examines whether similar processes may also affect an individual §s tendency to make intragroup discriminations between different members of a group to which he himself does not belong, in a situation where the variables of similarity and anticipated interaction may be treated as independent factors. "
43	2	4	1972	" While a considerable amount of research has centered on explaining the risky shift (enhancement of risk acceptance through group discussion; see, for example, Dion, Baron, and Miller, 1970), few studies have investigated the generality of the phenomenon. Three of several ways in which the laboratory context is usually lacking of reality are: (a) The decision consequences are imaginary, as in the Choice Dilemma situations used in most of the risky shift research; (b) the decision consequences   even if they are real (e.g. money) are slight; and (c) the decisions are made for oneself (whereas in real life many decisions involve agents acting on behalf of others). The present study was designed to investigate the effects of the above three factors   type of incentive, magnitude of stake and decision target   using a betting task as the decision situation. "
44	3	1	1973	 A research project was conducted to extend social exchange theory to a situation of exchanging unlike behaviours. In the present study, female judges rated the performance of males (accomplices of E) in a creativity task. A 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design manipulated the variables of cost to the judge for inaccurate ratings, attractiveness of the male performer and dependency of the performer §s outcomes on the judge §s ratings. The basic expectations were generated from social exchange theory and significantly supported. Under low cost, and to a lesser extent also under high cost, higher creativity ratings would be given to highly attractive than to less attractive performers. This result pattern was not affected by the dependency manipulation as could tentatively be expected on the basis of the altruism and ingratiation phenomena. These findings are discussed in relation to those of a previous study using male judges and female performers and differences are interpretated in terms of the appropriateness of the behaviour according to sex role prescriptions. The discussion suggests the need for research directed toward determining the conditions which predispose people to choose one social exchange rule over another. 
45	3	1	1973	 The present study is one of a series exploring the role of social categorization in intergroup behaviour. It has been found in our previous studies that in ‚minimal' situations, in which the subjects were categorized into groups on the basis of visual judgments they had made or of their aesthetic preferences, they clearly discriminated against members of an outgroup although this gave them no personal advantage. However, in these previous studies division into groups was still made on the basis of certain criteria of ‚real' similarity between subjects who were assigned to the same category. Therefore, the present study established social categories on an explicitly random basis without any reference to any such real similarity. It was found that, as soon as the notion of ‚group' was introduced into the situation, the subjects still discriminated against those assigned to another random category. This discrimination was considerably more marked than the one based on a division of subjects in terms of interindividual similarities in which the notion of ‚group' was never explicitly introduced. In addition, it was found that fairness was also a determinant of the subjects §s  decisions. The results are discussed from the point of view of their relevance to a social cognitive theory of intergroup behaviour. 
46	3	1	1973	" Subject correctness and group agreement were varied for college subjects engaged in a light discrimination task. On another task, employing multiple choice questions about Canada, the dependent variable of conformity was assessed to examine generalization of relative competence formed on the light discrimination task. It was seen that (1) relative competence was seen to mediate conformity for a specific task (Canadian Knowledge Inventory), but did not generalize across tasks (i.e. from the light discrimination task to the Canadian Knowledge Inventory); (2) with respect to the Canadian Knowledge Inventory, subjects who perceived themselves as more competent than the group did not conform as much as those who either perceived themselves as less competent than or as competent as the group; (3) the experimental manipulations did not affect conformity, further supporting the findings that perceived competence does not generalize across classes of tasks; (4) females conformed more than males: and (5) nonsuspicious subjects conformed more than suspicious subjects. "
47	3	1	1973	 Forty male inmates from an adult correctional training centre participated in a 2 × 2 factorial design with subject correctness incorrectness and group agreement disagreement constituting the classification factors. A modified Asch procedure was used to manipulate a S §s prior experience of correctness and agreement (Part 1) and to assess subsequent conformity to 3 male confederates (Part 2). The female experimenter served as the source of reinforcement and group correctness. Ss responded to a (two part) 26 verbal and perceptual item scale, including 11 conformity items. Subject correctness and group agreement interacted, for perceptual items only, so that subjects who were more competent than the group or equally incompetent to the group conformed less than those who were less competent than the group, who in turn conformed less than those who were equally competent to the group, where both the subjects and the group were correct. Subjects conformed more to difficult verbal items than to perceptual items, and unsuspicious subjects conformed more than suspicious subjects. Both relative competence, mediating the effects of prior experience, and the situational factor of reinforcement affect conformity to perceptual tasks. 
48	3	1	1973	 The accuracy with which Ss could identify the national governments referred to by a set of semantic differential profiles was found to be significantly related to whether they were given true, false, or unspecific information concerning the source of the profiles. Contrary to hypothesis, attitude similarity between the Ss who constructed the profiles and those who interpreted them failed to enhance communication accuracy. 
49	3	1	1973	 Our purpose was to gain insight into the processes linking interaction and attitude polarization. We wished to determine whether polarization might occur in an individual situation, during the task of familiarization with the object. Two experiments were undertaken, one relating to an individual situation and the other involving a group situation. No polarization took place in the individual situation. In addition as a result of the coercive normative pressure induced in the course of the group discussion, we were able to observe unwilling agreement by individuals, provoking in turn a noticeable regression during the post consensus. 
50	3	2	1973	 Previous studies have assumed that people have a predilection for single linear orderings, of which status congruence is a special case. Eighty two subjects were run in a two stage experiment to examine preference for linear orderings and whether single or multiple discrepant orderings are preferred when 1 instead of having to learn, subjects freely construct social structures, and 2 the material they are presented is more specified and less simplified than is usually the case in cognitive bias studies. In the first stage Ss were presented with sets of five individual characteristic dimensions, of which three were inherently orderable. Their task was to attribute one characteristic from each dimension to each of five fictitious persons. In the second stage, Ss were asked, for three types of influence (professional, political and cultural), to build an influence structure among the five persons constructed in the first stage. In Stage 1, linear ordering was used for three of the five dimensions. Two of these dimensions used a single ordering, while the third was only weakly related to the first two. In Stage 2, largely transitive but incomplete relations of influence were established, based on a salary occupational hierarchy. The completeness of the relation depended on the nature of the influence. 
51	3	2	1973	" In two experiments on choice the durations of attention to the alternatives were measured. In experiment 1 each subject chose one from two pictures; in experiment 2 the choice was one from three pictures. In both experiments the subjects understood that they would acquire the picture that they selected. In each experiment higher and lower conflict conditions were induced by offering subjects a choice between alternatives that had been evaluated either equally or disparately. In both experiments a significant relationship appeared between duration of attention and preference order with most subjects looking longest at the alternative that was preferred. In the comparison between conditions this effect was found to be stronger under lower conflict than under higher conflict; this difference reached a significant level in experiment 2. These results are contrary to findings by Gerard (1967), and this matter is discussed. The relevance of the results to other theories is examined. Inferences were drawn from dissonance theory about re evaluation effects after decision, and evaluation changes were measured in the experiments. After adjustment for measurement regression, the data failed to reveal a significant chronic re evaluation effect. Contrary to dissonance theory, the re evaluation effect was weaker in the three alternative choice experiment than in the two alternative choice experiment. "
52	3	2	1973	 In the first two parts of the paper a distinction is made between a ‚conflict or convergence of interests §s  approach (Sherif) and a ‚categorisation' approach (Tajfel) in the area of the experimental study of intergroup relations. Some recent experimental findings are mentioned, and a theoretical development of the categorisation approach is proposed. In the third part a new experiment illustrating the relevance of the categorisation approach is described. 
53	3	2	1973	 The influence of two different reinforcers of aggression was investigated: Frustration (intrinsic primary reinforcement) and instrumental value of aggression (extrinsic primary reinforcement). In the first part of the experiment frustration was manipulated on two levels by having the stooge interfere very often or seldom in the ‚building a village' task of the subject. In the second part of the study the stooge had to judge distances in traffic while the subject was allowed to give him electrical shocks in order to startle and hinder the stooge in his estimation task. The aggression score of the subject was formed by the number and the intensity of the shocks delivered. Instrumentality of aggression was manipulated on two levels by indicating or not that the subjects could earn more money the more and stronger they shocked their partner. Confirming the predictions, significantly more aggression was expressed when this could lead to earning more money than in those conditions where this was not the case. Also confirming predictions, the impact of instrumentality on aggression was stronger than the influence of frustration. Frustration did not lead to a significant increase in the level of aggression. 
54	3	2	1973	 The article is introduced by an analysis of how the effects of a negotiator §s intragroup status (leader versus non leader) on his negotiation performance (in particular, toughness) may be modified by such factors as the source of the status assignment (e.g., election versus imposition) and the presence and timing of position formation in the group. The accountability experienced by a negotiator vis à vis his group is proposed as the central intervening variable mediating status effects on negotiation. In a series of (previously published) experiments, all using the same procedural paradigm   a prenegotiation, intragroup phase followed by intergroup negotiation among equal status group delegates, the issues requiring a choice between higher and lower risk levels   some of the above variables and additional ones, were investigated. Overall, there was evidence of greater toughness among group elected leaders (relative to non leaders) and among subordinates (relative to imposed, ‚dictatorial' leaders). The latter effect obtained only when the negotiators were being continuously monitored by, and had to consult, their respective group partners during the negotiations. Results concerning risky shift (enhancement of risk acceptance through the negotiation discussions) are considered in the light of relevant theory. 
55	3	2	1973	" Fifty six male and 61 female university students participated in a 2 × 2 × 2 design with task correctness incorrectness, group agreement disagreement and sex of subject constituting the classification factors. A modified Crutchfield apparatus served to manipulate a subject §s prior experience of correctness and agreement, and to measure subsequent conformity. Correctness and group agreement were seen to interact to produce varying degrees of perceived competence relative to a simulated group. Relative competence mediated conformity such that (a) on the basis of both experimentally manipulated competence and perceived competence, subjects who were less competent than the group manifested more conformity than subjects who were more competent than the group. This finding replicates the Ettinger et al. (1971) study; (b) subjects who perceived themselves and the group as equally competent conformed more than subjects who perceived themselves as either more competent or less competent than the group. This result was explained in terms of reciprocity; (c) no sex differences were found and possible explanations for this result were discussed; (d) no conformity differences between suspicious and unsuspicious subjects suggested the possibility that suspicious subjects were role playing. "
56	3	3	1973	 An examination of the relation between authoritarianism and conservatism is made using newly developed balanced forms of the D and F scales together with scales to measure political, social, moral and economic conservatism. Neither BD nor BF scales predicted voting preference. The BD scale was significantly, positively related to the political, social and moral conservatism scales but was non significantly, negatively related to economic conservatism. It was concluded that both the BD and BF scales are equally good measures of general authoritarianism among supporters of Australian political parties and that while it is in general true that dogmatic people tend to be ideologically conservative, an exception must be made for economic conservatism. This exception is seen to be inferable from the theory of working class authoritarianism advanced by Lipset (1960). 
57	3	3	1973	" Investigating stereotypes associated with world powers, 28 men and 28 women at a British university rated 24 world powers using the semantic differential. Significance tests show the relationship of the powers to concepts assumed to measure the Evaluative, Potency, and Activity factors. Three dimensional models show the relative positioning by men and by women. Results indicate (1) general agreement between men and women; (2) superpowers close to BAD and STRONG; (3) countries associated with war and strife closer to BAD, WEAK, and PASSIVE. Comparisons were made with an American sample. The need for doing further stereotype studies over time was stressed. "
58	3	3	1973	 The perception of other people is shown to require a different set of scientific assumptions than that used in traditional psychology. Mind body dualism, subject object dichotomy and traditional notions of scientific causality are shown to be inapplicable to the perception of people, except where people are being seen as objects. The ‚predict and control' model of psychology, and the ‚medical model' of psychiatry both involve the perception of people as objects. The ‚participant observer' model is seen to be the optimal one for the study of human beings. 
59	3	3	1973	 The purpose of the present experiment was to test several hypotheses concerning the interrelationship of dissonance reduction mechanisms in a situation where response possibilities are relatively unconstrained. Engaged female students were invited to take part in a bogus ‚Marriage Expectancy Test' that was supposed to allow predictions of marriage success. One week later, they received fictitious results differing negatively from their initial expectations of marriage success. The reactions measured were ‚conformity with the result' and ‚derogation of source' (confrontation mechanisms), and ‚devaluation of importance of the issue' and ‚under recall' (avoidance mechanisms). As predicted, avoidance responses increased steeply with discrepancy, while little increase was found for confrontation mechanisms. Psychological differentiation had no significant effect on dissonance reduction, whereas high vs. low self esteem influenced ‚derogation of source' and ‚devaluation of importance of the issue'. 
60	3	3	1973	 The present experiment was designed to determine relative preference for fulfilment of consistency motivation. Ninety two students rated their attraction to, identification with, and idealization of a hypothetical stimulus person who was represented as having fulfilled particular social motives such as approval, power, achievement and consistency. Results confirmed that subjects prefer persons who have satisfied traditional needs more so than others whose consistency desires have been fulfilled. Implications for the role of consistency motivation in social behaviour are considered. 
61	3	3	1973	 The aim of this study was to discover whether the pattern of out group oriented racial attitudes manifest among the children of various disadvantaged minority groups (e.g. black American children) might also be found among the children of ‚coloured' immigrants to Britain. To this end, measures of racial identification, preference, rudimentary stereotyping and social aspirations were administered to primary school children whose parents were of West Indian and Asian origin, and to native white English children for purposes of comparison. While the English children showed attitudes which consistently favoured the in group, both immigrant groups evidenced marked out group (i.e. white) orientation. One quarter of the Asian children and nearly one half of the West Indian children identified themselves with the white out group. The phenomenon of misidentification among children of disadvantaged racial minorities is discussed, and explanations of the difference between the West Indian and Asian groups in this respect are suggested in terms of their differing cultural backgrounds and practices, aspirations to integration, and relationship to the host community. The results of the study are reported in the context of the continuing debate over the effect of the race of the tester in racial attitude research. 
62	3	3	1973	" The effects of reinforcement, social approval and sex on conformity were studied. Seventy two male and 72 female college Ss were divided into equal high and low need for social approval groups. Each group was assigned to 1 of 3 experimental conformity conditions: (a) True agree; (b) neutral; and (c) true disagree. The groups were tested via a social conformity apparatus. It was found that: (a) Reinforcement for agreeing with a contrived group consensus (true agree group) elicited more conformity than social pressure without reinforcement (neutral group), which in turn elicted more conformity than reinforcement for disagreeing with the consensus (true A disagree group); (b) females conformed more than males; (c) there was a slight tendency for high social approval Ss to conform more than low social approval Ss. Conformity was explained in terms of social learning, and it was suggested that the situational factor of reinforcement was a more important determinant of conformity than the motivational factor of social approval. The modified conformity scoring procedure used focuses on the conformity process. "
63	3	3	1973	 A model of subject behaviour in scale answering situations is derived, developed and illustrated empirically. The model allows for the possibility that a subject, faced with a request to describe how much of some attribute an object possesses, may internally represent either that object or some other. Additionally, it allows that he may give honest expression to his internal representation or modify so as to proffer a more ‚functional' description. Thus two basic parameters (representation and description) characterise the process whereby a response emitter (S) gives a descriptive evaluative response to a response elicitor (E). The parameters of the model are demonstrated by two studies using a psycho metrically sophisticated personality scale (Mach. V). In the first, object substitution is shown by contrasting self referent and other referent responses using a personating technique. In the second, response modification, due to favourable self presentation, is found to operate despite a scale format designed specially to eliminate such biases. Two major implications of the model are discussed: * AThat the nature of descriptive evaluative responding is such as to render the construction of non fakeable descriptive scales impossible. * bThat many experiments using descriptive scales are dubious tests of their stated hypotheses because there are no provisions for the control of the parameters of description and representation. 
64	3	4	1973	 In the experiments reviewed in this article the subjects are asked to produce ideas that are relevant to a given task request (e.g., possible consequences of a hypothetical event). After describing the specific task material and the performance measures used in the relevant research studies, some analytic background is given by outlining the cognitive resources required in this kind of experimental task and by listing the various factors that may come into play when subjects perform in groups (with discussion) instead of individually. We then review the studies comparing individual and group performance. In all of these experiments the subjects were asked to work according to the rules of brainstorming, which prescribe that participants refrain from evaluating their ideas. This procedure purportedly results in superior group, relative to individual, performance. However, the empirical evidence clearly indicates that subjects brainstorming in small groups produce fewer ideas than the same number of subjects brainstorming individually. Less clear evidence is available on measures of quality, uniqueness and variety. The discussion considers factors that may be responsible for this inferiority of groups. The role of social inhibition receives particular attention also in terms of suggestions for research. Apart from the group individual comparison we review the existing research concerning factors that may influence group performance on idea generation tasks. 
65	3	4	1973	 Two experiments were designed to investigate some possible extensions to Locke §s theory of task motivation and incentives. In experiment 1 (192 Ss) the effect of KR on small group effectiveness (SGE) was  analysed. The SGE measurements (productivity and group atmosphere) were based on a subjective operationalization of the concept ‚small group effectiveness §s . Five one way analyses of variance revealed no significant influence of KR on SGE thus supporting Locke §s findings. In experiment 2 (64 Ss) homogeneous male groups were compared to homogeneous female groups to find out whether sex composition of the group would have a significant influence on SGE. Five Fisher t tests revealed no differences between the means of male and female groups. In this case, too, Locke §s theory was supported. Limitations and implications of these results are discussed. 
66	3	4	1973	 In this experimental study, individual risk taking for self and others was observed for three experimental situations (the choice dilemma situations of Kogan and Wallach, 1964, the Pruitt and Teger gambling situation, 1969, and a simple one trial gamble game). The results of the present study suggest that one takes as much risk for oneself as for somebody else. An attempt was made to determine to what degree the results could be explained by properties of the experimental situations. 
67	3	4	1973	 An experimental method for inquiring into the organization of an act of communication is presented, the basic idea being to create an interactional setting where one of the basic prerequisites for successful communication is not satisfied. In this particular design, the subjects interact under the false belief that they are sharing the same ‚here'. (In mean the subjects interacted more than a quarter of an hour before any doubt or suspicion about the situation was expressed, indicating that our manipulation had been successful.) During the subjects trying (1) to ‚diagnose' their communicative difficulties, and (2) to apply different ‚therapeutic tools §s  in order to improve their communication, one is in a very good position to study the impact from a variety of basic phenomena upon communication. It is argued that this situation may well be applied as a ‚standard experimental method'. And an experiment where this method revealed interesting differences in the communication between couples having and couples not having a schizophrenic offspring is discussed. 
68	3	4	1973	 The present research investigated the occurrence of ingratiation as mediated by the sex of sender and recipient in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design and also explored the underlying structure and preference of ingratiation overtures. Subjects were instructed to enact the role of interviewees and were motivated either to make themselves amiable or to act spontaneously to improve evaluation accorded by the interviewer. It was hypothesized that ingratiation behaviours would be distinguished from spontaneous behaviours for the investigated opinion conformity, self presentation, other enhancement and smiling. These main effects were found and specified by the sex variables in the expected direction with modesty as an ingratiation tactic under the female homogeneous dyad, more ingratiation overtures under the heterogeneous than homogeneous dyads on some verbal measures, and less ingratiation smiling under the male homogeneous dyad. Further, verbal and nonverbal overtures were shown to possess a different structure, and a multivariate analysis of variance revealed opinion conformity to be the most sensitive differentiator between the verbal ingratiation overtures. The discussion deals with the search for the subtleties in ingratiation messages and emphasizes some provocative findings. 
69	3	4	1973	 The study was designed, using the ‚matched guise' technique, to determine how different groups of Welshmen perceive members of their own national group who use various linguistic codes. Three matched groups of adult Welsh Ss were used: Bilinguals, those who were learning Welsh and those who could not speak Welsh and were not learning it either. These Ss were asked to evaluate on 22 scales the personalities of various Welsh speakers they heard reading the same passage of prose on tape. Essentially, the stimulus tape consisted of two male bilinguals reading the passage once each in Welsh, in English with a Welsh accent and in English with an RP accent. It was found, despite the fact that the groups differed in their language skills and self perceived Welshness, that Ss as a whole upgraded the bilingual speakers on most traits. Indeed, the RP speakers were evaluated most favourably on only one trait   self confidence. It was suggested that language to a large extent serves as a symbol of Welsh identity, and the results were discussed in relation to how other ethnic groups appear to view their own linguistic codes. 
70	3	4	1973	 In this article we have dealt with a critical analysis pertaining to the notion of the informational influence. We hereby show that in every inter actionary situation, the judgments emitted by the source (influence agent) appear to contain informations on the judged objects from their elementary content and, at the same time, from their organisation, like indications on the source itself, on its purpose. In this manner, we have come to distinguish the instrumental influence from the symbolical influence. An experiment where the subjects have to judge the number of points appearing on the slides shows that this distinction reveals what happens in the process of influence. 
71	4	1	1974	 The diffusion of responsibility hypothesis as an explanation of helping behaviour (or lack of same) is qualified by suggesting that the hypothesis applies only in non interacting situations. It is hypothesized that interacting groups who are aware of a help demanding situation actually focus the responsibility and, therefore, take action as a group more rapidly than will a non interacting group. Evidence is gathered in a contrived help demanding situation employing a 2 × 3 (sex × condition) in which three conditions   alone, non interacting (pseudo) groups, and interacting groups   are used. The evidence substantiates the major hypothesis. Speculation is also presented concerning the relationship of the alone condition to the interacting and non interacting groups and concerning sex effects. 
72	4	1	1974	 In this article we have presented a theoretical outline and a body of empirical work relating to the processes of social differentiation and social originality. If, in a competition, someone else seems to possess a decisive advantage or if mere comparison with this other person constitutes a threat to social identity, there are signs, in given conditions, of a tendency to differentiate oneself from the other, to be different or to do something else, to invent new criteria of being or doing with others or to combine accepted criteria in an original way. In other words, one tends to give proof of originality or, to use a Darwinian metaphor, to occupy vacant places. Doubtless the strategies described here only apply to certain social systems in which the visibility of the agent is an important social value and in which comparison may pose a threat to that identity. The restoring of identity by way of the search for otherness merits the attention of social psychology. But originality is not necessarily accepted or not necessarily immediately. Innovation may take time, may necessitate the creation of schismatic groups and the waging of battles for recognition, etc. We give a brief account of observations made with regard to groups of children in summer camps, laboratory experiments and the results of surveys in the scientific and artistic communities which fit into our theoretical framework. It will not be difficult for the reader to see that this article is a first step in a direction which, in our eyes, holds out a great deal of promise. 
73	4	1	1974	 In reaction to the decades of research that tended to assume that social influence is synonymous with conformity, recent work has concentrated on the ability of a minority, by having a system of answers of its own, to influence the majority in the direction of their judgments. A study by Moscovici, Lage and Naffrechoux (1969) demonstrated this phenomenon but found that consistency of response, in the sense of repetition, was necessary for minority influence to be effected. They assumed that repetition was necessary to give the minority judgment the same value as that of the majority and to intensify the conflict that was engendered by the differences in opinion. Our position is that the lack of repetition in that study was construed to mean that the minority did not really have a position in which they were confident. As such, they were discounted. Thus, it is the attribution of consistency and confidence that leads to minority influence, not intensification of the conflict. The present study found that non repetitious behaviour by a minority could be seen as reflecting consistency and confidence and could lead to minority influence provided the inconsistency was patterned with some property of the stimulus. Such inconsistency was perceived as favourable and as effective as any other condition and even more effective than one of the repetitious conditions. 
74	4	1	1974	 A content analysis is reported of child rearing manuals published in sixteenth to nineteenth centuries and of the themes of the Don Juan plays in seventeenth to twentieth centuries. The relationship between the content of the manuals and the themes of the plays supports the thesis that child rearing patterns advocated in one century are reflected in the next in the attitudes expressed in popular cultural activities towards aggression, achievement and sex roles. 
75	4	2	1974	" Subjects had five encounters with trained confederates, who each displayed five patterns of gaze with different subjects, in a graeco latin square design. The patterns of gaze were: Zero, looking while talking, looking while listening, normal and continuous. Two conditions were used: Subjects were either getting acquainted with the confederates or assessing them while they behaved in an ingratiating manner. Subjects and confederates were either both male or both female. Subjects rated the confederates on fifteen rating scales; a principle components analysis produced five main components, the first two being liking/evaluation and activity/potency. Gaze affected scores on these components as predicted: Ratings of liking/evaluation increased from zero gaze to normal and were lower for continuous   confirming the affiliative balance theory; and the more gaze the higher the ratings on activity/potency. The predicted effects of ingratiation on the interpretation of gaze were not obtained, though ingratiators were seen as less intelligent. Decoders responded to amount of gaze, and not to its relation to talking and listening. "
76	4	2	1974	 The literature on status congruency is summarized in two statements: 1) Individuals strive after status congruency, and 2) status congruency involves favourable state for individuals, groups and the society. The two reported experiments throw serious doubts on the generality of these statements. Experiment I is a variation of Burnstein and Zajonc §s (1965) experiment. It is hypothesized and shown that the striving after congruency is weakened under condition of a competitive reward structure, the Ss giving incongruent self rankings. Moreover it is found that nominations for a different task are not congruent at all. Experiment II was designed to replicate and extend Exline and Ziller §s (1959) experiment, in which it was shown that status congruency in small groups causes interpersonal conflict. On none of the several measures was clear support obtained. In the discussion it is argued that there is hardly any experimental evidence for the two statements formulated above. It is pointed out that the correlational relationships between status congruency and other variables may be attributed to some internal cognitive link in the person, serving as an intermediate variable, the forces of it perhaps being self interest (as supported by Experiment I), a need for clarity and a need for justice. 
77	4	2	1974	 Implicitly or explicitly, linkage is a basic concept in all theories of cognitive consistency   consistency or inconsistency can exist only with reference to entities which are cognitively linked through association or dissociation. The nature of cognitive linkages has not been systematically studied, but it seems evident that they may vary in many ways. One is the strength or intensity of perceived relationship between cognitive entities. The basic hypothesis in the present two experiments was that the effect of a communication in terms of attitude change would depend on the strength of linkage between concepts mentioned in the message. Results show no such effect when strength was manipulated through combination of linkages, whereas the hypothesis was confirmed when linkage strength was varied semantically. Also, previous studies on direct and mediated generalization of attitude change towards consistency were successfully replicated. Finally, it was found that amount of attitude change towards consistency was significantly higher for linkages involving affect (L relations) than for linkages simply expressing unit formation (U relations). 
78	4	2	1974	 The main supporting evidence for Rokeach §s theory of prejudice (the Anticipated Belief Differences Theory of Prejudice) comes from the strong belief effects obtained in a simple Race/Belief manipulation. Analysis shows that the theory is unfalsifiable with this paradigm and is therefore neither tested nor confirmed by the many studies purporting to do so. The Belief undefined/Belief partially defined manipulation of Stein, Hardyck and Smith (1965) does test the theory. However, these authors §s  conclusion that favourable evidence was obtained is incorrect owing to the use of an inappropriate statistic. Although race effects can be incorporated within a theory of belief prejudice it is equally possible to incorporate belief effects within any theory of prejudice which is contingent on an initial categorization into in group and out group. An empirical distinction between Rokeach §s theory and other theories of prejudice can be made using a Belief undefined/Belief partially defined manipulation. Finally the theoretical adequacy of Rokeach §s theory is discussed in terms of more general characteristics of prejudice. 
79	4	2	1974	" Two central hypotheses of the original version of the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) (1) that dissonance is to be conceived of as a primary drive and (2) that in order to reduce dissonance less resistant cognitions will be changed more than highly resistant ones led to hypotheses which were confirmed by two experiments. In Experiment I, a 2 × 3 factorial design, order and familiarity of dissonance reduction modes were manipulated. After receiving a dissonant information the subjects were offered a relatively low and a relatively high resistant cognition for dissonance reduction, each being placed first (series I, high low resistance) or last (series II, low high resistance) respectively. Subjects did (known) or did not (unknown) read these modes before reacting to them. Under the unknown condition dissonance will be reduced more with a specific mode if it is placed first than last. With known reduction modes the order of presentation does not have an effect. Under series I condition the first placed, higher resistant cognition will be changed more in the unknown condition than in the known condition. Under the series II condition the first placed, lower resistant cognition will be changed equally in the known and unknown condition. In short, the higher resistant cognition will be changed more, only when it is placed first and when the following modes are not known. Two explanations for these results are possible: (1) The more dissonance is reduced by changing a more or a less resistant congnition, the less further reduction is necessary; (2) dissonance will be reduced in an internally consistent way. Experiment II excluded the first explanation. Subjects were allowed to revise their original way of reducing dissonance. First, subjects in one condition received series I unknown and subjects in the other condition received series II unknown. Reacting to the dissonance reduction modes the second time, there was more revision when the high resistant congition was placed first (series 1 revision) than when placed last (series II revision). These results support the hypothesis that dissonance reduction by changing a less resistant congnition more and changing a high resistant one less is preferred. Implications of the results of the two experments for the stability of dissonance reduction, the method and interpretation of dissonance experiments are discussed. "
80	4	2	1974	 The effects of discussion on subsequent group and individual choices are studied in a situation where subjects choose between a sure gain of varying amount and five probability levels associated with larger gains of expected value equal to that of the sure gain. At the end of the experiment, a single bet, chosen at random, is played for money. Before discussion, subjects have to guess the percentage of similar, more risky and more cautious choices made by their peers for each of the six bets. As predicted by a majority rule decision making model significant risky shifts were observed for relatively low values of sure gain. For higher values, however, groups tended to be more cautious than individuals. The final private choices of individuals were significantly more risky than their initial decisions. Most individuals apparently thought they were at least as risky as most others. This finding was due, however, primarily to the responses of subjects who chose the highest risk level (the ceiling effect) and, secondly, to the consistent tendency of most individuals to guess that others make the same choices as they themselves. It is concluded that majority influence seems a satisfactory explanation of group risky shifts observed in the present study, but it cannot account for modifications of group and individual choices in all risk taking situations. 
81	4	3	1974	" It is argued that compliance in groups will be highest where the composition is maximally confrontation generating; identification will be highest where composition is support generating; and internalisation will be highest where both some support and some confrontation are present. The hypotheses were tested in sixteen one day experimentally composed T groups. All the hypotheses were supported, particularly the first two. In this setting internalisation was found to be related to confrontation but not to support. "
82	4	3	1974	 Seven experiments were conducted which measured changes in the subjects §s  actual performance resulting from manipulated personal and categorical comparison of performance with another subject. In line with Festinger §s (1954) theory of social comparison of ability, it was found that subjects who were visually isolated from sources of evaluation (setting 2, experiment 2 and 3) showed relatively low performance after a VI (very inferior) or VS (very superior) outcome and relatively high performance after an EQ (equal) outcome, whereas subjects who were visually exposed to sources of evaluation (setting 1, experiment 1 and 4) showed relatively low performance only after a VS outcome and relatively high performance after both a VI and EQ outcome. When (also in setting 1) the manipulation of outcome was combined with a manipulation of expectation (experiment 5), it was found that an EQ expectation did not alter the original pattern of outcome effects, but that a VI or VS expectation markedly influenced the effect of outcome: A complete confirmation of VI expectation and an almost complete disconfirmation of VS expectation resulted in relatively high performance, whereas all other combinations of VI or VS expectation with a given outcome resulted in relatively low performance. Finally, it was found that changing the manipulation of personal comparison of performance of the previous experiments into a manipulation of categorical comparison of performance of the previous experiments into a manipulation of categorical comparison of performance (experiment 6a and 6b) resulted in a pattern of data wich was about the opposite of the typical previous pattern. In setting 1 (experiment 6a), the subjects §s  performance was relatively low after being categorized into a VI or EQ category and relatively high after being categorized into a VS category, whereas in setting 2 (experiment 6b) both the VI and VS categorization resulted in the same performance and the EQ categorization resulted in a slightly lower performance. 
83	4	3	1974	" We tried to find out why Ss chose a specific risk level. We, therefore, constructed a questionnaire with 30 statements about aspects of the contents of the choice dilemmas. A factor analysis of the 30 statements over ten choice dilemmas and 61 field officers led to a structure of four cognitive elements. With these four factors as predictors we could explain a main part of the variance of the individual risk level of each choice dilemma. This regression analysis was done with normal product moment correlations and with scalar products. Both analyses show great similarity, although it seemed to be better to use scalar products because one can use the information of the means. The four cognitive elements could be interpreted as: (1) Decision making strategy; (2) Responsibility for others; (3) Reputation; (4) Socially valued riskiness. "
84	4	3	1974	" This study examined the effects of fear  and anxiety inducing situations on affiliative behaviour of approach oriented and avoidance oriented Ss. Two samples of high school and university students were utilized to examine the following hypotheses: a) In fear situations, affiliative behaviour will increase in both approach  and avoidance oriented subjects; b) in anxiety situations, affiliative behaviour will increase in approach oriented subjects and decrease in avoidance oriented ones. The results confirmed the hypotheses for a verbal criterion of affiliative behaviour, and partially for a behaviour criterion. "
85	4	3	1974	" Relations between the representations of group members with respect to different elements in the group set up: The task, the others, the self and the group as a whole are  analysed from data collected in four experiments. Results show that the interrelations between these representations in the subjects §s  cognitive universe are determined by a combination of three separate principles which deal respectively with: 1) the degree of generality, complexity or semantic globality of each element of the situation in the subjects §s  representation thereof; 2) the functional importance (particularly in determining behaviours in the situation) of each representation, as well as its centrality within the subjects §s  representational system. The functional importance and centrality of a given representation seem to be directly related in turn to the perceived normative character of the represented objects in terms of the group §s objectives; 3) a process of social comparison between the self and others, according to which each group member tends to perceive himself as being more in harmony than the others with the norms and requirements of the situation as he perceives them. The discussion deals with the generality of the above results. "
86	4	4	1974	 This study is an attempt, based on historical materialism (the science of the history of social formations), to critically analyse the notion of conflict as social psychology has defined it and as social psychology has developed it with models of non zero sum games imported from game theory. Whether it concerns the postulate of conflict resolution (which governs this domain of social psychology), or the ideological foundations of the notion of conflict, the structure of a game of the PDG type and the imaginary trap it orms, or even the staging which the psycho sociologist produces in utilizing this model, it is shown that this whole proceeding is an ideological construction which functions principally as an obstacle to true scientific knowledge of the field it covers   which can be defined as constituted by the relationships between the subjective and the political   and secondly as the raw material for a theory of ideology, which is understood as having the double function of recognition and misappreciation. Both tasks demand intensive theoretical study as part of the development of storical materialism and, from that point of view, this work should be considered only as a preliminary study. 
87	4	4	1974	 M. Plon commits the same offense that he finds so odious in American social psychology: A confounding of political axioms and scientific reasoning. His desire to demonstrate ideological blindness in Americans leads him to misinterpret some published works on the Prisoner §s Dilemma paradigm in bargaining research and to ignore the issue of the most useful balance in emphasis between conflict maintenance and conflict resolution when these topics are studied experimentally. Thus, M. Plon §s angry attack is not a clarification of the deep issues that he essays but, rather, another data point that will itself need to be understood. 
88	4	4	1974	 This paper is a rejoinder to Plon §s critique of the social psychology of conflict published in this Journal. The rejoinder reviews the history of American social psychology, the meaning of conflict resolution, the nature of the dilemma in the Prisoner §s Dilemma, and other related matters, which Plon has apparently misconstrued. The rejoinder criticizes Plon §s crude economic determinism version of Marxist theory and briefly considers the role of power in politics. The characteristics of the present author §s social psychological approach to conflict is outlined, and it is suggested that such an approach has direct relevance to the intellectual concerns of those who seek to bring about social change. 
89	4	4	1974	 Judging from the main point of the replies received, a Marxist position which does not accept a dialogue with social psychology is not allowed. To indicate that such a position is Marxist only in name, and thus usurped, we are rapidly accused of economism, qualified as orthodox and finally, last but not least, given the label Stalinist. The psycho sociologists are firmly locked up in the rhetoric of the dilemma. The two positions   theoretical and political   which are presented in the reply by Morton Deutsch are in reality complementary: Their common characteristic is that they forget the main point of Marxism Leninism, the thesis of the primacy of the class struggle. To accept social psychology without asking oneself questions about its meaning, or to ignore social psychology by considering it as an out of date ideology, leads to the same result, namely, leaving open the place of a Marxist Leninist theory of ideology. 
90	4	4	1974	" In two experiments four sets of both favorable and unfavourable verbal material were classified as belonging to four labels, two specific labels (politicians) and two less specific labels (classes of people). Ss §s  attitudes towards one of the politicians were more positive than towards the other. Ss stored these stimuli in their memory under casual, incidental instructions. Then Ss retrieved information by deciding which one of two labels was formerly connected to the given verbal items. Ss were expected to accentuate on two orthogonal dependent variables: (1) Discrimination performance between labels; (2) response preference for labels. Discrimination performance was improved for politician labels compared to classes of people labels but was not affected by the favourableness of the verbal material. However, response preference for one politician label occurred when two conditions were fulfilled: (a) Both the verbal material and Ss §s  attitudes towards the label were unfavourable, and (b) the content of verbal material was characteristic of the label. The accentuation theories of Bruner Goodman and Tajfel were reformulated and integrated into a two level model. "
91	5	1	1975	 Recent studies have reported that the variable of social categorization per se is sufficient for intergroup discrimination. This paper presents an explanation of these findings in terms of the operation of social comparison processes between groups based on the need for a positive ingroup identity. The relationship between perceived social identity and intergroup comparison is elaborated theoretically, and it is argued that social comparisons give rise to processes of mutual differentiation between groups which can be  analysed as a form of social competition. Social competition is distinguished from realistic competition (conflict of group interests). New data is reported which strengthens this interpretation of the minimal categorization studies. It is found that minimal intergroup discrimination takes place in the distribution of meaningless points as well as monetary rewards and that social categorization per se does not lead to intergroup behaviour where the subjects can act directly in terms of self. Other studies on intergroup biases are reviewed to argue for the generality of social competition in intergroup situations. 
92	5	1	1975	" Predictions concerning aggression displacement, derived from Miller §s conflict model, were investigated under conditions in which subjects §s  inhibitions about aggressing against an attacker were manipulated. Half of the high attacked subjects were placed in a high inhibition situation, designed so that strong inhibitory tendencies competed with strong aggressive tendencies; the remaining high attacked subjects were placed in a low inhibition situation, designed so that weak inhibitory tendencies competed with strong aggressive tendencies. Low attacked control subjects also received the inhibition treatment. High  and low attacked subjects were then confronted with one of four target persons, varying in similarity, toward whom they could aggress with electric shock. As expected, under high inhibition, the target most similar to the attacker received more shocks from high attacked subjects than did either the attacker or two less similar targets. Contrary to expectation, the attacker did not receive the most shocks under low inhibition; personality evaluations of the attacker suggested that high attacked subjects in substitute target conditions may have been unintentionally angered further by being denied the opportunity for direct retaliation. "
93	5	1	1975	 Since independence, the government of India, through various constitutional and legislative measures, has tried to root out the evils of the caste system. In order to study the effect of these measures and of various socioeconomic changes on intercaste attitudes, a study of intercaste attitudes conducted by the author in 1968 is used as a baseline to study the changes over the four year period. The responses to the 15 items compared deal with general caste attitudes, attitudes toward special privileges for the scheduled castes and, the caste Hindus §s  attitudes toward Harijans (former untouchables). The comparison of the responses to these items in 1968 and 1972 (the follow up study) indicates that a higher percentage of respondents gave liberal responses in 1972 than in 1968 to the questions dealing with public and peripheral areas of interaction. However, very little change was found in those spheres of interaction which are relatively personal and central or involve intimate interaction, e.g., the theory of Karma, attitude toward the caste system as such and attitudes toward dining with or acceptance of food from Harijans. The results lend further support to the cognitive imbalance theory of attitude change. 
94	5	1	1975	" In a reconsideration of the achievement motivation theory it is assumed that moderate stimulation releases positive affects and very low or high stimulation negative affects. It is further assumed that as far as the achievement motivation system is concerned the most stimulating situation is that where the probability of success (Ps) is about .50, the least stimulating that where Ps is near 1.00 or .00. The motive to achieve success (Ms) and the motive to avoid failure (Mf) are thought of as moderators of the stimulation provided by a given situation. Ms dominated individuals should experience positive affects (moderate stimulation) where Ps is about .50 and should therefore engage in such situations. Ps near 1.00 or .00 implies very low stimulation; hence, negative affects should be released, resulting in resistance to such situations. Mf dominated individuals should experience negative affects (very high stimulation) where Ps is about .50, while they should experience moderate stimulation, and thus positive affects, if at any point, only where Ps is either very high or very low. This implies that the relationship between Ms strength, respectively Mf strength, and degree of engagement should vary from positive to negative, depending on the probability of success in the situation. Results from previous investigations are related to these viewpoints. "
95	5	1	1975	" We have presented two experiments on the processes of normalization (appraisal of an ambiguous stimulus). In the first experiment, pairs of subjects were taken from natural groups whose structure and functioning we had previously studied; the subjects were paired off in terms of (a) sociometric choices which they had put forward and (b) difference in hierarchical position in the ordinary life of the group. In the second experiment a definite image of the other subject (an accomplice) was created in the subject such that he appeared very similar or very different to him (in areas in no way connected with the task). Furthermore, in the collective phase of the estimation the accomplice replied exactly like the subject or in a way which was remote or very remote from the subject §s replies. We did not observe the contrast phenomenon described by some authors, but we were able to show that the patterns of interaction of everyday life, stabilized social relationships or images of the other which are unconnected with the tasks to be performed play a role in the influence that the replies of one subject have on those of another. Apart from differential assimilation we have shown a process of dissimilation, these two phenomena being, in our opinion, rooted in the structures of action of the social agents §s  lives. Negotiation in influence is rarely something symmetrical, even in situations of normalization where the dissymmetry of everyday life can be transfered. We have shown, too, that in these types of situations the subjects do not always try to minimize conflict since when they are in agreement (there is nothing to negotiate) they can diverge from one another. It can thus be said that subjects are not rational in the usual sense and are quite clearly something different from logicians or statisticians. The explanation which we have outlined shows how notions of social identity, differentiation and otherness are brought into play. "
96	5	2	1975	 Punitiveness in male movie goers in London, Philadelphia, Rome and Toronto was measured before or after they attended films varying in content (aggressive, sexual, neutral) and arousal potential (low, high). A second dependent variable, altruism, was also assessed for some Ss. Hypotheses stemming from social learning theory and arousal theory were tested by comparing changes in punitiveness at aggressive, nonaggressive arousing (sexual) and nonaggressive nonarousing (neutral) films. At aggressive films there was an increase in punitiveness whereas a reduction in punitiveness was found at neutral films. Sexual films led to a smaller (nonsignificant) increase in punitiveness than aggressive films. The findings implied that arousal was a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for increasing punitiveness. There were no significant cross national differences in response to the films. Since the results did not generalize to other, nonaggressive responses, the film effects may be aggression specific. Two additional findings in the U.S. sample were that urban Ss were more punitive than rural Ss and that the length of urban residency correlated negatively with altruism. 
97	5	2	1975	 In the central equation of Fishbein §s attitude theory the overall affect attached to an object is equated with the sum of evaluation × belief strength for the salient beliefs held by the individual concerned. Two previous studies have shown equally good prediction of attitude whether the beliefs used are those spontaneously elicited by each individual (ISB) or those most frequently elicited by the population (MSB). This result is replicated here in the context of an attitude change study. Fishbein §s explanation for the efficiency, and occasional superiority, of modal sets of beliefs relative to individuals §s  own sets of beliefs, i.e., that MSB contain less non salient items than ISB which result from inaccurate, forced elicitation, cannot account for the results in the present study since it is shown that a large proportion of MSB were non salient for many of the subjects. Further, certain sets of beliefs known to be inappropriate, i.e., which were neither modally salient nor individually salient, are shown to be good predictors of attitude using the Fishbein equation. The implications of these findings for the theory and the practical use of the Fishbein technique are discussed. 
98	5	2	1975	" Subjects were required to describe line drawings of two dimensional shapes at two levels of verbal codability, with and without using hand gestures. Elimination of gesture affected speech performance by changing the semantic content of utterances and the proportion of speaking time spent pausing; numbers of words, numbers of pauses, mean pause length and semantic content were found to be related to the verbal codability of the stimulus material; and the number of hesitations was related to both gesture and level of codability. "
99	5	2	1975	 Judgment type (snap and thoughtful) and valence of stimulus person (from likable to unlikable) were varied as within subjects factors in four studies to test whether situational and motivational variables (as opposed to the perceptual variable of unit formation) would interfere with integrative activity in forming first impressions. If such variables are influential, both the averaging and meaning shift formulations would expect that snap judgments should produce less extreme impression ratings than more thoughtful judgments. None of three indices of integrative activity (impression ratings, component ratings and variance of impression ratings) detected a difference between the snap and thoughtful response conditions for early and late judgments in a series, for moderate or extreme traits, or for between  or within subjects designs. These findings suggest that certain boundary conditions need to be placed on the assumptions underlying the averaging and meaning shift formulations. 
100	5	2	1975	" The new theoretical presuppositions used by Moscovici to explain social influence phenomena led him to show that the consistency of behaviour can account for the influence of a minority. Experimental data confirm this idea. However, some counter examples, showing that consistency sometimes induces subjects to refuse compromises, are problematical. To clear up this apparent contradiction, a distinction is made between behavioural style (in the face of the majority norm) and the style of negotiation (in the face of the population the minority wants to influence). A first experiment, then, shows that when two minorities are seen as equally consistent, the minority with a flexible style of negotiation has more influence than the more rigid minority. A second experiment deals with Ss §s  perception of the source of influence and clarifies the effects of minority negotiations; the links between opinions, opinion change and perception of others are also clarified. "
101	5	2	1975	 This experiment aims at testing the relationship between the aggressive meaning of slides and the viewers §s  behaviour. Three sets of slides varying in their perceived aggressive content (revolver, whistle and a box of chocolate milk) were shown to three groups of Ss who had to choose the intensity of electric shocks they wanted to administer to a partner. As expected, viewing a highly aggressive slide increased the aggressive behaviour of the Ss who had been insulted. These results broaden the generalizability of the Berkowitz and LePage (1967) original finding, and they cannot be explained by Page and Scheidt §s (1971) criticisms. 
102	5	2	1975	 The effects of shifting opinions within a group upon majority opinion, communication between members and perceived attractiveness of other members were studied. Each subject perceived himself to be a member of the majority in a group whose opinion was divided 6–2 on an important issue. But later one to three group members changed their vote. Six conditions of change were established: Control, majority reactionary, majority compromise, majority defection (5 3), minority compromise, minority compromise plus majority reactionary. Only majority compromise or defection affected majority opinion (private and public). Majority members were disliked when they deviated from majority opinion, but particularly so when they shifted toward minority opinion. Minority members were liked most when they induced a majority member to compromise (but not defect). Majority communication to minority occurred most when the minority was compromising, but most disagreement with minority opinion was expressed when a majority member had either compromised or defected. 
103	5	3	1975	" Subject correctness and group agreement were initially varied for college subjects performing a multiple choice informational task (Canadian Knowledge Inventory). On a subsequent perceptual task (Raven §s Standard Progressive Matrices), the dependent variable of conformity was assessed to examine generalization of relative competence formed on the informational task. It was seen that: (1) Those who perceived themselves to be less competent than the group on the first task exhibited the greatest level of conformity on the second task, thus replicating previous research on perceived relative competence as a determinant of conformity; (2) suspicion reduced conformity. "
104	5	3	1975	 The extent to which subjects reciprocate unfavourable evaluations of performance was investigated in a dyadic inspection situation. The members of twelve male subject pairings alternated in their roles as inspector and operator on a discrimination task. As operators, the subjects were led to believe that their inspectors had evaluated their performance favourably or unfavourably on the basis of either a subjective judgment or an objective matching evaluation criterion. Results showed that those operators who reciprocated most were those whose discriminations were rejected by means of the judgment criterion. This result is in line with the attribution hypothesis that a person is held more responsible for an act having an unfavourable outcome for others when that act is perceived as voluntary and intended than when it is perceived as compulsory or externally determined. 
105	5	3	1975	 Sahlins proposed a model of reciprocity for social interaction citing three forms drawn from observations of kinship systems. The model describes an altruistic form of reciprocity, a balanced or economic form and a negative form in which individuals try to outdo each other. This model was applied to a two person variation of the Prisoner §s Dilemma Game where Ss were presented with a confederate who responded over trials entirely generously, contingently generously or non generously. Half of the Ss were informed that there would be ten trials while the other half were uninformed. Basically, Ss tended to match the generosity level of the confederate and were less generous when trial number was known. Evidence for Sahlins §s  model is provided by Ss reports of reasons for their choices in the game. Those in the generous condition gave reasons for reciprocating based on a general feeling of obligation, trust and desire to cooperate. Those in the contingently generous condition gave reasons for reciprocating based on economic exchange and a desire to maintain a balance of resources. Ss in the non generous condition gave reasons based on a desire to take what profits one could before the other got them. In addition, Ss indicated a significant tendency to exploit the other on the final trial under the informed condition for the contingently generous but not for the generous condition. 
106	5	3	1975	" Two experiments are reported which examine the relationship between a person §s estimate of the likelihood of a future change in his environment and his assessment of its desirability. The first experiment showed a general tendency for probability and desirability ratings to be positively correlated. This correlation was higher when the desirability of a predicted change was seen, on average, as matching its probability of occurrence, e.g., if the change was seen as both desirable and probable rather than probable but undesirable. In the second experiment subjects wrote an essay arguing either that a predicted change was probable, improbable, desirable or undesirable. Arguing for desirability of the predicted change had as much effect on subjects §s  probability estimates as arguing for its probability; similarly, arguing for its probability had as much effect on desirability ratings as arguing for its desirability. These results are taken to imply that individuals may seek to achieve greater cognitive simplicity by treating probability and desirability as a single dimension. "
107	5	3	1975	 It has previously been suggested that there is a generic norm of conflict between groups so that when a differentiation is perceived between one group and another there is a predisposition to discriminate against the outgroup. The present study investigates whether this norm of conflict operates in social situations involving differentiation over real issues, or to what extent behaviour is modified by norms of fairness. The research examined English and Welsh groups and found that when there was an opportunity of giving equal rewards to both parties about one third of subjects acted in this fair way. Never as many as one third of subjects acted in the most discriminatory way possible, and the remainder modified or tempered their discrimination. Behaviour in this situation was felt to be the result of opposing internal norms for fairness and discrimination. Differences were found between the English and Welsh subjects. The Welsh showed more discrimination against the outgroup, while discrimination in favour of the outgroup was more common among the English. It is hypothesized that that effect may be characteristic of the behaviour of top dogs and underdogs. 
108	5	3	1975	 One hundred and twenty eight women read a transcript of an interview which described either an attractive or unattractive male interviewee who aggressed against another with either a good or bad intention and with mild or severe consequences for the victim. The results of a 2 × 2 × 2 analysis of variance yielded several significant effects. Aggression committed by an attractive person and also by one who had good intentions was judged more favourably than was aggression committed by an unattractive person and by one who had bad intentions. As predicted from an attribution framework, an unattractive aggressor was seen as more likely to aggress again when his intentions were bad rather than good, whereas little difference due to varying intentions was seen in the probability of an attractive person §s future aggression. However, the corresponding prediction that attractiveness would interact with intentions to affect moral judgments of aggression was not supported. The finding of an intention rather than consequence effect on judgments was discussed in terms of an attributional approach and Piaget §s notions concerning moral development. 
109	5	3	1975	 In a study designed to examine the nature of the relationship between personality similarity and established friendships amongst adolescents, three groups of frequently interacting subjects of different ages were given Reptests (Kelly, 1955) as a means of eliciting the content of their personal construct systems. In all three groups (early , mid  and late adolescence), pairs of friends were found to have more similar constructs than nominal pairs of group members. However, there were age related differences in the kinds of construct on which the similarity was most significant (for example, similarity on constructs relating to factual description predicted friendship choices in early adolescence but failed to do so in later adolescence, where similarity of constructs concerning physical attributes was a relevant factor). Sex differences in the functional basis of friendship were also found, with mid  and late adolescent girls §s  friendship choices correlating with similarity of psychological description. Temporal and sex differences in the basis of friendship suggest that the concept of friendship must be seen as more differentiated and less unitary a concept. Adolescent friendship illuminates several dimensions along which this differentiation assumes both theoretical importance and functional relevance. 
110	5	3	1975	" This paper presents two experiments to support the general hypothesis that the coordination of actions between individuals promotes the acquisition of cognitive coordinations. The first experiment shows that two children, working together, can successfully perform a task involving spatial coordinations; children of the same age, working alone, are not capable of performing the task. The second experiment shows that subjects who did not possess certain cognitive operations involved in Piaget §s conservation of liquids task acquire these operations after having actualized them in a social coordination task. "
111	5	3	1975	 This paper attempts to describe how sharing behaviour develops. Subjects were pairs of children aged 4 to 15. The experimental situation follows the pattern of a rich sharing with a poor, that is, subjects do not possess the same amount at the beginning of the experiment. Three stages emerge: *   Up to 6–7 years the subjects do not compare the different sets (initial belongings, set to be shared) and proceed often by alternating actions (give and take). *   From 6–7 to 11–12 years they even out their final belongings (what they possess after sharing). Initial belongings and objects to be shared are considered in the same way. *   From 11–12 years on, there is a distinction between initial belongings and the set that is to be shared, based on the assumption that they are dealing with two different 
112	5	4	1975	" This study examines the relationship between the attribution of traits and the attribution of short term, situation specific intentions and probable behaviours, with particular reference to the perception of obese persons. College students performed one of four tasks: (1) Rating photographs of obese and normal weight female faces for likeability and attractiveness; (2) attributing short term intentions and probable behaviours to these stimulus persons within the context of briefly described social interactions; (3) judging the situationally determined demand characteristics of the intentions and probable behaviours; or (4) judging the meaning of the intentions or behaviours in terms of trait scales. The results demonstrate that although the obese faces were consistently rated significantly less likeable and less attractive than the normal weight faces, these judgments were paralleled by only a few differences in the situation specific intentions or behaviours attributed to the two groups of stimulus faces. It is suggested that impression formation measured in terms of global, dispositional characteristics such as traits cannot be assumed to directly predict many differences in behavioural expectations in specific interpersonal settings. On the basis of the few attributions of intention which did discriminate, an obese personality stereotype emerged, consisting either of socially undesirable traits or traits of ambiguous social desirability. The implications of the relationships among traits, intentions and situational demand characteristics for an interactive model of situational vs. personality determinants of expected behaviour are discussed. "
113	5	4	1975	 Studied the effects of cognitive dissonance on pain perception and attitudes towards injections in 48 student subjects of both sexes (average age  20.5). In a forced compliance design, subjects received sets of painful radiant heat stimuli, projected to their inside forearms, which they rated for painfulness and to which their GSR amplitude was recorded. During these stimuli, they chose to receive an experimental (placebo) injection. The degree of justification for agreeing to be injected was varied. Subjects in the high justification (HJ) condition were paid for their compliance, while subjects in the low justification (LJ) condition were not paid. Two predictions were made from dissonance theory. The first prediction, that only LJ subjects would manifest significant post injection analgesia when compared to subjects in a no choice control condition, was confirmed, considering both pain ratings (p < 0.01) and GSR (p < 0.025). The second prediction, that only LJ subjects would rate injections more favourably than control subjects on a post experimental measure, was not confirmed. The relevance of these findings to explanation of the placebo effect is discussed. 
114	5	4	1975	" In comparison processes between the self and others within a given social set, a marked tendency has been frequently observed for each person to present himself as more in conformity with the social norms prevailing in the set under consideration than others participating in this set generally are. This type of behaviour has been designated here as superior conformity of the self behaviour (also called PIP effect). This article sets out to synthesize twenty experimental investigations in which it was attempted to delimit and explain this behaviour. A first set of experiments deals with the observed scope of the superior conformity of the self behaviour. For this purpose, variations are systematically introduced in the characteristics of comparative situations: Types of sets of individuals (for instance, real groups or abstract sets   social categories); types of norms under consideration (for instance, norms dealing with the concrete execution of a task, norms relating to forms of behaviour   personality characteristics, etc.); manners of comparing oneself with others (for instance, a specifically defined other or generalized others; comparisons on past, present or future behaviour, etc.). Having tested the scope of the superior conformity of the self behaviour in various ways, we proceed to explain it theoretically and experimentally. Our explanation here is based on the existence of a fundamental conflict between two simultaneous processes that are both complementary and contradictory: The individual §s need, on the one hand, for social conformity, which tends toward standardization and de individualization; on the other hand, his simultaneous search for social differentiation and individualization. This explanation is tested in a second set of experiments. Our final purpose is to show the practical and theoretical importance of the study of the superior conformity of the self behaviour in social psychology. In this connection we have shown, in a third set of experiments, how such a behaviour can play a role in many phenomena studied by social psychology. "
115	6	1	1976	 Analyzes observational learning of attitudes within the classical conditioning paradigm after reviewing the relevant theoretical formulations and empirical evidence. In this analysis an attitude is conceived of as a habit between an attitudinal stimulus and an attitudinal response, the attitudinal response being an internal emotional response. Thus vicarious emotional arousal is the basis of observational learning of attitudes. A model §s positive or negative emotional behaviour should normally lead to an arousal of a similar emotion in an observer because of the latter §s conditioning history. Given that the model §s emotional behaviour is in the context of a particular stimulus situation, this stimulus situation should be able to elicit the relevant emotion in the observer through higher order conditioning. Thus the specific stimulus situation, or another similar stimulus situation, comes to be a positive or negative attitudinal object for the observer, depending on the nature of the model §s emotional response. 
116	6	1	1976	" Studied the degree to which 40 children (half boys, half girls) in each of three age groups of 5–6, 7–8 and 9–10 years would be affected by the qualities of the actors and the outcomes in perceiving certain acts as either intentional or accidental. Each subject was randomly assigned to either the liked actor or the disliked actor conditions and was then administered both the good  and the bad outcome stories, represented by pictures. Upon listening to each story in which the motivation of the actor was left ambiguous, the subject was asked to specify whether the act was meant to be done or not. The results indicate that in general all children showed a significant tendency to interpret a bad outcome caused by a liked actor as being accidental and that caused by a disliked actor as being intentional; conversely, when the outcome was good, the behaviour of the disliked actor was interpreted as being accidental and that of the liked one as being intentional. Although there were no age differences within the experimental conditions, differences were observed between the conditions for different age groups. In general a developmental lag was revealed in the attributive behaviour with respect to the disliked actor condition. One important implication of the study is that children by 5 years of age seem to have learned the evaluative difference between causing something intentionally or accidentally, depending on the outcome quality. The results were interpreted in terms of Heider §s balance principles which were suggested to serve as a vehicle for making causal inferences. "
117	6	1	1976	 When several items of information are combined to give an overall judgement, it is usually found that some kinds of item are given greater weight than others. This study examines the relations between three criteria which judges may use in deciding how to apportion these weights. The criteria of evaluative direction and extremity have of ten been studied within impression formation, while demonstrations of the influence of ambiguity have produced unclear findings. Simple models of the combination of these three criteria are shown to be inadequate and a more complex account is suggested. A study is reported in which divergence between the criteria of extremity and ambiguity results in a generally greater bias to negative. This effect is related to other studies of the influence of inconsistency, and range adjustment model of the judgement process is extended to take it into account. 
118	6	1	1976	 Negotiations were conducted to investigate the effects on settlement points andon the attitudes and perceptions of participants of (i) group participation and (ii)belief in own group §s point of view, in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Ninety six school children prepared cases in groups of four before representing their group §s position against an individual of a similarly prepared opposed group. Group participation was manipulated by groups either participating in preparatory discussions or observing video films of another group §s discussions. Belief was manipulated by systematically varying the composition of groups according to scores on a pre test of attitudes towards the raising of the school leaving age. In general the belief manipulation operated as expected, believers exhibiting less variability, more tit for tat agreements and less opinion change than the disbelievers. Group participation did not influence the measures as predicted, and measures of interpersonal perception did not conform to the pattern of findings in recent experiments on intergroup discrimination. The results are discussed in terms of (i) their relevance to the issue of the appropriate relationship of the representative to his group in a negotiation and (ii) their implications for intergroup relations theory. 
119	6	1	1976	 Studied the effect of linguistic development and social appropriateness of a language upon the meaningfulness of personal constructs articulated in this language. Subjects were 60 bilingual pupils from a boys secondary school in Tanzania. Linguistic development was manipulated by choosing pupils who had either 1½ years or 3½ years experience of instruction in English. For each subject constructs were elicited and grids administered in both English and Swahili. Two types of elements were used, for one of which Swahili was the socially more appropriate language and for the other, English. Results from the study indicate that rating polarization is a function of both linguistic development and appropriateness of language for construing the domain in question. These results are therefore interpreted as indicating that meaningfulness of personal constructs, as indicated by rating polarization, can have linguistic determinants. 
120	6	1	1976	 Studied the effects of distracting stimuli, presented simultaneously with a persuasive but counterattitudinal communication, on subvocal counterargumentation and attitude shift. All subjects were first year undergraduate male students at Birmingham University, England. The 80 experimental Ss who formed ten different treatment groups, responded to distracting sequences of numbers by performing visual, auditory, vocal and manual tasks, and combinations thereof, while listening to the message. The base line group of 28 Ss merely listened to the same communication, which advocated compulsory male sterilisation. After task completion, all Ss were given a six item Likert type attitude measurement questionnaire, a counterargumentation measurement similar to that devised by T. C. Brock (1967) and a three item comprehension test of the arguments used in the communication. The results suggest that distracting stimuli which are greater in intensity or which require a more active response from the recipient (up to a certain level of activity) are more likely to inhibit counterargumentation and thus elicit shift toward agreement with the message (while leaving comprehension levels unaffected) than those which are lower in intensity, or which require either a passive or a high active response. 
121	6	2	1976	 This experimental study was aimed at investigating the mechanisms of influence involved in the two functionally opposed phenomena of innovation and conformity. We have been concerned for several years with the former of these two phenomena because of its intrinsic importance and the limited amount of research devoted to it. In the present article we have attempted not only to analyse the position more thoroughly, but also to compare the effects of innovation with those of conformity. In particular, we have endeavoured to show that behavioural style acts as a general source of influence in the two phenomena under consideration, where manifest judgments are concerned. On the other hand, the latent effects of influence may be different in the two cases of innovation and conformity. To investigate these questions, we developed an experimental design consisting of three parts. The first part was intended to study manifest influence on a quasi physical judgment based on a cultural truism. The second part was aimed at the study of latent modifications in the perceptual cognitive code as a result of influence. The third, in the form of a postexperimental questionnaire, was intended to provide information about various aspects, including the perception of the agent of influence by subjects. The main function of the experimental manipulations was to vary the minority or majority relationship of the agent of influence within a group, and its behavioural style, consistent or inconsistent. Our main findings indicate that behavioural consistency is the main factor behind the influence exerted by both majority and minority. But whereas, in conformity, influence is limited to modifying manifest judgments, in innovation, it changes the perceptual cognitive code underlying such judgments. 
122	6	2	1976	 An experiment was devised which tested the classical theory of projection. Subjects completed a Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study form (RPFS) also rated themselves for aggressiveness on rating scales. Highly aggressive subjects were classified according to whether they rated themselves as high aggressive or tow aggressive. Subjects watched one of two full length commercial films, and the ratings which high aggressive, high self rating subjects and high aggressive, low self rating subjects gave to film characters were compared. It was found that aggressive film characters were rated as being more aggressive by the low self rating subjects than by the high self rating subjects. The possible explanation that this finding could be related to more general differences between subjects was not supported. It was therefore concluded that the results of this experiment were best explained by the predictions of classical projection theory, with the proviso that aggression was only projected onto those film characters whose behaviour provided appropriate cues. 
123	6	2	1976	" Three schemata relevant to the inference of traits attributed to a and b from respectively reciprocal liking and disliking relations between a and b are derived from the research literature: (a) Homogeneity according to which likable traits would be attributed to a and b if they like each other, while dislikable traits if they dislike each other; (b) balance according to which more similarity would be attributed to a and b if they like each other than if they dislike each other, the relative similarity effect being localized on a likableness dimension; (c) positivity bias according to which favourable traits would be attributed irrespective of the stimulus information given. An experiment is reported which provides support for the three schemata with the exception that no unequivocal evidence is obtained for the restriction of the balance effect to a likableness dimension. Further, individual Ss are found not to have stable preferences for particular schemata but to switch readily from one schema to the other. "
124	6	2	1976	 Humanist social thought is as a meadow in the forest of positivist science. Much of this space was cleared by Wilhelm Dilthey, not only through his attack on the fundamental assumptions of positivism, but also through his formulation of a critical method by which the works of free human consciousness could be understood. The first tenet of positivism is that the world is made up of out there objectively knowable facts. Dilthey undercut this notion by asserting that the subject matter of the human studies was not mere facts of nature, but rather objectified expressions of the human mind. The second central assumption of positivism is that these facts are explainable or determined by general causal laws. In contrast, Dilthey asserted that, while we can explain the natural world, human action must be understood through an interpretive rather than a causal logic. In demonstrating and specifically describing such an interpretive procedure, Dilthey provided an epistemological and methodological grounding fur a humanistic science of the person and of the social world. His ideas illuminate the works even of his critics and his influence, though largely unacknowledged, continues to be widespread in all the human studies. 
125	6	2	1976	 Discusses the current status of the controversy about the relationship between individual §s attitudes and subsequent behaviour. It is suggested that one step toward the resolution of the existing controversy is the construction of a formal theory, specifying and integrating variables other than attitude into the framework. To this end, a model (in propositional form) is advanced focusing on attitude, centrality and salience as determinants of action. The model was partially tested through reanalysis of survey data dealing with attitudes and behaviours of 221 individuals with regard to halting air pollution. The data confirmed that subjects for whom the attitude object was central exhibited a higher level of attitude behaviour consistency than subjects for whom the attitude object was of low centrality. It is argued that the use of the proposed model clarifies relationships which otherwise might incorrectly be interpreted and provides a practical logic for determining when a comparison may be reliable and when one should beware of probable measurement difficulties. 
126	6	3	1976	 This paper first reviews material dealing with the question of whether possession and related behaviours are innately determined or secondary. It is considered that the significance of property related behaviour can best be understood by reference to its ontogenesis, and to the social context, and to the intentions of the actor. Some relevant material is reviewed, and it is proposed that some forms of acquisition and possession of property may be limited to societies with a high degree of role flexibility and mobility and have to do with the building and maintenance of self respect. 
127	6	3	1976	 Suspiciousness of deception threatens the internal validity of the conformity experiment, and analyses suggest it is becoming more widespread. After being led to believe their own ability in a visual judgment task was higher, lower, or the same as the ability of the other group members, 65 undergraduate women made visual and informational judgments in the Crutchfield apparatus. Major findings include treatment effects on suspiciousness, less conformity by suspicious Ss, and significant treatment effects on conformity only when suspicious Ss were removed from the analyses. Measures of self confidence and confidence in others were significantly related to and likely determinants of suspiciousness. Implications for improving deception in conformity research are discussed. 
128	6	3	1976	 Under the guise of an experiment on gambling decisions, subjects briefly met a confederate of the experimenter, whom they later evaluated. The major hypothesis was that the confederate would be evaluated more favourably by subjects who were told that she had received a fortuitous reward than by control subjects. The hypothesis was confirmed for female subjects only. 
129	6	4	1976	 The present article relates some of the conclusions obtained from a series of studies on the relation between normative climate and polarization. Emphasis is put on the fact that the introduction of norms in social psychology experiments must be linked to the place of norms in society. Similarly, styles of behaviour and their consistency are only effective in terms of their contents, which are socially determined. Those are the hypotheses confirmed by our experimental design: a confederate is introduced into group discussions, the experimental variables being defined by means of his role: radicalism, position with respect to the norms, and consistent or inconsistent styles of behaviour. The results shed some light on the conditions of the appearance of polarization. 
130	6	4	1976	 Sixty three subjects judged the behaviour of one of two fictitious stimulus persons by means of five different types of explanation which corresponded with specific psychological theories. These types of explanation based behaviour on adaptation to external conditions, reward/punishment, fulfilment of role expectations, effects of unconscious motives and the imitation of models. The explanations were evaluated on graphic rating scales as to their truth and convincingness. Two way analyses of variance with repeated measures on one factor showed significant main effects for type of explanation and interaction effects of stimulus person × type of explanation for both dependent variables. The results are discussed in the light of studies done so far in implicit personality theory. 
131	6	4	1976	 This study was concerned with the popular impression that Near Easterners will give directions to a place even if they do not know its whereabouts. It confirmed the hypothesis that significantly more Iranians than English people will give directions to a fictional place, and offered experimental evidence to show that this cultural difference could not be explained in terms of the greater mischievousness of Iranians. Instead, it was suggested that the difference in behaviour between Iranians and English people could be traced to a difference in value systems. The study examined direction giving, avoidance of the experimenters, and time spent with experimenters in relation to nationality, sex and social class. 
132	6	4	1976	 Studied the effects of decentration as a self control process to reduce the aggression subsequent to exposure to filmed violence. 48 Belgian French speaking military recruits were run in four groups of subjects. Two saw either aggressive or neutral slides without special instructions. The other two groups saw only aggressive slides but one underwent the decentration training while the fourth one performed a subsidiary task instead. The famous weapons effect is replicated for those subjects who did not receive the special instructions (<.025 one tailed test) and decentration significantly reduces aggression (<.05 one tailed test). The absence of a change in the meaning of the slides is interpreted in terms of reappraisal of the stimuli. Besides practical questions, theoretical implications are raised concerning the social context of viewing filmed violence. 
133	6	4	1976	 The purpose of the present study was to show the effects of the method of leader selection, leader §s personality characteristics and styles of leadership and the combined effects of these variables on selected behaviours of leaders and members in discussion groups. One hundred and forty four Ss selected from a pretested subject pool of 306 male participated in the experiment. The methods of leadership selection done on the basis of experimental manipulation were varied in one of three ways, i.e., appointment, election, and rotation. The findings suggest that the relatiomhip oriented style leader were more effective than the taskoriented style leaders in making the discussion group to generate more ideas. The rotational and elected leaders showed more democratic and accommodative attitudes and behaviours in comparison to appointed leaders. Significant interactions among the variables indicated that predictions of leaders §s  and members §s  behaviours are most accurate when the joint effects of such factors are considered. 
134	7	1	1977	" In a preceding article we discussed the links between norm and attitude change: a particular phenomenon in this relation will be developed in the present article. During a group discussion, and in the presence of a consistent confederate defending positions which follow the trend of the norms on the global level of society, subjects tend to polarize their attitudes much more than in control groups. In the opposite situation, we observe a division of the group: a number of subjects are sensitive to the confederate §s reactionary positions; these subjects are initially, that is, before the interaction, moderate. The other subjects, with firmer initial positions, resist the consistent confederate, thus resigning themselves to not reaching the consensus demanded of them by the experimenter, and enduring the conflict resulting from the standstill in the group negotiation. "
135	7	1	1977	 Both folklore and much of the social psychological literature suggest that influence and numbers go hand in hand. The more the people espousing a particular position, the more they are presumed to be correct, and the more influence they will exert. Such a contention has received support in the conformity literature (Asch, 1955). However, recent work in minority influence demonstrates that a few people, provided they show particular consistency and confidence, are able to exert influence on a majority. We have hypothesized that such perceptions of consistency and confidence bear an inverse relationship to size of the minority. Combining these two findings, we predicted that, as size of the minority increases, their presumed competence increases but their presumed confidence in their position decreases. We further predicted that a combination of the two perceptions is the best predictor of influence exerted by that minority. These predictions received support in the present study. 
136	7	1	1977	 Previous research on visual interaction has indicated that Looking1 may serve a number of important functions in social interaction. In particular, the apparent relationship between the timing of Looks and the patterning of speech has led to the suggestion that visual communication serves to regulate the flow of conversation and to synchronise transitions from speaker to speaker. This was tested in the present experiment by comparing face to face dyadic encounters with similar discussions which took place over an audio intercom link which precluded visual communication. Simultaneous speech, which resulted generally from interruptions, occurred more frequently and for longer in total face to face than in the audio condition, while the length of utterances and the incidence of speech disturbance were both greater in the audio condition. This pattern of findings was quite different from that predicted, and suggests that the role of visual communication is to allow participants to converse spontaneously and interrupt freely by enabling them to send and receive nonverbal signals which maintain the interaction and prevent the breakdown which interruption might otherwise threaten. Suggestions for testing this interpretation further are outlined. 
137	7	1	1977	" Representative samples were drawn from particular areas of five countries: New York, U.S.A.; Orani, Italy; Teheran, Iran; Djakarta, Indonesia; and Belgrade, Jugoslavia. Descriptions of behaviour ranging from criminal through deviant to nondeviant acts were presented to the respondents who were asked to indicate to which agencies of social control they would refer the act. The social institutions of religion, party politics or education were rarely chosen. All country samples invoked the police and family, but the more industrialized countries also reported to government bureaucracy and the medical system. Less developed countries favoured the family and village level of social control. Results were interpreted to suggest that the current view of labelling theory, that all social institutions are agencies of social control, needs to be reassessed. A distinction between socializing institutions and controlling institutions is suggested. "
138	7	1	1977	 The research investigated the relationship between managerial decision making and a set of specified contingent situational factors: decision type, perceived skill requirements and objective skill inputs. The study was based on 663 German and British managers in two interlocking senior management levels of 37 large enterprises. The data were collected by means of Group Feedback Analysis as part of a large study of managerial decision making in eight countries. The results show a significant (p  <.05) relationship between the choice of decision styles and the postulated contingency variables. Only 1 % of 615 senior managers consistently use a single decision style, more than two thirds use four or five different styles. Very large variations occur as a function of different decision tasks, perceived skill requirements and objective skill availability. There are differences between the relatively well matched samples of German and British managers, but they are less significant than the broadly similar way in which both samples respond to the particular contingencies under investigation. The results are interpreted in the context of an open systems contingency framework. Their action implications are seen to suggest a link with sociotechnical theory on job design and wider issues of organisational and social policy. 
139	7	1	1977	 Argues that the comparative neglect of the cognitive component and social origins of social attitudes has produced serious inadequacies in social psychology and limited its social relevance. Discusses critically the question of how far social change can be brought about by changing attitudes. The argument is exemplified with reference to the literature on authoritarianism and recent British research on racial prejudice and mass communication. Concludes that the psychology of social attitudes needs to take greater account of the way the production and communication of culture are related to social structure and change. 
140	7	1	1977	 The role of three subject variables in the mediation of reactance to pro  and anti LSD messages was investigated: sex, authoritarianism, and suspiciousness that the purpose of the experiment was to study persuasion. No reactance effect occurred reliably either overall or in any subgroup of subjects for the anti LSD message which supported the initial views of most subjects (evening division undergraduates). In the pro LSD case, reactance effects occurred among highly suspicious male subjects only. It was suggested that reactance could be a response to perceived threat from the experimenter rather than, or as well as the communicator, and that male and female subjects responded to such threat in accordance with their culturally prescribed roles. 
141	7	2	1977	  analysed social judgment theory of attitude change and studied placement of a communication and opinion shift in an experiment on visual perception. In a 3 × 3 design plus a control group, 110 undergraduate college students (50 men and 60 women) received a communication after estimating the number of dots on 14 slides. The communication varied at three levels of ambiguity and three levels of discrepancy. Ss gave estimates of the communication from memory (measuring assimilation) and gave a second set of their own estimates (measuring opinion shift). Assimilation varies directly with ambiguity (p < .00l) but is unrelated to discrepancy. Opinion shift varies significantly as a function of discrepancy (p < .00l) but is unrelated to ambiguity. Authors hypothesize assimilation and opinion change may be negatively correlated at small discrepancies but directly correlated at large discrepancies. 
142	7	2	1977	 Investigated associations between the questioning and answering behaviour of mothers and children in a design that allowed analyses within as well as between social classes. Thirty two six year old children volunteered their knowledge and asked questions of their mothers about a variety of objects in a natural context. Social class differences in the children were found in the quality of questioning and the amount of knowledge displayed, but for the latter there were differences between tasks, and the incidence of questioning confounded the predictions made. Class differences in mothers §s  behaviour likewise differed by task. An index of the mothers §s  provision of cognitive meaning and of feedback was shown to correlate highly with children §s rates of questioning and knowledge revealed both within and across classes. 
143	7	2	1977	 A multidimensional scaling procedure was used to explore the role of cultural background, language and geographical region in the process of Welsh identity. Welsh bilinguals and Welshmen who could speak only English made similarity judgments among stimulus people represented by all possible combinations of these three factors and the anchor stimulus MYSELF. The results showed that language spoken was the most important dimension of ethnic identity for both groups, with cultural background and geographical region playing subordinate roles. These findings were discussed in relation to similar research conducted in Canada. 
144	7	2	1977	 Studied the effects of group discussion on the extremity of person perception judgements with a view towards (a) evaluating the role of alternative modes of interaction in selectively inducing polarization or moderation of judgements, and (b) further extending the generality of the group polarization phenomenon. Two traditional theories of group shift (leadership theory, value theory) were also evaluated. Both the video taped stimuli and the subject, object and situation relevant measuring instrument were specially developed in a pilot study (N  90) in order to approximate real life conditions. The person stimuli were rated by subjects (N  72) in a traditional repeated measures design, with a control group for familiarization effects. Free exchange of opinions in group discussion was either encouraged or discouraged. A significant polarization effect with marked postdiscussion recidivism was found when spontaneous interaction was encouraged, while group consensus judgements were more moderate in the more formalized group interaction condition. Neither of the traditional theories examined were supported by the data. The results are discussed in term of their potential relevance to real life groups specializing in person perception judgements (juries, interviewing panels), and the connection between the mode of interaction formulation and other recent theories of the group shift are examined, with some suggestions for the further elaboration of the present model. 
145	7	2	1977	 It is shown that the notions of aggressive behaviour as intentional emission of noxious stimulation (Buss, 1961, 1963, 1966, 1971) and that of injuriating goal response (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mower and Sears, 1939) are identical. The usefulness of these theories to predict S §s reaction to the reception of a given noxious stimulation is questioned. It is suggested that S §s reactions to noxious stimulation may or may not be aggressive, depending on whether the noxious stimulation S receives is interpreted as being a behaviour justified by the nom in the situation, or as reflecting an aggressive intent of O. It is hypothesized that the norms established in the situation depend on (i) victim §s perception of the noxious stimulation received as being instrumental for O §s goal attainment, (ii) victim §s perception of the value of O §s goal, and (iii) the value of victim §s own goal. The establishment of norms regulating the exchange of noxious stimulation between Ss is operationalized in two experiments. Aggression, defined as an infringement of these norms, is measured. In Experiment I, participate 56 female students, and in Experiment 2, 80 male students. Subject is alternately victim (he performs a sensorimotor task and receives an electric shock) and aggressor (he shocks the other S). In Experiment I it is found that Ss counteraggress faster and more frequently if they interpret the shock received from the partner as an infringement of the norm. In Experiment 2, Ss do not counteraggress more frequently, but they do counteraggress faster and evaluate O more negatively. It is concluded that the results clearly contradict current positions and favour the authors §s  cognitive reformulation of the determinants of aggressive behaviour. 
146	7	2	1977	 Investigated the effects of fear arousal and sidedness variables on compliance with a dietary regimen. Experiments involved 202 women volunteers who were 10 per cent or more overweight, and aged 20 60 years. Experiment 1 involved a 3 (low, medium, high fear) × 2 (single, multiple exposure to fear message) × 2 (one , two sided communication) design. The fear levels involved discussing the health hazards of obesity. Experiment 2 manipulated the fear message position relative to the recommendations (fear recommendations, recommendations fear, fear delay recommendations). Persuasive impact was measured via follow up weight checks at 2, 4, 8, and 16 weeks. Results indicate nonsignificant effects from sidedness and pre standardised fear levels. Using subjects §s  fear arousal ratings medium fear is significantly better (p < .025), supporting Janis §s curvilinear hypothesis. A single exposure to the fear message is superior (p < .025) to multiple exposures, the interaction with time being highly significant (p < .001). Experiment 2 results indicate the optimum position for the fear message as immediately prior to recommendations (p < .025). Results support both cognitive and fear reduction hypotheses, but the latter is favoured. 
147	7	3	1977	" Studied the effect of a person §s self esteem on his inferences about another person §s feelings toward him. Fifty six mule and female college student subjects of high or low chronic self esteem (median split; modified version of Janis and Field §s Feelings of Inadequacy Scale) received either a negative or a positive evaluation of themselves. They were told that the evaluation had been written by another subject who had acted either under sincere instructions, which allowed him to give his own opinion, or under role playing instructions, which assigned him to write either a positive or a negative evaluation. The subject §s take was to decide under which instruction his evaluation had been written. It was predicted from a self consistency logic that low self esteem subjects would attribute negative evaluations to sincere and positive evaluations to role playing instructions, while high self esteem subjects would make the reverse attributions. A significant self esteem × evaluation positivity interaction (p <.01) supported this prediction. "
148	7	3	1977	" Investigated how team success and failure are attributed to dispositional and situational factors as a function of immediate outcome of the group performance, past success of the team, and individual performance of team members within the group. 150 Little League baseball players §s  attributions for the team §s outcome were taken separately with regard to team  and self factors immediately after the conclusion of a game. The results reveal that success, independent of the margin of victory, is primarily assigned to effort and ability, while clear loss is attributed to both effort and task difficulty. Conversely, bare loss is seen to be mainly due to task difficulty and secondarily to low effort. The results are interpreted as supporting the notion of ego centered causal judgments, but not necessarily the motive to enhance one §s self, on the basis of the new proposition that effort has a different attributional meaning in the cases of success and failure; when losing effort is treated as an external factor, and when winning, effort tends to be interpreted as an internal factor. No differences with respect to attributions exist between individual players who perform poorly and those who excell within the team performance. "
149	7	3	1977	 Studied the immediate and long term effects of modelling on adult altruism using a quasi field experiment in a naturalistic setting. Forty three female trainee occupational therapists aged 18 21 observed or did not observe a female model volunteer to donate blood. Modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who (a) also agreed to donate and (b) in turn actually gave their blood. The opportunity to donate blood occurred in a naturalistic situation on average six weeks after the commitment. It was concluded that observing a model could produce generalizable and durable behaviour change in adults using an altruistic behaviour of some cost to the individual. Personality and vicarious reinforcement effects however were not found. 
150	7	3	1977	" Studied the effect of meaning and consequences on shifts toward extreme judgments (polarization) as a result of group discussion. Since it was hypothesized that high levels of both meaning and consequences would activate pressures to conform to the appropriate cultural norm, greater polarization was predicted under those conditions. Consequences were varied by asking subjects how willing they were to participate in another actual (high consequences) or hypothetical (low consequences) experiment. Meaning was varied by information that the proposed experiment would have high or low social and scientific significance. Sixty male college students discussed their preferences in three person groups. Prediscussion, consensus, and postdiscussion scores were obtained; the critical polarization scores were computed on the basis of individual §s movement away from the prediscussion mean of their group. Partial support for the hypotheses is provided by a cross over interaction (p < .05) in changes from the prediscussion to consensus scores, which indicate greater polarization in the high meaning, low consequence condition, and in the low meaning, high consequence condition. The results are discussed with respect to their implications for research in which subjects do not expect real consequences to follow from their statements of opinion. "
151	7	3	1977	 Re examines Mulder §s Power Distance Reduction Theory (P.D.R.) and the related experiments using a model which distinguishes between structural and nonstructural parameters of a power system. The former defines the Vertical and Horizontal nature of the power relations between people in the system, while the latter specifies the power differential between two immediate ranks, and together they provide a more adequate and precise conception of the links between the power parameters and the tendencies of subordinate group members to seize super ordinate power. Several theoretical statements were generated on the bases of the P.D.R. literature and theories of social comparison and bureaucracy to hypothesize the individual effects of the three parameters on power distance reduction (p.d.r.) tendencies. Two experiments using 48 and 40 male college students respectively were conducted to test the hypotheses by systematically varying one parameter and holding constant the other two. The results indicate an inverse relationship between the p.d.r. tendencies and the size of the parameters, as predicted. The strength of the relationship increases from the nonstructural to the Vertical to the Horizontal parameter. An argument was developed which combined the three power parameters to form two ideal power conditions for further research. 
152	7	3	1977	 At first, it was demonstrated that social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) predicting a need for moderate (instead of maximal) superiority, could reconcile a number of disparate results of earlier Maximizing Difference Game (MDG) experiments. Using the same theory, it was then further predicted that high power players in an asymmetrical MDG would compete less than their inferior opponents or than equal power players in a symmetrical MDG and that the inferior and equal power players would not differ in competition. The data of an experiment, involving an asymmetrical (8/6) MDG matrix and two symmetrical MDG matrices (8/8 and 6/6), generally confirmed these predictions, but it was observed serendipitously that the high 8/8 symmetrical matrix yielded more competition than the lower 6/6 symmetrical matrix. An extended replication of this variable with five linearly related MDG matrices (4/4, 5/5, 6/6, 8/8 and 12/12) showed a similar result, namely most competition in the highest matrices and least in the lowest ones. The finding was interpreted in terms of the competitive motivation of the players and the low cost of competition in the highest matrices. 
153	7	4	1977	 This article examines the claims of ethnomethodologists, symbolic interactionists and ethogenists to provide an improved basis for social psychology. The basic assumptions of these approaches are outlined, especially their common emphasis upon language and meaning. However, differences between the approaches are also noted. The problem is how this new social psychology would be capable of dealing with important social issues, such as fascism. There are criticisms from the point of view of the new social psychology of previous approaches to the social psychology of fascism, i.e., the authoritarian personality and value analysis. A historiographical survey of fascism is made to show the sorts of problems which could be tackled by the new social psychology, particularly in relations to the concept of fascism itself. However, it is argued that the new perspectives are inappropriate for a serious examination of a social issue like fascism, because they lack clear political commitment. They are based upon attitudes of either disassociation or sympathetic understanding, both of which are unsatisfactory for an examination of fascism. A return to a socially committed social psychology is urged. 
154	7	4	1977	 Fifty four subjects rated sixteen hypothetical situations on four evaluative and four probability scales. The situations were of the P O X type, consisting of two persons and an issue. A2×2×2×2 factorial design was used to test the relative importance of attitude (P to × relation), issue (marijuana or premarital sex), agreement (P to × and O to × relations), attraction (P to O relation), and balance (agreement × attraction interaction) on the evaluation and probability variables. As predicted from a critical review of past research on balance theory, balance was the main determinant of perceived probability. Attraction was the main determinant of evolution. In light of a review of past balance research and of the present data, we propose to restrict the balance hypothesis to cognitive variables, i.e., expectancy and perceived probability. In addition, support was obtained for the hypothesis that the more dogmatic a person is, the more frequently he will perceive balanced relationships as occurring and the more positively he will evaluate balanced situations. 
155	7	4	1977	" Presented 120 males and 300 females with a summary of arguments concerning a court case. The information varied in the proportion and strength of arguments for either the defence or the prosecution. Based on the relevant arguments version of the cultural value hypothesis, it was predicted that: (a) proportion of arguments is directly related to subjects §s  ratings of probability of guilt; (b) fewer arguments are needed to move subjects toward innocence than toward guilt; (c) strong minority defence arguments ate more effective than weak ones in allowing subjects to adhere to their initial value; and (d) strong prosecution arguments result in higher probability of guilt ratings than do weak prosecution arguments. Data supported each of these hypotheses. "
156	7	4	1977	 Studied attitude change following counter attitudinal advocacy where there was little incentive for subject compliance in an attempt to compare dissonance and self perception theory predictions. The extent of attitude change was determined either by self report or by having subjects predict their own true attitudes purportedly monitored by the experimenter using a bogus pipeline. Forty eight male and female subjects, students from an introductory Psychology course, were invited to take part in a study of Current Campus Issues. They wrote a short statement that argued against an issue for which they had previously held a positive attitude. Results indicate that there was a significant attitude change in both conditions (p < .003). Attitude change under these circumstances is more successfully explained by the self perception theory than dissonance theory. 
157	7	4	1977	 In an experiment to study the effects of attitudes and immediacy of verbal expression of requiring subjects to emply evaluatively biased language, 28 male und felmale college students wrote essays on the topic of capital punishment. They were not forced to write either for or against the issue, but were required to incorporate a list of either 15 pro bias words, which implied a negative evaluation of abolition, or 15 anti bias words which implied a negative evaluation of capital punishment. It was predicted that subjects §s  final attitudes would be more pro capital punishment after using pro bias words, and this was confirmed for subjects §s  final self ratings (p<.05). However, alternative measures of subjects §s  final attitudes implied that the bias manipulation had a consistent effect in the predicted direction only for subjects whose initial attitudes were congruent with the words they used (i.e., pro subjects in the pro bias condition and anti subjects in the anti bias condition) incorporated more of the words provided (p<.01) and employed more immediate forms of expression (p<.025) than subjects required to use words incongruent with their intial attitudes. These results were not replicated when 19 further subjects were required to incorporate comparable lists of statements rather than words, suggesting that the effects of the word lists were not due to their providing subjects with ready made persuasive arguments. 
158	7	4	1977	 Heider §s notions of attribution are presented as a theoretical underpinning for the empirical findings of Herzlich concerning health and illness. Her methodology is treated as a good example of the new methods advocated by Harré and Secord:   the collection of naive unnegotiated accounts. It is suggested that the potential for attributional artifacts is present when an investigator invites laymen to discuss issues which have favourable as well as issues which have unfavourable outcomes and then accepts their accounts at face value. Favourable outcomes tend to be attributed to the self and unfavourable to the environment. The self is seen as the source of health and the environment as the source of illness. Evidence, from other areas of research, supporting this interpretation is presented. In conclusion it is argued that Herzlich §s data more neatly exemplify the structure of Lewin §s Psychological life space than they do that of Durkheim §s representations collectives. 
159	8	1	1978	 In this paper three experimental studies are reported in which leaders were given a choice between intergroup competition or  cooperation under the threat of being deposed or not by their followers. Consistent with our predictions, threatened leaders were more likely to opt for intergroup competition, especially when their group was internally divided and when they had a strong bargaining position. However, they only chose intergroup competition, regardless of their chances of bringing the intergroup conflict to a successful conclusion, when their tenure of power was very precarious. 
160	8	1	1978	 Investigated the effect of the verb on inferences in reasoning tasks with conditionals. Subjects were 60 pupils, both male and female, aged 17 to 18 years. Six verbs (buy, have, understand, ignore, hate, avoid) served as independent variables in conditional tasks consisting of two premises. The results which are statistically, highly significant, show an effect due to the verb depending upon the logical form of the task (2Î  86.1, df  30). indicate that certain semantic characteristics implicit in verbs determine the way in which a reasoning task is interpreted. A second experiment investigated why verbs differ in this way. Interviews were carried out with subjects using the verbs buy and ignore. It is suggested that implicit meanings acquired through processes of social attribution play an essential role in verbal reasoning. In the present case, such attributions concern the depositional and episodic character of verbs and appear to be responsible for the interpretation of the premises of our tasks. It is concluded that any logical model aiming at an adequate representation of language in reasoning must take these implicit social attributions into account. 
161	8	1	1978	 Compared choices among solutions of problem by individuals and groups from two populations: 251 university students, aged 18 to 25 years, and 364 trade school students, aged 15 to 18 years. All subjects gave first their solution of Maiers horsetrading problem. Discussing groups were composed of one individual holding the correct answer while other members held each a different wrong solution. In one of the further individual conditions, single subjects were provided with all solutions without comment, and in the other, together with a brief summary of supportive arguments. As predicted, in the population of university students, the proportion of correct answers increases in all experimental conditions (p < .05). No significant difference is observed between individual and group choices. Group members defending the correct answer are more certain of their solution, talk more and are perceived as more confident than supporters of wrong solutions. In groups of trade school students, the reverse is true, and the proportion of correct answers decreases following both discussion (p < .01) and exposure to all solutions (p < .02). In this population, performance improves only when single subjects are provided with written arguments in favour of various solutions (p < .01). Results are analysed in terms of low solution verifiability depending on task, situational, and population factors. 
162	8	1	1978	 Female undergraduates, in groups of four, voted several times on appropriate treatment for a delinquent, using an electrical signalling device. Two simulated group members consistently agreed with subjects §s  initial position. A third simulated member (target) exhibited one of nine response patterns. In six movement conditions (which formed a 2 × 3 design), the target (a) gradually moved a short distance toward or away from modal group opinion and (b) manifested high, medium, or low net agreement with the majority position. In three stable conditions, the target consistently (a) agreed with modal opinion, (b) disagreed, or (c) took a neutral position. In movement conditions, the target was evaluated significantly more favourably in the toward than in the away condition and in the high agreement than in the medium and low agreement conditions. In stable conditions, the agreeing target was liked significantly better than the neutral and disagreeing targets. The target §s response pattern also affected subjects §s  attributions about the target §s motives, communication to the target (in notes interspersed between votes), and opinion change. Results were discussed in terms of previous research dealing with majority reaction to moving and stable attitudinal deviates. 
163	8	1	1978	" This study was designed to test hypotheses concerning the influence of sex roles and social status on future orientation (FO). The latter was measured in various categories (spheres of life),on the dimensions of density (number of hopes and fears cited by the subject), extension, and optimism pessimism. Also included was a measure of internal vs. external control (the subject §s assessment as to whether the realization of his hopes and fears is dependent more on himself or more on external factors). Subjects were 100 employed men and women of the lower and middle class. It was found that, in comparison with women, men voiced more hopes/fears in the public sphere (economy, politics, environment) and fewer in the private sphere uamily, occupation, personal development). Men had a more extended FO in the occupational and economic spheres; women, in contrast, in the private sphere. (These results contradicted the assumption of earlier studies that FO is a general orientation, not varying across different domains of life.) Middle class (in comparison to lowerclass) persons manifested a, wore extended FO, envisioned the distant future more optimistically, and believed more markedly that the realization of their hopes and fears depended on themselves. "
164	8	1	1978	 Studied the effect of a normative model (maximization of expected value) upon group and individual choice. 109 MBA students in a Lain square research design chose between two alternatives differing in expected value and in range of outcomes. Group choices were significantly (p < .05) closer to those predicted by the normative model than were individual choices. This difference was not due only to information about the presence and applicability of the normative model but rather it was due to the persuasiveness of the model in a group as a cogent and correct solution to the choice dilemma. Task instructions emphasizing the rewards from risk taking produced significantly more choices (p < .05) of the riskier alternative, particularly by individuals as opposed to groups, than did instructions emphasizing the penalties of risk taking. Risky and conservative shifts in choice between groups and individuals were explicable through knowledge of the influence of the normative model in individual and group choice. 
165	8	1	1978	 Demonstrated in two studies ( N  64, N  79) that information about a hypothetical stimulus person that appears to be 3 hold is judged more positively than information that appears to be 45 min old (p < .03, p < .007 respectively). In both instances, the information was received 1½ hago, but by unobtrusively manipulating the speeds of a clock by a factor of two, subjects were led to believe that they received the information either 45 min or 3 hago. The implications of thefindings for theories of attribution and social judgment are pointed out. 
166	8	2	1978	 Investigated the effects of subjects §s  self concept and the attractiveness of the other on subjects §s  estimates of how much the other liked them. The use of a signal detection paradigm allowed the measurement of both the criteria and discriminability of subjects §s  decisions. Eighty mule and 80 female subjects participated in a computer match where they received either somewhat positive or somewhat negative feedback from their match. Besides sex and type of feedback, the factorial design included dating self concept (high vs. low) and other attractiveness (high vs. low). Results indicate that high dating self concept subjects had a lower criterion than low dating self concept subjects for saying that another liked them (p < .0l), and that the former group was superior to the latter at discriminating between the two types of feedback (p < .03). Also, males were more willing to say that the attractive match liked them than that the unattractive match liked them, while among females the direction of these differences reversed (p < .03). fie results were explained in terms of differential attention to pay off matrices and prior odds. 
167	8	2	1978	" Similar samples of English, Italian and Japanese subjects were asked to identify 8 emotional states and 4 interpersonal attitudes from video taped expressions of 2 performers from each of these cultures. AN sets of judgements were above chance, except Italians judging Japanese. The Japanese subjects were no different from English and Italian subjects in recognition ability but the Japanese performances were harder to recognize supporting Ekman §s theory of display rules; in fact all Japanese expressions were difficult to recognize, with the exception of happy friendly. The Japanese (performers) make a clearer distinction between sad and depressed than other cultural groups, but did not distinguish between happy and friendly, or between angry and hostile. "
168	8	2	1978	 A previous experiment (Doise, Mugny and Perret Clermont, 1975) has shown that pairs of subjects perform better on a spatial representation task than subjects alone. As a conclusion the hypothesis was put forward that conflicts of cognitive centrations, embedded in a social situation, lead children to coordinate their centrations. The present research was planned to verify several predictions following from this general hypothesis. Results show that indeed more progress takes place when children with different cognitive strategies work together than when children with the same strategies do so, and that not only the less advanced but also the more advanced child progresses when they interact with each other. 
169	8	2	1978	 Data from college students in North and South India tend to support our earlier findings of a positive relationship between the educational level and the degree of liberalism (Anant, 1972). With few exceptions a higher percentage of students than respondents from the general population gave liberal responses to most of the items in our questionnaire. A higher percentage of North and South Indian students gave liberal responses to items dealing with general attitudes toward caste system and toward interaction with Harijans (former untouchables), but the differences were reversed in the responses to items dealing with special privileges for the depressed castes. 
170	8	2	1978	 The effects of behavioural and cultural expectation cues on the perception of a dyadic encounter were studied, using realistic videotaped interactions as stimuli. Intimate and non intimate non verbal interactions and intimate and non intimate episode definitions were combined in a 2 × 2 design and presented to subjects who rated both information sources separately (N  20) as well as in congruent and incongruent combinations (N  48). The contribution of each of these two cues to ratings of the combined episodes was analysed by Frijda §s (1969) average relative shift technique, and a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) procedure. Results indicated that behavioural cues dominate perceptions, but this dominance is reduced in incongruent cue combinations, suggesting a weighted averaging strategy. Perceptions of the relationship between the interactants were more resistant to behaviour cue dominance than perceptions of the interaction. An analysis of open ended accounts by subjects substantiated these findings. The results suggest that cultural expectations of interaction episodes have a salient and non obvious effect on social perception. 
171	8	2	1978	 This study tested the relative plausibility of three, main theories and/or hypotheses concerning the relationship between intolerance of ambiguity and socio politico ideology: (a) authoritarian personality theory, (b) the extremism hypothesis and (c) the context hypothesis. The sample consisted of 195 Swedish high school students randomly selected from five different high schools from greater Stockholm in the spring of 1974. Separate factor analyses of the Budner Intolerance of Ambiguity Scale and the S4 Conservatism Scale generated seven factors of ambiguity intolerance and five factors of socio politico ideology, Scattergram, correlation and trend analyses disclosed a number of statistically significant relationships between the various dimensions of ambiguity intolerance and socio politico ideology. The main trend of the results tended to confirm authoritarian personality theory concerning the relationship between intolerance of ambiguity and racism or ethnic prejudice. Furthermore, some support was found for the context hypothesis, with regards to the relationship between general intolerance of ambiguity and general conservatism, among other things. No support could be found for the extremism hypothesis. 
172	8	2	1978	 The purpose of the present research was to assess the relative influence of instigation or inhibition in mediating retaliation after arbitrary or non arbitrary frustration. Sixty four men were asked to learn a concept that was being taught by a peer. Although all men were frustrated, half were deliberately frustrated while the other half were not deliberately frustrated by the teacher. Following the task, the learner was given the opportunity to prevent the teacher from gaining employment under conditions where his evaluation was either anonymous or to be made public. The results of a 2 × 2 analysis of variance yielded several significant effects. The data revealed that subjects rejected the teacher more when the frustration was arbitrary than when it was non arbitrary. Moreover, when the evaluation was anonymous, subjects rejected the teacher more than when the evaluation was to be made public. Furthermore, the difference in the amount of rejection expressed between arbitrary and non arbitrary conditions was greater when the evaluation was anonymous than when it was public. These results were interpreted as demonstrating the greater contribution of instigatory rather than inhibitory factors in expressing aggression following deliberate or non deliberate frustration. 
173	8	2	1978	" In this study 2 theories have been tested: Minimum Range theory (de Swaan, 1970; Leierson, 1970) and Minimal Resource theory (Caplow, 1956; Riker, 1962; Gamson, 1964). In an experimental simulation (Runkel and McGrath, 1972)political attitudes (left, centre and right) and power differences (40 seats in parliament, 30 seats and 20 seats) have been induced. The results suggest that in the beginning of the bargaining process people communicate about the composition of the coalition programme. The minimal range theory may explain this behaviour: parties with more similar ideological interests do coalesce. Later on, one more often bargains about the division of the outcomes, i.e. portfolios. Minimum Resource theory only partly explains the formed coalitions. Minimal winning coalitions, which are predicted by Minimum Resource theory, are formed more often within centre left coalitions. This is not the case for centre right coalitions. It is discussed that the link between the parity norm and minimal winning coalitions, which is assumed by Minimum Resource theory, possibly does not hold in this experiment. The parity norm being used by right together with centres strong position leads to the frequent occurrence of minimal winning centre left coalitions. "
174	8	3	1978	" This experiment studied the effect of an individual §s response style on different issues over a long period of time. A hypothetical situation depicted the repeated responses given by one person on a target issue and on four other issues for one year. The 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design varied consistency of the stimulus person §s position on the target issue during the year (consistent or variable); his consistency on other issues during the year (consistent or variable); and social context (alone or dissenting group). Subjects were 155 college students. Results showed an interaction between consistency on the target issue and consistency on other issues for the three dependent measures (p < .001). That is, significantly greater persuasiveness, confidence, and dis positional causality were attributed to stimulus persons whose opinions were either completely consistent or completely variable on all issues during the year. Results suggest that the consistency of response style across issues and not the constant advocacy of a specific position–is the crucial factor in the effectiveness of a long term minority influence. "
175	8	3	1978	 Twelve hundred Maori and Pakeha (White, European) children in New Zealand ranging from five to twelve years of age, have been tested for intergroup preferences in a series of studies. These investigations spanned the years 1961–1970, and were conducted in four different regions, Previous analysis of these results had concentrated on the ontogeny of ethnic awareness and attitude development, and has not succeeded in relating distinct regional differences to population characteristics such as density or contact rate. The present study re examines available data, following Tajfe §s recent theoretical developments relating social identity to the process of social change, Two judges independently rated the four New Zealand regions in question in terms of perceived status relationships between Maori and Pakeha, ranging from relatively static to relatively fluid. Both resorted to two major variables in the judging: rural versus urban, and year of study. Inter judge agreement for ratings was total across the four regions. The resulting dimension was conceived as one which could reflect a restructuring of intergroup choices as a consequence of social change. It was found that Maori children have shown a clear shift away from out group preference as a function of urbanism and of time. While the rural context may have offered a form of security via a more classical Maori identity, the collapse of this system in an urban context reveals Maori/Pakeha social inequity for what it is, particularly in the eyes of older children. This trend has been accelerated in the seventies by a knowledge of minority group assertions elsewhere, particularly in the United States. There is some evidence of a shift in Pakeha behaviour too. Blatant in group preference has diminished as a facet of social change, though Pakehas could retrench if a militant pattern appeared in Maori behaviour. 
176	8	3	1978	" Studied the reaction to facial deformities and the evaluation of physical and social handicap in connection with rehabilitation. Threshold and latency time of 40 male and 40 female normal subjects, reaction to male and female deformed and non deformed faces (Jive of each) was measured by tachistoscopic procedure. In test 1 subjects responded man/woman, in test 11 deject/ normal. In test 111 seven additional and the pictures of the ten deformities of rests I, II were scored on degree of handicap. Results by use of a quasi four way analysis of variance (tests 1, 11) and factor analysis (III) show significant differences in reaction to deformity versus nondeformity (p < .01). Sex takes longer to report with deformed females (p < .05), deformity with females (p < .01); deformitylnormality is reported differently with own versus other sex (p < .05). Increasing degree of deformity does not correspond to increase in reaction time; slight deficiencies cause reactions indicating confusion. Several levels of discrimination   autonomic and social psychological   and the possible use of evaluation scales to reveal psychological problems of facial deformities are discussed. "
177	8	3	1978	" This study is concerned with attitude polarization as a function of two properties of a persuasive message: (a) its validity or acceptability and (b) its novelty. The latter is defined as the extent to which the message contains new arguments unlikely to have been already considered by the individual. Acceptability is assumed to be a necessary condition for inducing attitude change; the impact of novelty, therefore, was expected to be most pronounced for arguments of high validity. This hypothesis was tested in two related studies using arguments produced in response to choice dilemma items, widely used in research on polarization. First, it was shown that arguments rated as both valid and novel were perceived as more persuasive than arguments rated either as highly valid but obvious (non novel) or as low in validity (non valid) but novel. Second, when subjects read samples of valid arguments, their attitudes polarized in the direction advocated by the novel arguments rather than by the non novel ones. These findings are considered relevant to the polarization of attitudes in groups. Other research demonstrates that this phenomenon is the result of persuasive arguments raised during group discussion, The present study suggests why such arguments may be persuasive. "
178	8	3	1978	 This research was devoted to the study of minority influence in a context of originality of judgments. It was stimulated by a consideration of the role played by the normative context in influence processes. In most research, this implicitly underlies the phenomena studied. Thus, studies of social control have naturally appealed to the objectivity context. Innovation, in the social milieu in which it is involved, frequently implies an originality context. We hoped to study experimentally its effects on the process of social change. To this end, five experimental conditions were created, in which the originality norm was introduced in different ways – by experimental instructions, by influencing the perception of his own creativity by each individual and by using the time factor to encourage the fuller acceptance of this norm. In each condition, a consistent minority defended a deviant response in a colour perception task (the experimental paradigm used in our previous research using an objectivity context). The originality context affected the development of minority influence. Judgment based on perceptual evidence was abandoned to a significant degree, and new influence behaviours appeared. Individuals followed the minority or avoided the conflict by apparently original compromise responses. They were able to adopt several modes of response in the destructured way during the experiment, as they could oppose the minority by adopting a counter norm. Although these reactions depended on the way in which the originality norm was introduced, theprimary role in this process was nevertheless played by the minority, which provided the pole of attraction and persuasion in the group. 
179	8	3	1978	 Physical aggression of members of a powerful majority ethnic group against an opponent either from a powerless and discriminated against minority or from their own group was tested as a function of aggression directionality and aggressor §s attitudes. It was hypothesized that under bidirectional aggression where the opponent could aggress as well, members of the powerful majority group would adjust their aggressive responses to that of their opponent §s regardless of his ethnic origin and regardless of aggressor §s attitudes. However. under unidirectional aggression where the opponent was powerless, it was expected that those subjects who held unfavourable attitudes toward members of the minority group would be more aggressive against an opponent of that group than against an opponent of his own ethnic group. Subjects who had neutral attitudes would be equally aggressive toward all opponents. Ninety six 11th grade vocational high school male students of Western origin, were given the opportunity to administer electric shocks to an opponent who was either of Western or Oriental origin in a competitive situation, Subjects were selected according to their attitudes toward Oriental Jews. Half expressed negative attitudes, the other half neutral attitudes. Half of the subjects expected their opponent to reciprocate shocks, the others did not. Contrary to expectations it was found that the attitudes of subjects of Western origin towards Orientals did not effect their aggressive behaviour. When aggression could not be reciprocated, all subjects were more aggressive toward an opponent of Oriental than of Western origin. The findings showed that when aggression was bidirectional, all subjects adjusted their aggressive behaviour, to their opponents §s . However, they were less aggressive towards an opponent of Oriental than of Western origin. 
180	8	4	1978	 Reviews, compares and evaluates a self justijication and a decision theoretical conceptualization of equity. It is argued that the latter approach reveals an important and often neglected distinction between equity as a goal of social interaction and equity as an interpersonal strategy employed in rhe pursuit of other valued goals. Associated problems of definition and measurement are discussed. After a review of relevant research it is concluded that equity serves predominantly as an accommodative interpersonal strategy, and that future research should focus on analysing the various functional bases of equity, their relationships, and their effects on behaviour. 
181	8	4	1978	 Studied performance on a multiple solution anagrams task by two member nominal, pseudo, quasi, and real groups in relation to task conditions (set versus nonset) and school grades (10th, 11th, and 12th). Nominal groups were made up of individuals working alone. Pseudo groups were made up of members sitting together but working independently for individual scores. Quasi groups were made up of members who were working together for a common or shared goal but were not allowed to communicate with each other. Real groups were the usual teams of freely interacting and mutually consulting members. Five words were presented to the subjects in the set condition (unlike in the nonset condition) in order to channelize their problem solving activity in particular directions. The subjects were 192 male American high school students. The most important finding was that both nominal and pseudo groups produced more errors than real groups. Also the set condition generated more errors than the nonset condition. These and other findings were discussed and interpreted in the context of previous research. 
182	8	4	1978	" This study investigated the role of perception in the victim §s behaviour following a verbal attack. It was expected that the victim §s counterattack and evaluation of attacker would be influenced by: (a) the victim §s level of aggressiveness; (b) the attacker §s perceived level of aggressiveness; (c) the attacker §s status (prestige in the classroom); and (d) retaliation threat for counterattack. High and low aggressive subjects (victim's) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions differing in the attacker §s attributed level of aggression and status. Half of the subjects in each condition received a retaliation threat treatment. The victims were interacting with an assumed partner (attacker) in a guessing game during which they were insulted. After each insult the victim could counterattack by withholding a monetary reward from the attacker. At the end, the victim rated his attacker on aggressiveness, potency and social desirability. The results indicated that there were significant main effects of the victims level of aggressiveness, the attacker §s status and retaliation threat. There was also a significant interaction between victim §s and attacker §s aggressiveness, for the two dependent variables. In addition, victim §s behaviour was influenced by the interaction between attacker §s status and his aggressiveness. "
183	8	4	1978	 Investigated the process of personality inference from voice quality using 24 male American stimulus persons who served as subjects in simulated jury discussions. Applying a Brunswikian lens model of the inference process, criteria, distal cues, proximal cues and attributions were measured by independent groups of judges: personality criteria by three peers of each stimulus person and, on the basis of content masked voice samples, distal voice quality indicator cues by six phoneticians, proximal voice percept by ten naive judges, personality attributions by nine naive judges. Only extroversion attributions correlate significantly with the criterion, replicating earlier findings. For the inference of extroversion, contrary to other traits which apparently cannot be inferred accurately from voice quality, the following conditions are met: (a) the criterion is associated with ecologically valid voice energy cues (vocal effort and dynamic range), (b) these indicator cues are adequately represented as proximal voice percepts (particularly loudness and sharpness), and(c) percept utilization in the judges §s  inferential strategy corresponds to the association between criterion and distal indicator cues. Path analytic procedures are used to test empirically the adequacy of the inference model to (a) account for the variance in the attributions, and (b) explain significant correlations between criteria and attributions in terms of mediating variables. 
184	8	4	1978	 The influences of two determinants of aggression were investigated by means of a two by two factorial design. Aggression was operationally defined in terms of the amount and intensity of obnoxious sounds which the subject delivered to the confederate while the latter was trying to perform a task involving estimation of distances. In order to manipulate the first independent variable one half of the group of subjects were led to believe that the victim was someone who had many attitudes similar to their own. The other subjects thought they had to cope with a partner whose attitudes were dissimilar. The second independent variable was manipulated by suggesting to one half of the group of subjects that they would be able to earn increasing sums of money (up to a fixed maximum) depending on the loudness of sounds they were prepared to deliver to their partner. In the non reward condition money was not mentioned. The subjects were young policemen. The data showed a strong effect of the similarity variable, with significantly more aggression being shown to a dissimilar partner. However, external reward did not lead to a clear increase of aggression. In the discussion attention is given to the relevance of these data to the problem of control of violence in our society. 
185	8	4	1978	 Psychological inquiry into social phenomena has become virtually indistinguishable from controlled experimentation. Although the assets and liabilities of psychological experiments have been subject to periodic debate, a continued increase in the reliance placed experiments is evidenced. The present paper re examines the adequacy of experimentation in light of major features of social interaction. Significant failures of the experiment emerge when the following characteristics of social events are considered: their imbeddedness in broader cultural patterns, their position within extended sequences, their open competition within real life settings, their reliance on psychological confluences, and their complex determination. The additional consideration of social phenomena within historical context indicates that all reasonable hypotheses are valid and that critical testing between hypotheses about social behaviour is fruitless. Criteria for the productive usage of experiments are detailed. 
186	9	1	1979	 The hypothesis that distraction during a persuasive communication enhances the resulting attitude change by disrupting counterarguing was critically examined. Although previous research using Brock §s postcommunication counterarguing index has shown that distraction inhibits counterarguing, the relationship was re evaluated in the present experiments with a more direct measure of counterarguing. In these experiments, the direct measure of counterarguing was shown to increase with distraction, contradicting hypotheses that attribute the distraction effect to counterarguing disruption. Furthermore, with a wide range of distraction, Brock §s measure was nonmonotonically related to distraction. Since observed attitude change is also predicted to be nonmonotonically related to distraction, Brock §s index was interpreted us a correlate rather than a mediator of measured attitude change. The results suggested that distraction actually inhibits the internalization of the message and that the apparently enhancing effects of distraction are a result of the demand characteristics and/or evaluation apprehension created by the experimental task of paying attention to both a message and a distractor. The implications of the results for the theoretical role of counterarguing in mediating the internalization of persuasive communications were discussed. 
187	9	1	1979	 All published experiments using false autonomic feedback are reviewed and four sets of necessary conditions mediating its effects are proposed. These conditions convern (a) search for an explanation of the feedback, (b) availability of potentially explanatory context features, (c) causal attribution of the feedback, and (d) salience of the perceived causes. Conflicting results, including outcomes of cognitive desensitization, are explicable by reference to these conditions. Evidence supports the attributional theory of emotional behaviour and the assumed equivalence of actual and fictitious arousal although the boundary conditions of the latter postulate need still be explored. 
188	9	1	1979	 In an experiment to study the effects on attitudes of requiring subjects to use evaluatively biased language, 84 schoolchildren aged 13–14 years completed a questionnaire to measure their attitudes on the issue of adult authority over teenagers, before and after writing an essay on this issue in which they were either required to incorporate words from a list all of which implied a positive evaluation of a pro authority position or a negative evaluation of an anti authority position (pro bias condition), or required to incorporate words where the implied evaluations were reversed (anti bias condition), or were given no words to incorporate (control condition). Relative to controls, pro bias subjects showed as a shift towards a more pro position and anti bias subjects became more anti irrespective of their initial attitudes (pro bias versus anti bias comparison, p<.01). However, when tested 6 days later most of this effect had disappeared, particularly in the case of subjects whose initial attitudes were least pro. At this final session, subjects also rated attitude statements on the issue in terms of scales constructed from the pro bias and anti bias word lists. In accordance with previous research, the more pro subjects §s  attitudes, the more they showed greater polarization of judgement on the pro bias than the anti bias scales (p<.000l). It is concluded that a person §s attitude may be related to the kind of evaluative language he will apply to an issue, and that when a person is induced to use language implying a particular evaluation of an issue, he may change his attitude, at least in the short term, so as to be more congruent with the language he has used. 
189	9	1	1979	" Studied experimentally the influence of norms and sex of subjects on aggressive behaviour in same sex dyads. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) subjects will react aggressively to an unpleasant state of affairs, if they interpret it as being the result of violation of a norm on the part of another; (2) female subjects will display more aggression than male subjects under conditions of repeated provocation while male subjects will be more aggressive under conditions of infrequent or no provocation. In a 2 × 2 × 2 complete factorial design (norm violation versus norm enforcement; male versus female; low versus high reward for performance) 20 same sex pairs of students performed alternatively a sensory motor task (victim) and a shock delivery task (aggressor). As predicted, subjects who consider other §s behaviour to be a norm violation aggress more often (p <.0001). A significant interaction between sex of subject and norm violation is found in support for the second hypothesis (p <.05). It is concluded that positions grounded on the S R paradigm are misleading for the understanding of sex differences in aggression. "
190	9	1	1979	 Two studies are reported which demonstrate the influence of perceptual or perspective variables in mediating attribution processes. In both studies subjects first observed a re enactment of Milgram §s (1963) experiment of obedience in which a teacher obeys an experimenter §s request to deliver dangerously high levels of shock. They were then asked to make judgements concerning the magnitude of situational forces acting upon the teacher and also to make inferences about his personality dispositions. Study I showed that passage of time can lead observers to assume more situational control when they were required to think and write about the witnessed re enactment of the Milgram situation compared with observers who had no time to contemplate or who were prevented from doing so. Study II did not support the notion that focus of attribution is a simple function of what one pays attention to, or a function of the differing perspectives which actors and observers employ. Both of these results seriously challenge Jones and Nisbett §s (1972) contention that the differences in attribution tendencies between actors and observers arise from the difference in perspective, Moreover, considerable evidence suggests that changes in situational and dispositional attributions may not follow a simple zero sum model, and that subjects seem to be unwilling to treat the two sources of control as if they were inversely correlated. 
191	9	1	1979	 The present research involves both the relationship between norms and polarization hence the utilization of the same experimental paradigm and the investigation of intergroup relations. The homogeneity heterogeneity variable is determined by the composition of the discussion groups: all male, all female, and mixed groups. Confederates of both sexes, defending different normative positions were introduced in the groups. The polarization effect, confirmed in the homogeneous groups, does not appear following the discussion in the heterogeneous groups, but arises as soon as the subjects are confronted with one another. This variation is interpreted as a process of resolution of differences within the subjects §s own group as well as in relation to the norms. The norms also determine the variations of influence of the confederates according to their sex and role. In short, in the discussion on male female relations, more radicalism is expected of the women, and more traditionalism of the men. 
192	9	2	1979	" Studied the development of the understanding of elementary economic systems in 120 working class children of both sexes aged between 6 and 12. Methods employed included a procedure whereby children had to detect absurdities, a task in which the children played the role of shopkeeper, and semi structured interviews. It was shown that the youngest children already had the basic idea of the wage system, i.e. selling one §s labour, but were confused about the monetary transactions in a shop and failed to appreciate that a shopkeeper has himself to pay for goods. When this began to be understood children thought that goods were bought and sold at the same price; hence they conceived of two parallel but unconnected systems, which led them to believe that the payment for shop assistants came from some external source. Grasp of the way the two systems intermesh was not reached until about 11, unless direct questioning triggered off earlier insight. Findings are discussed in the light of the modified Piagetian approach put forward by Furth et al. (1976). "
193	9	2	1979	" This review considers experiments which have tested triadic balance in POX and POQ structures. It is pointed out that balance is only one bias which affects subjects §s  responses to these structures. Of the others the most important are agreement and P/O positivity; these three biases act independently of each other and therefore should be considered as separate influences on subjects §s  responses. In addition, because they act independently, Newcomb §s (1968) theory of interpersonal balance cannot be an adequate explanation of their operation. In an attempt to discover the different influences on balance, agreement, and positivity biases, experiments concerned with balance theory are reviewed in three sections: (1) a classification based on experimental task, (2) a classification based on characteristics of the triad, and (3) personality variables. It is concluded that there are different influences on the different biases, and that any attempt to assess their relative strength must consider the influences upon them. Finally, it is suggested that the view of biases as methods of encoding information about social structures should consider that such methods can be varied by subjects §s  knowledge or assumptions about that social structure. "
194	9	2	1979	" Research on intergroup relations by Tafel and others (e.g. Tafel et al., 1971; Billig and Taifel, 1973) has indicated that there are two opposing norms governing intergroup behaviour  norm for discrimination and a norm for fairness. The behaviour that results from social categorization represents a compromise between these opposing norms. The norm for discrimination is explained in terms of social comparison processes and the need to achieve a positive ingroup identity (Turner, 1975). Along similar lines, another study suggests that discrimination is strongest on the part of the self perceived underdog in order to assert its independent and individual identity (Branthwaite and Jones, 1975). The origin of the norm for fairness has received less attention but may be attributed to general moral judgements. Since there are opposing norms for discrimination and fairness and the observed behaviour is a resultant of the two, an explanation of intergroup behaviour cannot focus on fairness or discrimination alone, but it must take into account the balance between these forces. The relative strength of the two norms is a question of some importance, together with the factors which influence the relative strengths. This paper examines this issue and presents evidence from two studies that the status of the groups is an influence on the strength of the norm for discrimination. Both studies employed the Taifel matrix method: one in an experimental situation where the status of the groups was manipulated by the research procedures; the other in a more natural setting. "
195	9	2	1979	 Subjects played a game and were told they had the high score, low score, or were not informed which score was their own. They were previously led to like or dislike the other. Relative performance was generally considered in allocating rewards, indicating the use of an equity principle. Performance was not used as a criteria for allocation, however, by subjects who were uncertain of their score in positive social relationships and poor performers in negative social relationships. When given a chance to increase the total group reward by deviating from the distribution ratio believed most equitable, most subjects did so. This finding indicated that a utilitarian type of principle was clearly used in conjunction with the equity principle. Few subjects, however, followed the Rawlsian principle that inequality is only tolerable when an unequal allocation gives more to each person than an equal allocation. 
196	9	2	1979	 Retaliatory aggression in individuals and groups was compared. Physically and verbally attacked males in group or individual conditions were given the opportunity to retaliate against their tormentor by administering him electric shocks in the context of a bogus learning experiment. Groups retaliated much more severely than did individuals. Analysis of the group decision making dynamics suggested the process of social modelling as a mediator of group aggression. Additional data suggested the mediating influence of diffusion of responsibility as well. 
197	9	2	1979	" Studied the effects of reward magnitude and comparability of the outgroup on minimal intergroup discrimination where self interest was related to ingroup profit. Favouritism towards own group is hypothesized to arise from intergroup comparisons to enhance self esteem as well as instrumental rivalry for group and self interest. Sixty two fourteen to fifteen years §s  old school boys and girls were randomly assigned to a high or low reward condition in which they distributed monetary rewards, via choice matrices, to the ingroup and a relevant comparison outgroup, and the ingroup and an irrelevant comparison outgroup. Monetary self interest was explicitly and directly linked to ingroup §s absolute profit. Ss sacrificed group and personal gain to achieve intergroup differences in monetary outcomes favouring the ingroup; and were less fair and more discriminatory towards the relevant than irrelevant outgroup. especially with High Rewards. "
198	9	2	1979	" Studied the value systems of political extremists and potential extremists, comparing them with the value systems of centrist activists and supporters. Samples of political activists from the Labour, Conservative, Communist and National Front parties were obtained, as well as samples of non active supporters. The non active supporters were defined as Potential Extremists, if they supported a centrist party as first choice, but either Communist or National Front as second choice. All subjects completed the Rokeach Value Survey. Discriminant analysis showed that the four groups of activists could be clearly distinguished on the bask of their values. However the values of the Potential Extremists did not especially resemble the values of actual National Front or Communist activists. There were value differences between the Potential Extremists and the centrist supporters; nevertheless these two groups tended to be distinguished by very different values from those which distinguished between the activists. The appeal of value symbols for different types of political involvement was discussed. "
199	9	3	1979	 Studied how value connotations of the response language affect the relationship between judges §s  attitudes and polarization of judgment. Subjects (military conscripts, n  105) rated 28 statements concerning drug use on 2 types of rating scales. Results indicate that subjects show more polarization on rating scales where their own evaluation of the statement is congruent with the value connotations of the scale labels. In a second experiment 82 subjects (male and female university students) were asked to rank adjectives in order of their suitability to characterize attitude statements. Results imply that value connotations also mediate the relationship between judges §s  attitude and preference for verbal labels in attributing adjectives to attitude statements. Subsequent analysis suggests that this preference for adjectives that are evaluatively congruent with own attitude, persists even when the adjectives are less correct from a descriptive point of view. 
200	9	3	1979	 In a study of factors influencing recognition memory for the sources of attitude statements, a final sample of 107 subjects, aged 15–16, first rated their agreement with 24 statements concerning drug use, 12 of which were attributed to one, and 12 to another, fictitiously named newspaper. Later, the statements were re shown to subjects with half the names altered, and subjects had to indicate which names were correct (i.e., unaltered). Discrimination sensitivity was very significantly higher in a condition where the initial relationship between the sources and the statements was systematic, so that the 12 most pro drug statements were attributed to one newspaper and the 12 most anti drug statements to the other, than in two conditions where the initial relationship was random, in which discrimination was at chance level. In the first of these conditions, subjects were also more likely to claim that the attributed source was correct if they had previously agreed with the statement. overall, subjects were more accurate in discriminating correct and incorrect sources for statements to which they had previously given a more moderate, or a more negative response on the agreement scale. 
201	9	3	1979	 In Fiedler §s contingency theory, situation favourableness for leader depends upon three situational variables   Group Atmosphere, Task Structure and Position Power. Each variable is dichotomized as high or low to define a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial cube with eight octants, and correlations between leadership style and effectiveness are plotted against the octants. To place these octants along a one dimensional scale of favourableness, Fiedler assumes that Group Atmosphere is most important and Position Power is least important, and that the situational variables combine according to an adding rule. In four judgmental experiments conducted during different periods of national emergency in India, favourableness of leadership situations was studied with the methods of Anderson §s information integration theory. Results indicated (a) that relative importance of situational variables changed across situations, (b) that situational variables were averaged in judgment of situation favourableness, and (c) that spacing of octants on the horizontal axis according to their functional measurement values generated a considerably better bow shaped curve for correlation between leadership style and effectiveness than was obtained with Fiedler §s octant scale. Judgmental experiments seemed to have great potential for providing a more analytic approach to further work on contingency theory and leadership behaviour. 
202	9	3	1979	 Studied the socio political attitudes and political party preferences of 532 Swedish high school students as a function of seven background variables: (I) the mother §s political party preference, (2) the father §s political party preference, (3) the mother §s education, (4) the father §s education, (5) the mother §s income, (6) the father §s income and (7) social class identification. Multiple classification analysis and multivariate nominal analysis were used to uncover the most important possible determinants of political socialization of the youth in both bivariate and multivariate aspects. The results showed that, of the seven predictor or background variables studied, only three had any substantial relationship with socio political attitudes and political party preferences of the youth: (a) the mother §s political party preference, (b) class identification and (c) the father §s political party preference in that general order of importance. Furthermore, the superiority of the mother §s political party preference over the father §s political party preference was especially marked for girls. Among other things, the results also disclosed that left wing youth tended to be more loyal to parental political beliefs than moderate and right wing youth. Several alternative explanations were proposed for these findings. 
203	9	3	1979	 Studied the effects of status and treatment differentials on in group bias in an intergroup comparison experiment. The status differential conditions were formed by alleged differences in performance on a prior task between in and out group. The treatment differential conditions were formed by experimenter §s manipulation of a points differential between the in and out groups. One hundred and fourteen undergraduates were each assigned to one of nine conditions in a 3 × 3 design of high equal low status and favour no favour disfavour. Results indicate a significant status effect (p < 0.01), with in group bias increasing with status, and a significant favour effect (p < 0.01), with in group bias decreasing with favour. There is no significant interaction (F < 1). Particular conjunctions of status and treatment represented three conditions oft equity, inequitable advantage, inequitable disadvantage. Contrary to predictions from equity theory, but in accord with predictions from social comparison theory, results indicate in group bias in all three conditions. 
204	9	3	1979	 Subjects in this study were asked to infer an attribute of a target person on the basis of his report about himself: Two informational determinants of such inferences were varied: (a) reliability of the report, i.e. the belief that the target person would correctly report events that had actually occurred and (b) diagnosticity of the actual events, i.e. the belief that the actual events are indicative of the attribute. Normative considerations require that the effect of diagnosticity be dependent on reliability so that as reliability increases, judgment should become less regressive, i.e. vary more as a function of events §s  diagnosticity. The results indicate that subjects employed a simple but inappropriate averaging rule in combining reliability and diagnosticity information. This rule, like many other simplifying judgmental heuristics, resulted in inferences that were more extreme than warranted by normative models. The inappropriate combination of reliability and diagnosticity information may thus contribute to observers §s  tendency to over attribute personal characteristics to others. 
205	9	3	1979	 This article discusses the implications for social psychology of recent developments in the neighbouring fields of cognitive and ecological psychology. The authors stress the importance of studying the cognitive processes directly instead of inferring them as hypothetical constructs from aggregate responses. This paradigmatic shift implies a change in the conduct of research from the traditional nomothetic perspective to a neo idiographic one. A method of representational contextualization is offred to generate the affective and cognitive deep structure from surface, first order data. This structure identified as the internal environment, reflects simultaneously the construction of reality by a situated individual and the recoding rules operating in such a construction. 
206	9	4	1979	 Eight quartets of subjects each played eight different versions of a 4 person apex game twice, in a computer controlled coalition formation experiment. The eight games were cast into a 2 × 2 factorial mold in which (i) the central apex player was either weak or strong in terms of the outcomes available to Apex coalitions, and (ii) the outcomes to players not in coalitions varied, such that the outside opportunities of the Base players were not necessarily equal. The data were  analysed from the point of view of coalition frequencies, payoff allocations, and a bargaining process examination of the computer recorded protocols. The H?1(i) competitive bargaining set is shown to be a first order predictor of payoff allocations, but differences not accountable by that model are also manifest. The manipulation of the strength of the Apex player affected coalition frequencies such that strong Apex players were in more coalitions than weak Apex players. Somewhat contrary to expectation, no effect for differential outside opportunities of Base players were shown. The analysis of the bargaining protocols revealed structural and psychological factors not considered in present mathematical models that must be incorporated into any model aspiring to provide a coherent description of coalition formation processes. 
207	9	4	1979	 The data of two experiments of dyadic group discussion have been reanalysed. An extended proportional change model was designed to explain the actual process of attitude change. The model is defined by two parameters. The first represents the impact of single pro arguments and single con arguments on the attitude or decision preference. The second describes the resistance to further change that increases with the distance from the initial position. It was hypothesized that the first parameter should be higher and the second lower, with a similar partner than with a dissimilar one. The prediction was confirmed for the first parameter only. A comparison of the extended proportional change model to related models concludes the report. 
208	9	4	1979	 Behavioural style and group cohesiveness were tested as sources of minority influence under conditions in which rejection of the minority from the group was possible and under conditions in which it was not. Female subjects (N  120) were led to believe that they were interacting as a group and that they held a majority position on a relevant issue. The influence agent, ostensibly one of the group members, advocated a minority position throughout their interaction. Three variables were manipulated: group cohesiveness (high or low), behavioural style of the deviate (high or low consistency) and opportunity for rejection of the deviate from the group (possible or not possible). It was predicted that the deviate would be more influential under high cohesive than under low cohesive conditions and that she would be most influential when she was highly consistent and there was no opportunity to reject her. Although both hypotheses were confirmed, unexpected minority influence effects were also found. 
209	9	4	1979	 Ethogeny, supposedly patterned on ethology, differs as an approach to human social behaviour in obvious respects. Ethogenists follow an emic research strategy, whereas human ethologists have strongly favoured etic research options. However, recent trends to a broader, evolutionary approach in human ethology suggest that an avoidance or rejection of verbal reports and ethogenic methods merits reconsideration, The distinctions involved in the eticlemic contrast are examined, and compared to Richer §s distinction between D  and N type agreements. It is argued that none of the distinctions are dichotomous. The useful aspects of the distinctions refer to the generality of findings, and the validity of evidence. Bearing these in mind, ethogenic methods have a place in a broader human ethology. So far as validity is concerned, the value of a comparison of information from different sources, such as verbal and non verbal data, is stressed. So far as generality is concerned, ethogenists may consider this to be very limited because of idiosyncratic cultural factors in the causation of human social action. A reconsideration of the biology/culture dimension in terms of function rather than causation may lead to more optimism in this respect, and be more productive scientifically. 
210	10	1	1980	" Although the concept of relevance (or weight) of inputs plays a central role in equity theory, it has not been clearly defined. The present investigation attempts to answer the question of when, and which, inputs are taken into account in allocation decisions. Subjects were given a stimulus story in which two fictitious persons had, through joint work, produced a monetary gain or loss; further, information was provided on the relative effort (amount of time worked intensively) and /or ability (as determined by a test) that each stimulus person had contributed. Subjects were asked how they would allocate the gain or loss. Empirical evidence for the following three codeterminants of allocation decisions was obtained: (1) the type of input personal and behavioural characteristics are [relevant] for allocation if they are perceived as (a) causally important for outcome production, (b) variable, and (c) under the person §s volitional control; (2) the type of outcome to be allocated more equal allocations are observed when loss as opposed to gain must be allocated; and (3) the constellation of individual inputs on given dimensions information is given on several input dimensions, a dimension which should be [irrelevant] according to criteria (a), (b), and (c) does codetermine allocations when recipients have contributed equally with respect to this dimension. The latter finding is discussed from the perspective of [cognitive algebra]. "
211	10	1	1980	 The [ethogenic] analysis of human social behaviour proposed by Harré and Secord is based on the idea of man as a freely choosing purposeful agent, contrasted with the mechanistic, or deterministic, conception of man which is the basis of most traditional research and theory in social psychology. The idea that a person §s social behaviour is governed by social rules is central in the ethogenic scheme. But the same idea is also implicit in much traditional research and theory. A consideration of the concept of social rule in the study of social behaviour helps to clarify the relation in which ethogenics stands to traditional social psychology and highlights a fundamental difference between them in their respective fields of enquiry. Harré and Secord §s claim that the ethogenic paradigm should replace traditional models is misplaced because the two approaches are demonstrably compatible. Indeed, the necessity of a causal mechanistic account can actually be derived from certain assumptions of the ethogenic paradigm itself. It is shown that important headway may be made in social psychology, particularly in relation to the study of physical and mental illness, by acknowledging the compatibility of the two approaches. 
212	10	1	1980	 Studied the impact of individualization and psychologization of minorities upon their influence. In Experiment I, 72 Swiss male and female 15 year old students read a text on pollution prepared in a 2 × 2 ANOVA design (one/ two sources, rigid/flexible style) and reported their impression of the content. As below, attitude was measured before and after reading. In Experiment II, 24 second year Swiss psychology students judged the presumed author of an anti militaristic tract by adjectives with either merely political or political and psychological connotations. Results indicate that the strong difference between flexible and rigid style appears with one source only, but that independent of the number of sources, a rigid style obtains a less positive image. Change of attitude in moderate subjects judging with political adjectives only vanished in those using psychological adjectives in addition. As a rigid minority only tacks influence when individualized and as psychologization constitutes an ideological functioning of resistance to social change, psychological research, by its current strategies, might be participating in such resistance. 
213	10	1	1980	 Simple models of information integration focus essentially on the combination of the components of information. This research investigated whether cognitive variables in the constructs of intelligence and cognitive complexity, as well as concentration, could predict the conditions of simple models of judgement. As additional predictors, the two qualitative variables [type of information] and [experience of the judgement task] were introduced. Subjects judged three types of stimuli using the pair comparison method. The conditions of the judgement models were analysed in the framework of the conjoint measurement approach. Five different regression functions provided mediocre approximations to the 10 conditions of the models, when the 9 cognitive variables were considered. The small differences did not favour one of the five functions. The introduction of the qualitative predictor [type of information] improved the estimations more clearly than the experience of the judgement task, the effect of which was small. 
214	10	1	1980	 This paper outlines and initially tests a conceptual model of social norms, within the context of a general research framework for examining how deviant behaviour is identified and responded to. Norms are examined vis a vis (a) the structure of beliefs and expectancies toward one §s own and [deviant] individual §s behaviour, and (b) normative focus, representing the social context of behaviour and the nature of the group the norm is shared within. The results showed both of these constituents to be salient to the application of the model to the identification of alcohol abuse, particularly in terms of (i) the relationship between normative structure and the recognition of and evaluation of deviant drinking, (ii) a strong influence of social context on norms and (iii) the finding of powerful differences in normative structure in socio economically different communities. This latter effect is discussed in terms of the [social ecology] of norms. It is hoped that this model will have heuristic value in expediting theory based studies of both normative regulation, and perceptions of abnormal behaviour. 
215	10	2	1980	 Reactions to an equal or equitable allocator working with a partner in a team situation were investigated using a 5 factor design with Sex of Subject, Sex of Allocator, Nature of Expectation (high or low expectation of success based upon either consensus or consistency information), Input of Allocator (high or low performance), and Type of Distribution (equal or equitable) as the 5 factors. Judgments concerning the fairness of the allocation, impressions of the allocator §s personality, liking for the allocator, and the importance of possible causes of the allocator §s performance were obtained from 339 male and female subjects for each hypothetical situation involving one of the combinations of the 5 factors. Rankings of the relative importance of the Rokeach terminal and instrumental values were also available for most of these subjects. Results were consistent with hypotheses and indicated that subjects use a range of cues and engage in a complex attributional process in making judgments about an allocator. In addition to replicating and extending past findings on the effects of allocator input, the results also indicated that confirmation and disconfirmation of expectancies affected subjects §s  judgments. Protestant ethic values, competence values, and the value assigned to wisdom also influenced reactions to the allocator, as did an Australian concern with [mateship]. Results were discussed in relation to the view that social justice may take different forms depending upon both situational context and task demands. The importance of further research into the effects of personal and cultural values on allocator decisions and reactions to them was emphasized. 
216	10	2	1980	 Branthwaite, Doyle and Lightbown (1979) argue that minimal intergroup behaviour represents a compromise or balance between fairness and discrimination, that fairness and discrimination are opposed, generic norms of intergroup relations and that one factor affecting their relative weight is status position since, apparently, different status groups attempt to equalize their positions by varying the degree to which they are fair or discriminatory. This reply reviews evidence to show that minimal groups are never fair but always discriminatory to varying degrees and that a generic norm of intergroup fairness is unnecessary to explain why that discrimination rarely approaches maximum. It also argues that the concept of opposed, generic norms has neither empirical nor theoretical value. Finally, it cites findings that the basic tendency in intergroup behaviour is not to equalize but to accentuate evaluative differences between groups (whether of similar or different status) in favour of the ingroup. 
217	10	2	1980	 Seventy eight dyads of male university students participated in a bargaining experiment. The bargaining situation was asymmetrical insofar as the two players had different payoff possibilities. Experimental instructions did not provide information about the opponent §s payoff possibilities but players could ask each other for such information (except in the control condition). It was found that the players in the advantaged position (with better payoff possibilities) bluffed more frequently and communicated less with the opponent than their disadvantaged opponents. But there were no differences in the frequency of refusing to give requested information, nor in the frequency of requesting information. Verbal communication opportunities reduced the frequency of bluffing (false information) but did not by themselves lead to smaller payoff differences between the two players. Payoff differences were smallest when information exchange was obligatory and truthful and they were greatest when neither information exchange nor communication was possible. 
218	10	2	1980	 Investigated in a long term study the effects of daily newspapers. A field experiment was carried out in which newspapers with different political standpoints were allocated to the 760 subjects (male students). The effect criteria measured were both specific and general political attitudes, images of politicians, and judgmental tendencies. The analysis of media effect extended to both differential and general effects. Clear attitude changes consistent with the opinions presented in the newspapers could be established in attitude spheres where the arguments presented were of a more controversial nature. Analogous effects could only partially be observed as regards the image of well known politicians. If features of the subjects §s  judgmental process are taken as effect criteria (use of dimensions), no newspaper related effects can be observed. In spite of considerable devaluation of one newspaper by the subjects, there were no boomerang effects. This ties in with the fact that practically no differential attitude changes (e.g. relating to dogmatism or political interest) could be established. Taking into account the historical background to our study, we conclude that the effect of the daily newspapers examined here was more or less confined to attitudes towards more salient issues. Finally, we have outlined general hypotheses which can be the starting point for the analysis of long term cumulative media effects. 
219	10	3	1980	 The nature of explanation in experimental social psychology is the subject of much controversy. To advance the debate, the present article provides a grid of analysis allowing a more [thorough study of experimental social psychologists] work. Four levels of explanation are distinguished as works can be seen as studying intra individual processes (level 1), interindividual but intra situational dynamics (level 2), effects of social position in a situational interaction (level 3) and intervention of general beliefs (level 4). An important characteristic of experimental work is the possibility of combining different levels of analysis in the same study, and of surpassing, in this way, the old dichotomy between [psychologizing] and [sociologizing] explanations. Experiments published in the first seven volumes of the European Journal of Social Psychology were explored within this framework. 
220	10	3	1980	 Compared the validity and reliability of 2 value measurement techniques. 296 Ss (161 females and 135 males) in introductory psychology filled out the 2 measurement techniques and an attitude survey. The Rokeach Value Survey instructed Ss to separately rank 2 sets of 18 values in order of importance. A rating version of the Value Survey instructed Ss to rate the same 36 values from 1 to 99. 236 Sreturned 6 weeks later and again filled out both measurement techniques. Results of the multimethod factor analysis indicate very good convergent validity among the 4 measures of a given value (2 techniques × 2 sessions) and very good discriminant validity between measures of different values. Probably due to the ipsative nature of the ranking procedure, the test retest reliabilities were higher for the ranked measurements than for the rated measurements. The construct validity of both measurement techniques, as determined by multiple regression and analysis of variance, were similar. Despite criticisms of ranking procedures, both the ranked and the rated versions were of equal reliability and validity. 
221	10	3	1980	 The present study is an analysis of the relationship between delinquency, institutionalization and future orientation, based on a social learning theoretical framework. Two hundred and forty male adolescents (institutionalized and noninstitutionalized delinquents and nondelinquents) answered open and structured questions concerning their anticipations and evaluations of the future. The data were analysed by analyses of variance and t tests and partly confirm the hypotheses: Delinquents structure their future in a less differentiated, less extended, and more internal way than nondelinquents. This was especially true for the institutionalized delinquents. However, delinquents structured their fears concerning their personal development more extensively than nondelinquents. Future orientation varied according to the length of institutionalization in different domains of life. These results do not support the dominant assumption of the literature that delinquents have an unrealistic future orientation. Rather, it is shown here that institutionalized delinquents anticipate rather negative future events which they expect to occur shortly after the time of their release. However, the present results have to be cautiously interpreted on account of the special selection of the sample and the rather short duration of institutionalization. Also, the method of a differentiated measurement of future orientation used here is hardly practiced in the literature though such a conceptualization as a multidimensional construct seems to be theoretically fruitful. 
222	10	3	1980	" Studied the effects of attitudinal similarity between two males on reactions to social rejection by a female. Sixty five male undergraduate students had met an attitudinally similar or dissimilar male confederate. Later a female confederate either chose or did not choose the male confederate as a work partner. Following that, measures designed to tap subjects affective state and self evaluations were administered. Two way interactions for affect and self evaluations (p < 0.01 and p 7lt; 0.05 respectively) indicate that, relative to a control group, only subjects whose similar male partner was chosen expressed unfavorable affect and self evaluations. The relevance of these findings for the affective consequences of social comparison processes is discussed. "
223	10	4	1980	 Studied the development of a student protest movement which, after an initial success, rapidly declined. Opinion surveys were conducted simultaneously with an analysis of the social representations which our population (i.e. male and female university students) held about itself, its potential partners and the proposed strategies. For this latter method, different words related to the protest movement were used as stimuli for a free association task. Similarities between dictionaries were analysed according to Johnson §s clustering method and Kruskal §s multidimensional scaling method. The structure of social representations allows us to explain the lack of success of the protest movement in terms of intergroup differentiation: the students refused an alliance with the leaders of the movement and rejected their strategies because they progressively defined them and their culture as foreign to and incompatible with themselves. The concept of social representation is discussed in light of the findings. 
224	10	4	1980	 An empirical method for analysing the goal structure within and between persons in different social situations is described. The method involves establishing the main goals of occupants of situational roles and then finding out how the different goals inter relate in terms of degree and type/direction of conflict and compatibility. Principal components analyses were carried out on ratings of importance of goals of those in different situational roles. Criteria of high factor loadings combined with high mean importance ratings were used to produce the main higher order goals for each of the roles. The goals for the six roles studied were, in each case except one: social acceptance/developing relationships, own well being and achieving a specific situational task goal. However, the precise nature of these goals is rather different in the different situations. Inter relationship of goals was studied using ratings of conflict or compatibility between pairs of goals within and across roles of each situation. The results were used to describe the goal structures of the different situations. The situation with the most conflict between goals was, as expected, the complaint. Ways were suggested in which knowledge of the goal structure, particularly the points of conflict, could help with skilful handling of potentially difficult social situations. 
225	10	4	1980	 A number of studies have supported a model of attitudes and belie ft in which the attitude toward a given issue is viewed as a function of both the belie ft about that issue and their evaluative components (Fishbein, 1965a). The present study tested the predicative ability of this model against alternative models and its applicability to changes in attitudes and beliefs resulting from the interaction of disagreeing peers. Two attitudinal issues and two types of beliefs for each, instrumental and attributive, were used. Pairs of subjects who disagreed on an issue according to their pretest responses were asked to reach a consensus and then to complete a post test questionnaire. Pretest responses indicated that the predictions of the Fishbein model were supported for each type of belief considered separately and for both combined for both issues. The predictions of most of the alternative models were also significantly related to actual attitudes. Although some of these predictions closely approximated those of the Fishbein model, this model was, overall, the best predictor. When changes in pretest post test responses for experimental subjects were considered, the predictions of the model were supported for both issues when both types of belie ft were considered together and when attributive beliefs were considered alone, but only for one issue when instrumental beliefs were considered alone. 
226	10	4	1980	 Snyder and Swann (1978) advance an argument that individuals display a cognitive bias in testing hypotheses about the personal attributes of other people, i.e. they seek out information which is supportive of their hypothesis (hypothesis confirming strategy). It is argued here that these authors confound the hypothesis a person might entertain (belief) with a hypothesis the person is asked to test (assigned task). The findings of two experimental studies in which task and belief were manipulated independently suggest that Snyder and Swann §s (1978) results are due to the task manipulation and not to an hypothesis confirming bias. 
227	11	1	1981	" Studied differences in verbal, nonverbal, and physiological responses during a confrontation with a male confederate role playing either a physically handicapped (PH), homosexual (HS), or normal (NOR) person. One hundred and eight males from colleges of economics and engineering listened in a laboratory experiment to personal introductions by two confederates in succession. Whereas the first confederate always appeared normal, the second took one of the three roles mentioned. A further informal meeting with this confederate was arranged outside the laboratory; all subjects had taken a stereotype test before. Normative differences between PH and HS (p ? 0.05) are found on verbal measures including the stereotype test, self rated emotion and consent to a further contact. General effects of deviance separating PH and HS from NOR (p ? 0.05) emerge on observed emotion, interpersonal distance during the informal meeting, and skin resistance responses. The results largely confirm the hypotheses. They are interpreted as supporting a distinction between intended (action type) components of behaviour which are strongly influenced by subjective norms, and unintended (reaction type) components reflecting undifferentiated reactions to deviance. "
228	11	1	1981	" Studied the behaviour of subjects in a normalization experiment: when a consistent confederate adopts the subject §s norms (adoption situation); when the consistent response of the confederate deviates from the subject §s norm (distance situation). We had three conditions for each of these two modes of response: we manipulated the C §s image (C was always similar to the subject), and the image of a reference population: C and S were both either very similar (C and S in the majority) or very dissimilar (C and S in the minority) to the population. Or there was no image manipulation. Sixty male subjects participated in this experiment: 10 subjects in each of the six experimental conditions. In two adoption conditions (no image, C and S in the majority) the subjects changed their responses when the confederate adopted their norm. Our hypothesis on the resistance to influence in one of the distance condition (C and S in the minority) was not verified. Thus we have shown that a phenomenon of differential dissimilation exists, but our previous results on differential assimilation are not replicated. These results are coherent with the social differentiation and originality theory which stresses the quest for social identity and distinctiveness by actors who do not react but who, in certains situations, elaborate strategies. "
229	11	1	1981	 The applicability of Tajfel §s social identity theory of intergroup relations was tested within a field situation of nursing, where high and low status trainee nursing groups are undergoing social change in status relations through a merger. The status relations of the two groups were assessed by examining advantages, disadvantages and subjective characteristics attributed to the groups. Close contact between groups may account for the unexpected reduction in intergroup differentiation when explicit comparisons were made. No greater illegitimacy in perceived status relations was reported by the low status group, although more dissatisfactions were evidenced in terms of attributed disadvantages, a less positive ingroup identification, and a high proportion of the low status group who want change either through movement into the superior group, or by dissolving status relations through the merging of the two groups. Attempts to merge are geared towards increasing similarity between groups by gaining recognition for those high status characteristics the group believes it has acquired. With a view to social change, the non mobile low status subgroup are evolving a new and positive social identity for the group, perceiving little difference between groups. Strong intergroup differentiation by the high status group reflects the perceived threat of social change to the high status group. 
230	11	1	1981	 In a series of seven different studies, the author attempted to test Piaget §s theoretical position of social factors as primary contributors to the development of moral judgment. Populations of American and Swiss subjects were presented with moral dilemmas stories opposing adult child and child child situations and classified into three moral levels (heteronomous, intermediate, autonomous). The influence of school was studied by camparing moral levels of subjects who had never attended school to moral levels of kindergarten and first grade students. Questionnaires sent to Swiss and American parents provided information about their attitude toward the children §s socialization. Effect of interaction was measured by interviewing subjects individually, then in pairs and on an individual post test three weeks later. Results demonstrate the role of social factors such as dynamic exchanges, discussions and oppositions in the learning of moral values. Cognitive conflicts are seen as fostering decentration and achievement of higher level responses through the equilibration process. 
231	11	1	1981	 From research on the organization of implicit personality theory, and on the fakability of psychometrically sophisticated scales a general argument about the conceptual overlap between implicit personality theory and scientific theories of personality is developed. This is tested in the case of the common sense conception of extroversion introversion, and that of Eysenck. The convergent validity of these two conceptions are found to be high enough to support the argument. The implications of the argument are discussed in relation to the correspondences between implicit personality theory and personality theory, and the functions of personality theory in psychology and implicit personality theory in everyday life. 
232	11	1	1981	 Studied the effects of formal and informal interaction styles on the extremity of responsibility attribution judgements by groups. The stimuli were eight scenarios describing typical life dilemmas, incorporating the manipulation of the following two variables in a 2 × 2 design: (a) the risky cautious decision taken by the actor in response to the dilemma, and (b) the outcome of the decision (success failure). Subjects (N 
233	11	2	1981	" Studied the effect of social support and increased self attention on the ways of dealing with information of subjects who were suspicious about the influence of the experiment. All 48 subjects were students from psychology classes who had previously been informed of the processes of social influence. The experimental design was based on two variables: on the one hand, the social support variable, ranging from a strong, medium, weak, to one with no reference at all to social support; the focus of selfattention variable, on the other hand, materialized in the videotaping of half of the subjects. Subjects were asked to make estimates on a number of points. During some of the trials, subjects were given a piece of information consisting of answers supposedly made by other subjects which were in fact their own estimates with a constant number added to them. The experiment has shown that as the social support given to videotaped subjects increased, the subject §s confidence in his own estimate increased. This result is partly at variance with the objective self awareness theory and shows the importance of the subject §s artitude towards the experimental situation (emprise experimentale).  130) provided judgements about the attributed responsibility of the actor, and their perception of the actor and the situation first as individuals, followed by (a) formal or (b) informal group discussion, leading to consensus judgements. Results showed that group attributions were significantly more extreme than individual attributions, but only following the informal group interaction. The actors §s  riskiness and success were also significantly related to the size of the extremity shift. The findings are discussed in terms of the importance of the social context and the specific interaction episode in attribution judgements, and the possible implications of the results for such real life decision making groups as committees and interviewing panels are considered. "
234	11	2	1981	 Data from the 1976 American National Election Study were used to assess the effects of one outgroup characteristic, belief similarity dissimilarity, on the enhancement of women §s feminist consciousness. Women were focused on as the ingroup and men as the outgroup. The sample consisted of 677 women who believed that women should have an equal role with men. Outgroup belief similarity referred to women §s perception that most men supported an equal role for women and outgroup dissimilarity to the perception that men did not support an equal role. Results indicated that outgroup belief similarity significantly enhanced women §s feminist consciousness. Women who supported an equal role and perceived outgroup belief dissimilarity scored higher on cognitive and behavioural measures of feminist consciousness than those who supported an equal role but did not perceive outgroup dissimilarity. Secondary analyses were undertaken assessing the effect of ingroup belief similarity dissimilarity on the enhancement of sympathetic feminist consciousness among men. 
235	11	2	1981	 Studied the dimensionality of judgments made by groups of persons evaluating described face to face social interactions. In these interactions, three situational elements are varied systematically, to wit: topic of conversation, partner status, and purpose of interaction. Twenty female and 20 male British social studies students compared the similarity of 12 such descriptions of dyadic interaction. A Principal Component Factor Analyses indicates that two dimensions (constraint, involvement) are significant, by providing a two subset partition of the set of adjective pairs used by the judging groups. Furthermore, a Multiple Regression Analysis identifies the situational elements which account most for the two dimensions (partner §s status for constraint, topic of conversation for involvement). The results are discussed in terms of social categorization and social order rheories. Conclusions are drawn as 10 further research on the relationship between perception of social situations and patterns of behaviour. 
236	11	2	1981	 Tested several social decision models or problem solving models on groups of different sizes working on a disjunctive task, that is, anagrams of two levels of difficulty. The subjects were 300 ten  and eleven year old Swedish boys and girls from Grades 4 and 5, a 2 × 5 × 2 (ability levels high and low × group sizes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 × task difficulties hard and easy) design was used. Support was found for the truth wins model as an explanation of the underlying processes in very small groups (2 and 3), while reasonable explanations for larger groups (4 and 5) were given by the truth supported wins and the majority if correct, equiprobability otherwise model. Slightly different group processes were inferred on the hard as compared to the easy tasks. The results also extend previous research on the generality of the models, especially the truth wins model. 
237	11	2	1981	 This study investigates the possibility that results of within subjects studies tend to be design specific. In a study of impression formation 3×3 row by column designs were presented to two groups of judges. The first design (standard design) included high. Medium, and low levels of the independent variables. The second design (comparison design) included a high/medium/low variation of one independent variable and a high/medium/high variation of the second variable. The judges were asked to reproduce informations. They received relevant informations (which should be reproduced) and additional informations (which were irrelevant for their task). The pattern of results is different within the two designs. While the standard design reveals a significant main effect for the relevant information, the comparison design reveals an additional interaction effect between relevant and irrelevant information. The results are attributed to the fact that the design itself is a stimulus. 
238	11	2	1981	 Tested the hypothesis that explicit identification of message ambiguity as a reason for failure in referential communication could help young children to gain understanding about the need for unique reference in communicative acts, in both experimental and natural settings. In the experiment each of 47 children aged 5 2 to 6 5 selected and then described clothes for a doll so that the experimenter could choose matching items. Ambiguous instructions from the children were consistently responded to with one of three reactions by the experimenter: (1) she guessed an item, (2) she asked Which one? waited and chose or (3) she made explicit why she could not make a unique choice on the basis of the child §s message. Both before and after this manipulation children were assessed for their understanding that messages can be ambiguous and can cause communication failure. Children accorded the third treatment improved most both in understanding and in reducing the ambiguity of their messages. A similar assessment of understanding was made of 36 6 year old children of whom recordings of interaction in the home had been made over several previous years. Children whose mothers had made explicit their lack of understanding of their child §s utterances were more advanced than those whose mothers had not. 
239	11	2	1981	 The aim of the present study was to obtain some insight in how children structure and organize their knowledge about other people. Ten short descriptions of social situations (i.e., interactions) illustrated by pictures were presented to 48 children from four different age groups (mean ages 5.4, 6.7, 8.6, and 10.7 years). The situations were accompanied by questions pertaining to the story characters as individuals, their thoughts, their (re)actions, and the immediate causes of their behaviour. The results showed that the knowledge about each concept is highly age related. Partial correlations indicated that concepts about individuals and concepts about the immediate causes of behaviour are related to concepts about how people will (re)act in particular situations. In addition, the concepts about individuals are related to concepts about the thoughts and concepts about the immediate causes of behaviour. It appeared that the better the children seem to know other people the less certain they were in regard to their inferences about others. 
240	11	3	1981	 The excitatory potential (low, high), the hedonic valence (negative, positive), and the type of content (erotic, non erotic) of visual stimuli were varied in a factorial design. Male subjects were provoked by a same sex peer, exposed to communication or, in a no exposure control, made to wait for a period of time equal to that of communication exposure, and then provided with an opportunity to retaliate against their annoyer. High excitatory potential and negative hedonic valence were found to combine additively in a facilitative effect on retaliatory aggression. No appreciable differences were found in the effect of excitationally and hedonically matched erotica and non erotica. Exposure to either arousing and displeasing erotica or non erotica produced levels of aggression significantly above the level associated with the no exposure control. Exposure to comparatively non arousing and pleasing erotica or non erotica failed to reduce aggression, however. The findings were considered to support a model that projects the effect of erotica on retaliatory aggression as a joint function of their excitatory potential and their hedonic valence. 
241	11	3	1981	" The study reported in this paper is concerned with social emotions. These are defined as states which are experienced either exclusively or more intensively before a real or imagined audience. It is argued that when social emotions arise as a consequence of disrupting social rules, this is because the actor in question is aware of a discrepancy between his or her self image, which is assumed to be neutral, and the image which he or she assumes to have conveyed to those who witness the incident, in a role playing experiment, subjects were presented with four situations depicting disruptions of routine activity, two of which involved rule disruption. These situations were described from one of two perspectives (actor or observer) and set in one of two social contexts (public or private). Results confirmed the main predictions, which were (1) that in the case of rule disruptions, the emotionality attributed to the actor would be greater in public than in private; (2) that dispositional ratings of the actor would reveal a discrepancy between self image and public image, and that this discrepancy would covary with the actor §s emotionality; and (3) that dispositional ratings of the actor would reveal a discrepancy between public image and subjective public image. "
242	11	3	1981	 In this experiment social comparison on two task dimensions has been studied. The subjects received bogus feedback on their performance on two tests, one allegedly measuring creativity, the other alertness. By means of this feedback four relative position conditions were induced: scoring high on both tests, scoring low on both tests, scoring high on creativity and low on alertness, and vice versa. Anticipating either a cooperative or a competitive game, the subjects indicated their preference for one or the other task dimension and also expressed their preference for a comparison person. It was found that, as predicted, the subjects preferred and valued comparison dimensions on which they occupied a favourable position. With respect to preference for a comparison person, compensatory choices were obtained: on the dimension on which the subject performed well, they preferred an inferior other. On the dimension on which they performed poorly, they preferred a superior other. This pattern of choices was found in cooperation as well as in competition. Finally, upward preference was stronger in cooperative than in competitive conditions, particularly on the dimension on which the subject §s own score was low. These and other results were discussed in relation to theoretical social comparison notions. 
243	11	3	1981	 Most existing models of coalition formation and payoff distribution in groups rest upon normative considerations and are ambiguous in their predictions insofar as they do not determine which of several coalitions will most probably result. The paper sketches the basic features of a model derived from social psychological exchange and equity theory which predicts coalitions and payoff distributions for a variety of situations. The evaluation of the model by the results of several experiments indicates that it provides a reasonable starting point for further theoretical developments that are based empirical studies. 
244	11	4	1981	" Critical and epistemological reflections on the use of experimental methods in social psychology are often made to distinguish between two types of settings where these methods are used: The laboratory and the social field. But it is by no means certain that such a division has, from the start and at its own level, real significance: for one thing, because in social psychology, laboratory work is probably never merely laboratory work; and for another, because an analysis of what happens in practice would show that much experimental research work carried out in the social field merely transfers into that setting tools, concepts and a theoretical intention derived from the laboratory. If that is so, it follows that it is not at its own level that the laboratory social field distinction has a heuristic and epistemological significance, nor is that the real location of the breaking point between the methodologies. Perhaps the real dividing line is one which separates experimental work which, whether in the laboratory or in the social field, concentrates on social interactions which are miniaturized or able to be so, from work which, in the social field, aims to concentrcte on processes which cannot be simulated or miniaturized without becoming distorted and seeks to reach social systems which are relatively complete and essentially intact. "
245	11	4	1981	 Examined the dimensional structure of identity among neopentecostal Anglicans, applying an analogy between glossolalia and ethnic languages, based on intergroup theory. Similarity data obatined from a card sorting task performed by 29 non glossolalic and 49 glossolalic members of Church of England congregations were multidimensionally scaled. The resulting dimensional structures indicate that neopentecostalists define themselves mainly in terms of conventional religious markers: rebirth experience, belief in scriptural authority, and, for non glossolalists, regular prayer. Glossolalia plays only a limited role, and does so only for those who practise it, while denominational affiliation appears to have no significance in religious identity at all. It is suggested that neopentecostalists regard themselves as having marginal status in mainstream churches and aim to distinguish themselves from nominal Christians, thus identibing with all devout believers, in preference to emphasizing neopentecostal distinctiveness which does not afford favourable enough social comparisons. 
246	11	4	1981	 Schachter §s two factor theory of emotion and the misattribution of arousal paradigm have been applied to perceptions of euphoria, anger, humour, fear, erotica, discomfort, and love. This paper attempts to review this research and assess both the theory and the misattribution paradigm. The classic Schachter and Singer (1962) study is reviewed, along with criticisms and later attempted replications. Other early research on Schachter §s theory is also critqued. The reduction of fear through the misattribution of arousal is examined and its limitations noted. A plausible alternative explanation for many effects of the misattribution paradigm is presented. Research concerning the misattribution of arousal and cognitive dissonance, interpersonal attraction, helping behaviour, and aggression are reviewed and discussed. An overall assessment of Schachter §s two factor theory and the misattribution paradigm is also presented. Schachter §s (1964a, b) theory is not well supported by the research, but the available evidence has not necessarily disproven the theory either. The misattribution paradigm has proven to be very effective, yet the theoretical basis for this effect is still in doubt. Surprisingly, the most widely cited research is generally of limited value, while little known research has been of much greater significance. 
247	11	4	1981	 This research examined the influence of task difficulty and diagnosticity (ability information) on task choice and preference. It was found that males preferred diagnostic over non diagnostic tasks, but among females significant preferences along this variable were not exhibited. Furthermore, the desire to obtain ability relevant information decreased as a function of prior knowledge about one §s ability. Both high and low ability self perceptions, induced through prior experiences of success and failure, decreased the attraction toward diagnostic in formation. There was no indication that individuals with high ability self concepts are especially avoidant of further ability relevant information, as recent literature has suggested. In addition, and contrary to prior findings, difficult tasks were most preferred rather than easy or intermediate tasks, given that diagnosticity is held constant. 
248	11	4	1981	 Predictions concerning the formation of impressions on the visual of the visual behaviour of an observed person are tested in two experiments. Observers were shown a video recording of a conversation between two persons in which person (A) looked at his partner (B) or not depending upon the experimental conditions. In addition, the observers were told whether or not the persons were acquainted with one another before this conversation. It was found, as predicted, that a was rated higher with regard to friendliness und openness if he looked at his conversation partner. Equally in agreement with prediction it was found that the significance of visual behaviour for the formation of impressions is greater if it is known that the observed persons are well acquainted. Ratings of A §s dominance and activity are only dependent on the visual behaviour shown if it is known that the observed persons know eath other. In the case in which the partners are not acquainted, there is no such effect. These results show that the communicative function of visual behaviour over and above the ascription of friendliness and openness is increased if contextual information is given concerning the interpersonal relationship between the persons observed. The formation of impressions concerning the second person involved in the conversation is not influenced by the visual behaviour of his conversation partner. 
249	12	1	1982	" Studied the effect of group discussion and racial group membership on attributions concerning the causes of racial discrimination. Twenty  four Black (mostly West Indian) and 24 White adolescents (age 16 19) were assigned in pairs to each cell of a 2 (Race of subject: Black/White) × 2 (Discussion/No Discussion) mixed design. Each subject read four items exemplifying types of racial discrimination and attributed each to negative dispositions of Black people and/or discrimination by White authority figures (the system). Subjects in the Discussion condition spent two minutes discussing each item prior to making their judgements. Ratings of ingroup and outgroup on eight attitudinal dimensions were also elicited, followed by a social distance measure. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed effects for racial group membership (p < 0.05) and group discussion (p < 0.05) on attributions. Further examination of the data by means of discriminant analyses indicated which items differentiate between the groups. Data based on the attitudinal ratings were also subjected to multivariate analyses and point to the positive group image of the Black respondents and a lack of intergroup discrimination by the White subjects; the social distance scores of the latter subjects are, however, higher. Results are discussed in terms of the literature on group polarization and intergroup differentiation. "
250	12	1	1982	" The study investigated the effect of the expectancies a perceiver holds about the occurrence of a particular behaviour and his or her familiarity with the situation in which the behaviour occurs, for the way in which an event is explained. Subjects were presented with brief descriptions of hypothetical events which varied in terms of the familiarity of the situation. Dependent variables included ratings of causality to personal and situational causes as well as open ended explanations which were content analysed to distinguish between four different types of person and four different types of situation elements. The results showed that explanations for unexpected behaviour are more complex than for expected behaviour; that if the situation is familiar to the subject, unexpected behaviour is explained by introducing more person elements while if it is unfamiliar, unexpected behaviour is explained by introducing more situation elements; and that the distribution of different types of person and situation elements is affected by familiarity and expectancy. "
251	12	1	1982	 Self awareness theory proposes that behavioural and cognitive changes following self  focused attention result from a comparison between a salient behavioural or cognitive aspect of the person and a relevant internal standard of correctness. Generalized drive has been offered as an alternative interpretation not requiring the assumption of a mediating cognitive process. The notion was tested that an internal standard of correctness, and not response dominance, guides behaviour following self focused attention. The internal standard used, originality, was to be contrary to dominance. Subjects high or low on this standard were assigned to either a self awareness, an arousal, or a control condition. First, response dominance was clearly established on a paired associates task. Then subjects §s  own associations to the stimulus words were obtained. In the self awareness condition, the originality of responses corresponded to internal standards. Responses in the arousal condition were not as predicted, but could be interpreted through the presumption that the particular operationalization of arousal raised not only drive level but also provided self related stimuli. The data imply that internal standards of correctness and not response dominance influence the behaviour of those whose attention is self focused. 
252	12	1	1982	" The present study investigated (i) the relationship between blame and perceived causality; (ii) the effect of the nature of causes on causal inference. Seventy two persons from three age groups (5, 9 years and adults) responded to behavioural events which varied in outcome intensity, the nature of the cause (internal/external) and its presence (present/absent). The latter two factors had a marked effect on attributed blame and inferred causes as an age × nature × presence of cause interaction was found in both cases. However, inferred causes were not systematically related to attributed blame. Outcome severity led to more extreme blame ratings in all groups but only affected the causal scheme used by adults. The results are discussed in terms of over attribution to persons and a more precise criterion for the use of the multiple sufficient cause scheme is evaluated. "
253	12	1	1982	 Investigated the effects of comparisons with similar and dissimilar performances on estimates of relative ability. Male and female undergraduates (n  162) took a test of analogy making ability, and received veridical feedback about their own performance and manipulated feedback about the scores of other college students. Supporting Festinger §s similarity hypothesis, variations within a range of small discrepancies between self and others §s  scores produced significant changes in ability estimates, while variations within a range of large discrepancies had no significant impact. This pattern of results only held for discrepancies relative to the modal score of others, and not relative to their highest or lowest scores. There were also indications that subjects with average performances were less influenced by the comparison feedback than were subjects with low or high scores. The discussion focused on the similarities and contrasts between seeking comparison information versus being influenced by it. 
254	12	1	1982	" Studied how level of education and degree of contact with target groups affect stereotypes held by different occupational groups in post revolutionary Iran. Male university lecturers, taxi drivers and factory workers from Isfahan 25 of each rated target groups (Americans, English, Arabs, Iranians) on 22 seven point trait scales. Fifteen subjects rated trait favourability. Results were analysed descriptively and by Spearman rank correlations of trait ratings across targets and trait assignments across subject groups. Stereotypes of Americans tend to be high in clarity and favourable across all three occupational groups (particularly progressive and industrious), with the English somewhat less so. In contrast, Arabs are viewed highly unfavourable (lazy, happy go lucky, not industrious). Autostereotypes are less consistent; the lecturers educated in the West are most unfavourable. It was concluded that low education and little personal contact lead to more extreme hetero stereotype, the reverse being true for (negative) autostereotype. Also, it seems that saturated media coverage does not necessarily have much effect on social stereotypes. "
255	12	1	1982	 Investigated how either perceived competency or self interest and Zeitgeist affect minority influence, or: how Moscovici §s theory does apply to actual social minorities. The self interest notion predicts that single minorities (deviating only in terms of beliefs) are more influential than double minorities (deviating also in category membership) while the competency notion predicts the reverse. Further, either minority is expected to be influential only when the Zeitgeist is in favour of the minority position. In a 2 (pro/anti Zeitgeist) × 3 (single/double minority/control) factorial design, 120 conservative male American undergraduates discussed in groups of six including two either male (single minority) or female (double minority) consistently liberal con federates one of two issues: abortion (pro ) or death penalty (anti  Zeitgeist). The results support the self interest notion: double minorities are perceived as having a stronger self interest and exerted less influence than single minorities. The Zeitgeist hypothesis is confirmed, too. The underlying attributional processes and the ecological validity of previous studies are discussed. 
256	12	2	1982	 The study intended to test a number of implications of the alleged communicative functions of nonverbal behaviours. Four sets of specific hypotheses were defined under the general expectation of important effects of the suppression of visible behaviours from a channel of communication. Pairs of subjects were requested to interact either face to face or through a wooden screen depriving them of reciprocal visibility. Dependent variables comprised nonverbal behaviours, indices of paralinguistic, syntactic, grammatical and content aspects of the speech, and ratings of the partner and of the interpersonal situation. In spite of the number and variety of measurements, differences in line with the predictions were extremely rare. It is concluded that, better than the communicative ones, other functions such as assistance to the speech encoding processes, probably account for the abundance of nonverbal behaviours among speaking subjects. 
257	12	2	1982	 In order to examine audience effects when viewing firmed violence, 5 to 6 year old pre school boys who had been rated as submissive by their teachers watched an aggressive or a neutral movie either alone, accompanied by another submissive classmate, or a dominant one. Subsequent aggression against a frustrating, unknown and unseen boy was delivered via a modified Buss machine, especially adapted for children. Subjects accompanied by a dominant peer were more aggressive than the others but did not react differentially to the movies. Subjects tested alone were more aggressive after the violent film than after the neutral one and the opposite pattern occurred for the boys accompanied by a submissive classmate. These findings stress the importance of the social context when viewing filmed violence. It is suggested that the quality of the audience can have different directional (e.g. fear and aggression) as well as energizing properties. Links with the literature on social facilitation and audience effects are underlined. 
258	12	2	1982	 Investigated the effect of three different variables on agreement effects in p o x triads. The subjects were 740 male and female undergraduates at the University of North Carolina. Experiment 1 found that assumed similarity modified the agreement effect but only on cognitive rating scales (expectancy, consistency, stability). Experiment 2 found that assumed knowledgeability of o regarding × modified the agreement effect on both affective (pleasantness, harmony) and cognitive (expectancy, consistency, stability) scales. Experiment 3 found that a manipulation of o to p liking that was either consistent or inconsistent with p and o agreement modified the agreement effect primarily on the affective scales. 
259	12	3	1982	 Investigated the child §s social ideas, namely notions about production means (factory, public transportation, farmland) and family influence on notion acquisition. 120 children of jive age groups (4 to 13 years) were clinically interviewed (sensu Piaget). Children §s parents, workers and housewives of an Italian industrial centre, answered to questionnaires inquiring background information on parents and child and appraisal of child §s level of understanding. Interview answers were classified on ten level sequences concerning father §s job, home ownership, function and ownership of production means and produce. Correlational analyses and separate ANOVAs [5(age) × 2(sex) × 3(production mean)] in three subject areas (owner of production mean, of produce, and produce use) of interview answers reveal that children §s ideas about different production means develop with differing rhythms through the same level sequences, which are clearly related to the general characterstics of intelligence described by Piaget. Questionnaires show that parents tend to furnish their children with the degree of information concerning jobs appropriate to the level of development at which the parents believe their children to be. 
260	12	3	1982	" Investigated the relationship between social representations, intergroup causal attributions and the search for a positive social identity in two rival groups from British secondary education. Part I studied the shared social beliefs 0f 20 Public (PS) and 20 Comprehensive (CS) schoolboys (age 16 years) concerning similarities and differences between the two types of schoolboy. Each subject wrote a short essay on the topic and these essays were content analysed into 13 differences and 4 similarities between the two types of school. The two groups agreed on a number of points, but consensus within each group on a number of beliefs revealed distinct social representations. Part II studied the effect of group membership and social categorization on causal attributions for success and failure in examinations. Twenty four PS and 24 CS boys {age 16–17 years) were used in a 2 (school of subjects) × 2 (school of stimuli) × 2 (success/failure) design, with one between and two within subject factors. Each subject read four background descriptions of candidates for university entrance, then made a number of ratings. On the page following each description, subjects attributed the candidate §s performance to ability, effort, task difficulty and luck; a confidence rating was also made. Analyses of variance suggested that second order interactions between group membership of the subjects, social categorization of the stimuli and achievement outcome were most important. Public schoolboys differentiated themselves from the CS boys by means of ability (p < 0.08 and effort (p < 0.0005) attributions; CS boys differentiated in tern of luck (p < 0.06). Part III studied social identity processes in the same 48 subjects. Each subject read a 20 item questionnaire based on Part I, with 10 traits classified as Public and 10 as Comprehensive; within each set of traits half were autostereotype and half heterostereotype traits. Subjects made group ratings, evaluations and self ratings on each trait. Analyses of variance [2 (schools) × 2 (items) × 2 (stereotype)] were computed on each dependent measure. For the group ratings a main effect of items (p < 0.0001) revealed that PS and CS items were differentially ascribed to the two groups. In addition, CS boys valued CS autostereotype items most highly (p < 0.05) and rated themselves higher on CS items (p < 0.0001). Results are discussed in terms of the influence of social representations on both causal attributions and intergroup differentiation; the existence of intergroup biases in achievement attributions; and the different modes of differentiation chosen by the different status groups. Social Identity Theory is seen as a valuable framework with which to consider these findings. "
261	12	3	1982	 Studied within the framework of accentuation theory the effects of three categorization conditions on attribution memory. Using the experimental approach proposed by Taylor et al (1978) we have tested the hypothesis that subject §s discriminative accuracy in associating the sentences to the pictures of the person who produced them depends on the use of categorical criteria. On the basis of TajteL §s model, it is plausible to expect the number of intercategorical errors to be smaller than the number of intercategorical errors. If a relation holds between the number of intercategorical errors and strength of categorization criteria, then comparing the data of simple categorization situation with those of a situation of superimposed categorization we should expect a decrease of intercategorical errors in the latter. In the case of crossed categorizations, an increase of this type of errors should be expected. The results support this hypothesis. The data in the crossed categorizations condition are discussed in relation to explanation proposed by Brown and Turner (1979). 
262	12	3	1982	 This study was designed to test a number of hypotheses about the use of FAV and other strategies as measured by the intergroup matrices in four long term relationships with spouse, child, friend and workmate. Forty subjects filled in matrices giving three measures of self favouritism (FAV), and one each of fairness (F) and maximum joint profit (MJP), in relation to the allocation of money and time. It was found that FAV was not used for spouse, and was used less for child than for the non family relationships (p < 0.01, p < 0.05). There was also an influence of altruism (A) against FAV, when time was distributed between spouse (p < 0.01) or child (p < 0.001) and the self. F was used most for spouse, followed by child, friend and workmate (p < 0.001), and was used more by females in distributing money (p < 0.01). MJP was not used at all for money, but was used to some extent for time. 
263	12	4	1982	 Psychological studies on unemployment in the 1930 §s and the 1970 §s and 1980 §s have concentrated on the psychological impact of unemployment on such things as people §s health, self esteem and social interaction. Furthermore studies have, not unnaturally, concentrated almost exclusively on the unemployed neglecting the employed altogether. Very few studies have concerned the range and determinants of lay explanations or attributions about the causes of unemployment. This study set out to examine differences in the explanations for unemployment as a function of whether people were employed or unemployed, as well as their age, sex, education and voting pattern, The results showed a predictable pattern of differences between the employed and unemployed, the former believing more in individualistic explanations and less in societal explanations than the latter. Whereas there were few sex and age differences, education and vote revealed numerous differences in explanations for unemployment. As in the case with explanations for poverty, Conservatives found individualistic explanations for unemployment more important than Labour voters who in turn found societal explanations more important than Conservative voters. Results were discussed in terms of the psychology of explanations, political socialization and the experience of unemployment. Problems in this study as well as the limitations and difficulties in research of the kind were also discussed. 
264	12	4	1982	 The theory of social categorization assumes that the social behaviour of people can be explained as a result of cognitive differentiation of social objects into dichotomous categories (in group, out group). An argument can be put forth that social Categorization is a specific instance of functioning of a cognitive system that operates as multidimensional psychological space. Distances between representations of objects in the space influence the process of application of judgements to the given object and to the degree of involvement instigated by a state of an object and tendency lo produce specific behavioural acts toward the object. Typically, the relationship has a characteristic of an exponential function. There are conditions (social and psychological) that foster a discontinuity in a functioning of a cognitive system and therefore, lead to a dichotomous classification of social phenomena, while in some other conditions a continuity may prevail. Data that seem to support the above conjecture are described. 
265	12	4	1982	 The present study examines the evaluative consequences of two kinds of reaction to committing a social transgression. In an experimental study, embarrassment display and restitution behaviour were manipulated orthogonally in the context of a videotaped incident in which an actor was seen to upset a sales display in a store. Subjects were shown one of the four versions of this incident and asked to rate the actor responsible for the mishap. It was reasoned that both appearing embarrassed and engaging in restitution would have positive, but distinct, effects on social evaluation, and that the beneficial effect of restitution would be mitigated by embarrassment display. Results were consistent with these expectations. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for the social function of embarrassment displays. 
266	12	4	1982	 Social influence mechanisms are considered as also relevant to intergroup dynamics. In a social influence situation, approaching or retreating from the source §s position also involves accepting or rejecting psycho social identification with the source, implicating self attribution of the set of characteristics stereotypical of the category or categories to which the source belongs. This conception allows one to account for some of the difficulties encountered by minorities in their attempts to diffuse innovations. An experiment illustrates this conception of influence. It is shown that the influence of a minority is greater when subjects are led to believe that they have in common with the minority numerous category memberships (five out of eight presented) than when they think they share fewer (one out of eight). The difference between these two inductions is, as expected, revealed to be most marked when the source is rigid and for those subjects displaying opinions already relatively close to those of the source and for whom therefore the matter of psycho social identification is more salient. 
267	12	4	1982	 The present study was designed to map out the area of research in experimental social psychology during the past decade. First of all, we found a broad range of topics that can be grouped info 21 general content domains. Theories in Social Psychology, Group Processes and Social Interaction, Social Judgement, Personality Variables and Specific Social Behaviour as well as Attitudes were the jive most widely researched fields of study. During the ten year period 1971–1980 Attribution Theory showed a significant increase in the number of articles published. Cooperation and Conflict as well as Risky Ship are lines of research which have nearly been abandoned. Finally, in rigorous experimental social psychology the analysis of Social Problems is evidently underrepresented. But a survey of the literature on Social Problems in the Psychological Abstracts from 1971 to 1980 revealed that social psychologists are currently serving both theoretical and practical ends. 
268	13	1	1983	" Currently prevalent views of human inference are contrasted with an integrated theory of the epistemic process. The prevailing views are characterized by the following orienting assumptions: (1) There exist reliable criteria of inferential validity based on objectively veridical or optimal modes of information processing. (2) Motivational and cognitive factors bias inferences away from these criteria and thus enhance the likelihood of judgmental error. (3) The layperson §s epistemic process is pluralistic; it consists of a diverse repertory of information processing strategies (heuristics, schemas) selectively invoked under various circumstances. By contrast, the present analysis yields the following conclusions: (1) There exist no secure criteria of validity. (2) Psychological factors that bias inferences away from any currently accepted criteria need not enhance the likelihood of error. (3) The inference process may be considered unitary rather than pluralistic. The various strategies and biases discussed in the literature typically confound universal epistemic process with specific examples (or contents) of such processes. Empirical support for the present analysis is presented, including evidence refuting proposals that specific contents of inference are of universal applicability; evidence suggesting that people do not, because of a reliance on subnormative heuristics, underutilize nonnative statistical information rather, people seem unlikely to utilize any information if it is nonsalient or (subjectively) irrelevant; and evidence demonstrating that the tendency of beliefs to persevere despite discrediting information can be heightened or lowered by introducting appropriate motivational orientations. "
269	13	1	1983	 A comparison of influence processes exerted by a majority versus a minority is made, both theoretically and empirically. In this study, comparing the two processes in the same experimental setting, it was hypothesized that subjects would follow the majority more than the minority, that is, they would be more influenced to adopt the exact same position. However, it was predicted that subjects exposed to the minority would be stimulated to find new solutions to the problem, solutions that were not offered by the minority but that the subjects would not have found by themselves. Further, these solutions would tend to be correct rather than incorrect. Results support these predictions. 
270	13	1	1983	" When people are interested in how common one or more of their attributes is in a reference population, they must often generate their own comparison information based on a limited sample of acquaintances and experiences. Subjects in the present research were asked to describe themselves in terms of a variety of attributes, and were also asked to estimate the percentage of other college students who would indicate possession of each attribute. For each attribute, subjects were assigned a majority or minority status, depending on whether the majority of the population did or did not share their attribute. The principle findings were (1) the majority subjects generated more accurate comparison information than did the minority; (2) the majority subjects were better than chance and better than minority subjects in distinguishing between attributes for which there was high versus moderate consensus; and (3) the minority subjects tended to overestimate the consensus for their attributes, while the majority subjects tended to err in the direction of underestimation of their Consensus. The discussion focused on possible causes of these tendencies, and on research implications involving attributional biases and intergroup conflict. "
271	13	1	1983	 Women who thought about rape prior to answering questions about themselves reported lower self esteem, stronger belief in traditional sex roles, and lower trust in other persons than women who were not induced to think about rape. Achievement motivation and locus of control, on the other hand, were not affected by the salience of rape. The data suggest that rape has an intimidating effect on non raped women as previously suspected in feminist literature, although not all variables suspected may be affected. 
272	13	1	1983	 The current status of dialectic theory in social psychology is critically examined. Its basic and interdependent assumptions are discussed and recent misconceptions  analysed. An attempt is made to clarify major confusions and misinterpretations of dialectics regarding such issues as dialectics as a conceptual versus a methodological tool, dialectics as a form of cognitive process, dialectics as a firm of interactionism, and dialectical contradictions as semantic opposites. To illustrate the relevance of dialectic theory to current issues a major dualism in social psychology is examined, namely that of individual versus social theorizing. Drawing liberally from Marxist social theory it is shown how the traditional dualism is resolved through dialectics. Finally, a response is firmed to criticisms addressed to the current status of social psychology. It is shown that dialectics not only incorporates most of the demands raised by these criticisms, but also enhances the field by pointing toward new perspectives and directions. 
273	13	1	1983	" An experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of evaluative factors upon preference for situational and dispositional attributions. Subjects listened to a tape recording of a group discussion on smoking, two actors presenting arguments in favour of smoking and two actors arguing against smoking. Subjects were then asked to explain in attributional terms the actors §s  behaviour and their own smoking behaviour, their evaluation of smoking being separately assessed. Results provided no support for a general self other attributional difference; subjects did not explain their own behaviour in more situational terms while explaining the behaviour of others in more dispositional terms. Findings indicated that individuals generally attributed positively evaluated behaviour to dispositional factors and negatively evaluated behaviour to situational factors, regardless of attributor role (actor or observer). The results are interpreted as offering support for a positivity bias in attributional preference. "
274	13	1	1983	 Compared the effects of intergroup and within group comparison on attitudes differentiating two well defined student groups. Social work students (n  48) expressed attitudes either before or after estimating ingroup or outgroup (commerce students) norms. Subjects adopted more extreme attitudes following outgroup comparison, but were unaffected by comparison within the group.
275	13	2	1983	 This paper is concerned with the range, structure and determinants of lay people §s implicit theories of delinquency. The different explicit psychological and sociological theories were reviewed as were studies on lay beliefs about crime and delinquency. After pilot interviews in which people were asked to list what they believed to be the major causes of delinquency, over 350 people completed a questionnaire in which they rated 30 explanations for their importance in explaining delinquency. The results showed numerous sex, age and voting differences. Conservatives tended to blame a person §s poor education for his or her delinquency, while Labour voters tended to explain delinquency in terms of societal factors. A factor analysis revealed six clear explanation types for delinquency some of which were clearly related to explicit theories. Results were discussed in terms of the psychology of explanations and the relationship between explicit and implicit theories. Implications of this research were also noted. 
276	13	2	1983	" Subjects were asked to make justice judgments based on different comparison standards intrapersonal and interpersonal standards. The intrapersonal standard of entitlement was induced through a promise. Subjects were either given more than ($4.00), less than ($1.00), or exactly ($2.50) the reward promised for completion of an assigned task. By providing subjects access to information pertaining to a confederate co worker §s outcomes, subjects were able to evaluate the equitableness (an interpersonal standard) of the distribution. Confederates also received one of three levels of reward (i.e. $1.00, $2.50, or $4.00). It was found that evaluations of fairness depend on the criteria used in making the assessment; if intrapersonal comparisons are employed, subjects produce justice judgments quite different from those grounded on an interpersonal referent. A main effect for subject outcome was obtained when the prevailing standard was intrapersonal and an interaction between subject and confederate outcomes was found when the prevailing standard was interpersonal. One implication of these results is that it is possible for an equitable distribution to still be considered unjust. "
277	13	2	1983	 Two studies are reported in which judges rated statements concerning the non medical use of drugs before rating their own attitude on the issue. In study 1,185 school and 73 university students rated their own attitude on four scales chosen to manipulate the value connotations of the response language, as well as a fifth scale labelled 'extremely opposed to/extremely in favour of the non medical use of drugs §s . As predicted by accentuation theory, judges were more prepared to describe their own position in evaluatively positive than evaluatively negative terms: thus, pro drug judges gave more extreme self ratings on a scale (P+) where the pro drug end was positive and the anti drug end was negative, whereas anti drug subjects gave more extreme self ratings on a scale (A+) where the pro drug end was negative and the anti drug end was positive. Judges overall gave more extreme self ratings on a scale (EP) where both ends were positively labelled than on a scale (EN) where both ends were negatively labelled. Predictions of the variable perspective model were not supported, manipulation of the range of statements presented for judgement (through exclusion of either extremely pro drug or extremely anti drug statements) had no effect on self rating. Study 2 generalized the findings of the first experiment. Self ratings obtained from 48 school students were again found to be more extreme on EP than on EN scales. 
278	13	2	1983	" This paper is concerned with the conditions under which an effort k made to reconcile inconsistent arguments in a message. It assumes, first, that reconciliation requires additional processing; and second, that it does not occur automatically but only when the set of inconsistent arguments are informative and must be integrated in the representation of the judgment. Subjects were given trait descriptions that varied in consistency as well as in informativeness. Their task was to use these descriptions in forming a judgement about a hypothetical person. It was found that the impact of consistency on the ease with which the judgement was made, as indicated by its latency, was more pronounced when the descriptions were highly informative than when they were relatively uninformative: It took much longer for an inconsistent set of trait descriptions to give rise to a judgement than a consistent set if the set was informative; if the descriptions were uninformative, the difference in the latency of judgement diminished considerably. These effects support the hypothesis that the amount of processing invested in reconciling inconsistencies among arguments is determined by the informativeness of these arguments. After making their judgement, subjects were given a surprise recognition memory test. The results provided further support for the notion that highly informative arguments are elaborated to a larger extent than uninformative arguments, namely, recognition memory for the former was superior to that for the latter. "
279	13	2	1983	 A review of the literature pertaining to Rokeach, Smith, and Evans §s  (1960) belief congruence theory provided a context for discussion of some methodological and theoretical issues relating to conceptualization of the dependent variables, beliefcontent, belief discrepancy, meaningfulness of the race belief comparison, attitude belief feedback loops, attitude structure, and the relation between self and ideal similarity. The literature was judged supportive of a weak version of belief congruence theory which states that in those contexts in which social pressure is nonexistent or ineffective, belief is more important than race as a determinant of racial or ethnic discrimination. Evidence for a strong version of belief congruence theory (which states that in those contexts in which social pressure is nonexistent, or ineffective, belief is the only determinant of racial or ethnic discrimination) and was judged much more problematic. 
280	13	2	1983	 Sixty adults from the city of Linz took part in this experiment. They read a story The War of the Ghosts in pairs, and were required to reproduce it either jointly, in dyads, or singly, and either immediately following or one week later. In addition they were asked a number of specific questions about the story, and gave various ratings of confidence and completeness. As predicted, social (dyadic) performance increased confidence, completeness and the incidence of implicational errors (errors which do not contradict the original). Delay significantly diminished confidence. Analyses of confidence for right and wrong answers indicated that subjective testimonial validity was substantial in all conditions. Analyses of objective testimonial validity showed that dyads are more trustworthy than individuals when they are correct, but are less trustworthy when they happen to be wrong. They overall conjidence I accuracy correlation across conditions of +0.6 masks the fact that the greatest obstacle to valid testimony is inappropriate confidence in wrong answers, especially in dyads, and especially immediately after the event. The incidence of implicational errors was highly related positively to measures of confidence and accuracy, whereas confusional errors were independent. Implicational errors are regarded as an especially important element in schematic recall, and are an important aspect of the superiority of social performance. 
281	13	2	1983	 The number of newspaper articles about various diseases and the amount of attention given to these diseases by 7 British national daily newspapers were compared with the actual mortality statistics for these diseases. Spearman rank correlations showed that there was no correspondence between the press §s coverage of disease and mortality statistics. 
282	13	2	1983	 Subjects judged the relationship between two diners who either divided their restaurant check equally, or who paid for exactly what they ordered (i.e. divided it equitably). Relative to persons dividing the check equitably, those making equal divisions were perceived as liking each other more, having a closer relationship, being better friends, and being more likely to see each other again.
283	13	3	1983	 Two experiments investigated whether minority influence and conformity operate by the same or by different processes. It was predicted that subjects who were simultaneously exposed to a majority and a minority opinion would move towards the minority in private but towards the majority in public. The results of Experiment 1 supported this hypothesis. Experiment 2 investigated three hypotheses predicting that (1) the above interaction would be replicated, (2) minorities would trigger more arguments and counter arguments, and (3) cognitive activity would mediate internalization but not compliance. Hypotheses 1 and 3 were supported. The second hypothesis was not supported. However, minorities were found to trigger more arguments and fewer counter arguments than majorities. The results were interpreted as supporting the dual process model. 
284	13	3	1983	" The theorizing of Asch and Moscovici was used as a framework for exploring the relationships among social pressure, attention to the stimulus, doubt about one §s own judgment, and conformity. Male and female subjects (N  185) were confronted either with one (low social pressure) or three (high social pressure) others who judged 12 critical pairs of noises as equal in loudness. The noises within each pair actually varied in how similar they were in loudness. High social pressure resulted in most subjects paying either little or much attention to the stimulus; low social pressure resulted in most subjects paying a moderate amount of attention to the stimulus. When social pressure was high, greater self doubt was associated with less attention to the stimulus; when social pressure was low, greater self doubt was associated with more attention to the stimulus. Conformity was positively associated with self doubt and negatively associated with attention to the stimulus. Social pressure increased conformity, particularly when subjects paid little attention to the stimulus. Although the results are interpreted as partially consistent with both the Asch and the Moscovici perspectives, they are not totally consistent with either. "
285	13	3	1983	 It is argued that the efficacy of role playing as an experimental strategy should be assessed in terms of its ability to resolve the problems of experimentation in social psychology. Via an epistemological and methodological analysis of the laboratory experiment in social psychology, it is argued that active experimental role playing constitutes a promising experimental strategy, because it can potentially overcome the fundamental experimental problem that arise in virtue of the relational nature of social psychological phenomena. It is stressed that in the end the question of the efficacy of role playing as an experimental strategy is an empirical one, but also that most empirical evaluations are inadequate for two reasons. Most of the role playing groups lack realism and involvement, and the congruence of results in role playing studies of deception experiments (whose validity is questionable) is uncritically taken as both the standard and the criterion for the efficacy of role playing. Both role playing and deception techniques should be assessed in terms of their capacity to achieve experimental realism. 
286	13	3	1983	 The preponderance of empirical research in social psychology has ofren been a central issue in the crisis literature. However, no extensive empirical study has ever been undertaken vis a vis the crisis in social psychology. In two studies, factors effecting the perceptions of social psychologists of their discipline were investigated. Although in the first study, among Dutch social psychologists, four hypotheses were tested and confirmed, a large part of the total variance in the perception of the crisis remained unexplained. In the second study, both a worldwide sample of active social psychological researchers as well as a sample of authors of the crisis literature were surveyed. The stances of both groups differed considerably. Although a majority of the active researchers did not agree that a crisis is at hand in social psychology, a large minority did. The active researchers agreed with many of the criticisms of social psychological research and theorizing. Attitudes on nine central issues, including the functioning of the editor/reviewer publishing system, predicted a large percentage of the total variance in the subjects §s  attitude toward the existence of a crisis in their discipline. 
287	13	3	1983	 The present study compares the effects of two different socialization environments the Israeli kibbutz and the city on the social values held by 16 17 year olds. A total of 352 boys and girls, 195 porn the city and 157 porn the kibbutz, filled out a specially prepared thirteen item questionnaire on social values. The results revealed the existence of four factors underlying these values: self oriented concerns (factor 1), other oriented concerns (factor 2), reliance on innate spiritual capacities (factor 3), reliance on physical and productive capacities (factor 4). Significant differences on factors 1 and 3 were uncovered for the kibbutz and the city subjects, while boys and girls differed significantly on factors 2 and 4. The findings were discussed in light of the differences in educational systems between the kibbutz and the city, and in light of sex role differences characteristic of Western society in general. 
288	13	3	1983	" A critical appraisal of the existing motivational versus cognitive controversies in the area of attributional research led to the formulation of a model which contains the dimension of Evaluation conceptualized independently from Locus of causality. The model was tested, with Nigerian undergraduate students serving as subjects, in an experiment on self versus other attributions for success and failure outcomes. The data revealed two major findings: (1) Positive evaluation, and not attributional asymmetry, is the pattern of self perception in the achievement related contexts; (2) The pattern of positive evaluation in other perception is self outcome mediated, it shows a high level of generalization in the co shared experience and an egotistic reversal if opposite outcomes occur. "
289	13	3	1983	 In the context of a comparative review of four recently published books on justice, the author provides an assessment of the current state of the field. He specifically discusses the role of equity theory, the variety of distributive principles, the role of justice in social behaviour, the broadening of perspectives in the field, and some remaining gaps and weaknesses in the literature. In concluding, the work of the leading theorists in the area is evaluated.
290	13	4	1983	 Four procedures for measuring between group orientations were described and evaluated. These include the procedures developed by Tajfel and his associates, Brewer and Silver, Locksley et al., Ng, and a revised procedure. The revised procedure was designed to measure seven between group Orientations. Use of the new measure and the Tajfel measure with college sophomores revealed somewhat different results. The Tajfel measure revealed evidence for the typically found pulls, but the new measure revealed only evidence for equality between groups and maximizing joint rewards with an advantage to own group. Use of the new meausure with 15 year old boys and girls revealed evidence for maximizing own group reward for both sexes, equality for girls only, and maximizing relative advantage to own group for boys only. For neither sex was maximizing own relative advantage (analogous to Tajfel §s MD) the largest orientation. 
291	13	4	1983	 Bornstein et al.(1983) employ both argument and evidence to suggest that the Tajfel matrices are an inadequate measure of intergroup behaviour in the social categorization paradigm. These comments reject their criticisms, point out the potentially misleading confoundings between strategies embodied in their own measurement technique, and show that once these confoundings are taken into account, the results of their two experiments are comparable to those normally obtained by the Tajfel matrices. Some misunderstandings about the role of the MD strategy are also corrected. 
292	13	4	1983	 In response to Turner it was argued that the maximizing outcomes assumption is plausible, his continuous variable assumption is implausible, and his assertion that sets of pull scores yield unconfounded measures is incorrect. In addition to considering still further matters, such as the reduction of Tajfel matrices to simplified binary matrices, data from two new experiments were presented. One experiment reveals that, contrary to Turner §s reservations, the allocution of points (or money) to one own group and one other group member versus different own group and different other group members has no differential effect. The second experiment found that Turner §s assertion that Bornstein et al. §s cover story created a sense of precedence that reduced fairness is incorrect. In view of the existence of a clearly superior alternative it was concluded that further use of the Tajfel matrices would be unwise. 
293	13	4	1983	 It is argued in response to Bornstein et al. (1983a) that most preferreed outcomes are not restricted to the maximal values of strategies, that the revised matrices are conpromise between maximal discrimination and exact fairness, that strategies can and should be measured as variables, and that their further criticisms of the Taifel matrices again fail to withstand careful examination. Their new data are irrelevant to the measurement issue. It is concluded that the Tajfel matrices are superior to the revised matrices if one wishes to measure strategies as unconfounded variables and without defining subjects §s  most preferred outcomes a priori. 
294	13	4	1983	 The object of this study is to explore to what degree the question of ingroup favouritism, brought to light in the framework of social identity theory, is dependent upon the methods used for measuring this variable. The influence of this factor on ingroup bias was tested under the following three conditions: complementary assessment, separate assessment and choice of dimensions. This last condition gave the subjects the opportunity to choose which dimensions would be used for assessment. It was found that the degree of ingroup bias is different for each of the three conditions. The results indicate that it is only under certain circumstances that the ingroup distinguishes itself as better at the expense of the outgroup. This occurs only if the subjects are not given the opportunity to assess both groups on non corresponding dimensions, and therefore do not have the possibility to rate them equally good but different. 
295	13	4	1983	 Besides Rotter §s hypothesis that internals are more likely to participate in sociopolitical action than externals, in this paper the hypothesis is formulated that externals are more likely to participate in socio political action than internals. Both hypotheses can be justified from a value expectancy theoretical point of view. These hypotheses are called the efficacy hypothesis and the power formation hypothesis respectively. The assumption is made that the power formation hypothesis holds true for people who are convinced that they are powerless, on objective and for ideological grounds, and that the efficacy hypothesis holds true for people who do not have that conviction. Conditions under which a relationship between I. E. and socio political action taking can be expected were derived from both hypotheses. Thirty one studies on I. E. and action taking were reviewed. Five studies confirmed the efficacy hypothesis, four studies confirmed the power formation hypothesis. Nineteen studies revealed no relationship between I. E. scores and action taking. The explanations that various authors give for the absence of a relationship were examined. It was investigated whether explanations that held true for studies other than the ones for which they were formulated would fit into the theoretical framework developed in this article. This appeared to be the case. The implications for further research are discussed. 
296	13	4	1983	 In a field study, models for magnitude estimation and for category ratings are applied to the scaling of occupational prestige. The two respective models provide sufficient conditions for magnitude estimates to yield logarithmic interval scales and for category ratings to lead to interval scales. Both models are found to hold reasonably well for the majority of respondents. As implied by a third model, the relation between magnitude estimation and category rating scales can well be described by a generalized power function. Although overall results do not favour one method over the other individual data analyses reveal substantial interindividual differences with respect to the capability of performing magnitude estimates and category ratings, respectively. The findings are compared to results recently found in psychophysical laboratory experiments, and it is concluded that the individual scale properties the two methods provide do not differ across the attitudinal and the sensory domains. 
297	13	4	1983	 Effects of the dimensionality of responsibility and causality attributions were investigated. An accident was described. Subjects cued to respond with causality attributions increased their attributions with event severity. Subjects cued to respond with moral responsibility attributions decreased attributional levels with increasing severity. Assignments of guilt varied specifically with the cued attributional concept. 
298	13	4	1983	 Studied the effects of attitude extremity on perceived consensus and willingness to ascribe trait terms to others with either pro or anti nuclear attitudes. Results showed that attitude extremity affected consensus estimates. Trait attributions revealed a clear effect for valence, especially for the extreme attitude groups. Subjects with extreme attitudes also ascribed more traits to both pro and anti others than subjects with relatively moderate attitudes.
299	14	1	1984	 The paper contains a detailed study of the St. Pauls §s  riots of April 1980. Particular attention is paid to the limits of participation in the event and the limits of crowd action. It is argued that these limits show clear social form and cannot be explained in terms of the individualistic theories that dominate crowd psychology. Instead a model of crowd behaviour based on the social identity model is advanced to account for the observations. It is concluded that crowd behaviour is more sophisticated and creative than hitherto allowed and that the neglect of this field should be remedied.
300	14	1	1984	" Studied the effect of social categorization, strength of influence and predisposition to influence on social influence concerning musical preferences. One hundred and sixty eight French adolescents (age 15 years) were assigned to the eight conditions of a 2 (social categorization: majority/minority) × 2 (strength of influence: strong/weak) × 2 (predisposition to influence: pervious/impervious) design. Influence source was an opinion poll based on pupils from two types of secondary school. Direct influence was exerted from hard rock to new wave music; indirect influence was measured by subjects §s  preferences for hard rock versus contemporary music. Ratings of the source were also elicited. Analyses of variance revealed indirect influence to be significantly greater with the minority than the majority source (p < 0.02). Indirect influence was especially high for subjects with a clear predisposition to influence and when the influence was weak (p < 0.0005). Further analyses confirmed the effect to be due to the actual numbers of subjects influenced. The study thus demonstrated the generalizability of the conversion notion (minority influence on an indirect level) from numerical to social minorities."
301	14	1	1984	 This study is one of a series of experiments designed to examine how sociostructural factors such as group numbers, power and status affect intergroup behaviour. Using a variant of Tajfel §s minimal group paradigm the present study investigated the intergroup behaviour of college students categorized as numerical minority, majority or equal group members. The effects of salient (S) versus non salient (S?) group categorizations were also examined. These manipulations yielded a 3 × 2 design matrix consisting of majority/equal/minority × salient (S)/non salient (S?) group conditions. Unlike most previous studies using this paradigm, subjects §s  responses on Tajfel §s point distribution matrices were supplemented with subjects §s  report of their own and outgroup §s point distribution strategies. As expected, minimal group results were replicated in the equal group (S?) condition such that mere categorization into ingroup/outgroup was sufficient to foster intergroup discrimination. However salient (S) equal group members were more fair than discriminatory in their responses. Minorities (S/S?) were generally less fair than equal groups, showed high levels of absolute ingroup favouritism (S?) while simultaneously attempting to establish positive distinctiveness from majorities. Though majorities were generally fair (S/S?), they also appeared to be more concerned than minorities about maintaining positive differentials between themselves and minorities. Although, majority (S/S?) and equal group (S?) members accurately reported their actual distribution strategies, minorities (S/S?) and equal (S) group members were not as accurate in their self reports. Overall the present results are consistent with hypotheses derived from Social Identity Theory. But the results also show that sociostructural variables such as group numbers can have an important impact on intergroup behaviours.
302	14	1	1984	 Investigating the notion that belief in afrerlife (BA) serves the function of helping the individual to deal with fear of death, a study was designed to explore the effect of public commitment to religion, repression sensitization, and anticipatory concern with death and dying on BA, and examine the relationship between BA and state anxiety. Fifty students of theology and fifty students of various other subjects responded to a German version of Byrne §s R S scale, and then were randomly assigned to two conditions: they either worked through Thanatos Questionnaire, and thereby were confronted with death and dying for about 15 to 20 minutes, or filled out a questionnaire unrelated to the topic. Thereupon, a BA scale was administered, and at last, subjects responded to a scale measuring state anxiety. The findings of Osarchuk and Tatz (1973) that religiously committed persons are strengthening BA after being confronted with death and dying could not be replicated. However, among subjects with no public commitment, those concerned with death and dying scored significantly lower on BA than those not concerned. This effect was especially observed among students classified as sensitizers. Because changes of BA did not correspond with changes of within cell correlations between BA and state anxiety, an alternative explanation of the findings in terms of dissonance theory is put forward.
303	14	1	1984	" It is shown that Fishbein §s theory of reasoned action can be used to explain people §s intentions to wear seat belts. As Bentler and Speckart (1979) have proposed, a self report measure of past behaviour is shown to significantly improve the model §s power; this extended Fishbein model being capable of accounting for the majority of the effects that extraneous variables, which are known to influence seat belt use, have upon a person §s behavioural intentions. In addition, it is shown that the model §s motivation to comply term is, as Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) have proposed, a unipolar rather than a bi polar construct, but that even when this construct is scored as unipolar, it does not significantly add to the model §s predictive power."
304	14	1	1984	 To investigate the relationship between implicit psychological hypotheses and explicit empirical findings, summaries of twenty published studies on attitude behaviour consistency were presented to a sample of forty eight psychology undergraduates. Subjects were asked to estimate the percentage of agreement between attitudes and behaviour obtained by each study. Correlations between subjects §s  covariation judgements and empirically obtained attitude behaviour consistencies were minimal and nonsignificant. Results are discussed in the light of more recent research on attitude behaviour relationship.
305	14	1	1984	" Despite criticism of Weber §s thesis concerning the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) and the rise of Capitalism, few have challenged the specification of the behaviour patterns, goals and values of those adhering to this ethic. Whereas psychologists have not been very interested in the nature of the historical, political and sociological arguments concerning the PWE, they have devoted a great deal of research to its measurement and correlates. In this paper the concept of the PWE; the literature on the instruments devised to measure the PWE; studies on the relationship between the PWE and work and unemployment; as well as research on the PWE and individual differences is reviewed. Despite great heterogeneity in aims, methodology and instruments used in different studies, a coherent picture of PWE beliefs emerges. Finally an elaboration of a new perspective on PWE research is suggested."
306	14	1	1984	 Subjects acted in a social dilemma situation. Two variables were experimentally manipulated: use and variance. One third of the subjects thought that the others in their group were overusing the common resource, one third thought that the others were underusing it, and the remaining third were led to believe that the others were using the resource optimally. Moreover, half of the subjects thought that the others took relatively similar harvests (low variance) while the other half thought the others differed greatly (high variance). Support was found for Homans §s  assumption that the internal function of leaders is to allocate outcomes equitably over group members, whereas their external function is to deal efficiently with the external environment. The results indicated that more subjects in the overuse condition voted to give up free access to the resource and to hand over the management of the resource to a leader than in the other me conditions. Moreover, more subjects in the high variance condition voted for a leader than in the low variance condition. Over all conditions, furthermore, subjects preferred themselves most as prospective leader. In addition, group members who were similar to the subject, competent at the task and concerned for the group were preferred as Leader. When subjects acted as leader they were more moderate in withdrawing harvests from the resource than as regular group member. Moreover, leaders allocated outcomes equitably to the group members.
307	14	2	1984	 Recent critical attempts to modify or replace attribution theory have focused particularly on two issues: the relationship of the reason cause distinction to attribution theories and actor/observer differences in attribution, and the emphasis in attribution theories on inferential, as opposed to self presentational, processes. In dealing with these two issues, some critics also point out ethnocentric and ideological influences on attribution theories. The issues raised are important, as both intentional (reason) explanations and self presentational factors have been under represented in attribution theories. But the new attempts to build these factors into theories of lay explanation are not wholly satisfactory. Authors make several stipulations about reasons and causes that are unsupportable, and they employ arguments about differences between actors and observers that are unsatisfactory in other respects. Nonetheless a number of their claims can be reconceptualised and supported by using definitions and parameters that do not confound the variables being examined. Claims that attribution theories have ignored self presentational factors underestimate the extent to which self presentational factors are being examined in attribution studies, but the proposition that self presentational factors account for most aspects of explanations is unconvincing. Authors are also mistaken to assume that ethnocentric or ideological factors are particular to attribution theories. The errors, exaggerations and other difficulties in the authors §s  arguments do not nullify the attempt to expand or transcend attribution theory. Where flaws in the arguments are pointed out, alternative ways of tackling the same issues are referred to or proposed.
308	14	2	1984	 Perceptions of social group membership are crucial both to social behaviour generally, and to social conflict: The basis for ingroup versus outgroup distinctions and the personal and social significance of such judgments are thus important areas of study. This paper describes a model of social norms as it applies to speech use and, in particular, the role of speech in perceptions of social groups. The context of this discussion is a general research and conceptual framework for studying perceptions of and reactions to social group differences. The framework is in three stages, consisting of the recognition of group differences, the definition or evaluative interpretation of a given speech act, and the development of a problem resolution or social change strategy. Social group distinctions are hypothesized to be based on shared norms, modelled here as structured expectancies regarding the behaviour appropriate to specific social contexts. Norms are seen as varying in their content, i.e. the specific behaviours that are socially evaluated, in their clarity, which controls the strength and certainty of social judgments based on norms, and in the size and nature of the social group sharing a given norm. The specific components of the norm model are discussed in light of existing data on language behaviour. The second stage of the model is briefly discussed via social psychological judgments that are hypothesized to control responses to a given speech event. This framework is hoped to have heuristic value in studying language use and social processes.
309	14	2	1984	 Shyness is one of a class of psychological terms that have their roots in ordinary, everyday language. Accordingly, researchers are obliged either to base their definitions of shyness on a thoroughgoing analysis of the conditions prescribed socially for the use of the term and its derivatives, or to otherwise maintain a rigorous distinction between their use and the lay person §s use of the term. Unfortunately, however, they have failed to do this. The consequences of this are outlined, including the doubtful practice of Psychological Imperialism, in which psychologists effectively superimpose their professional definitions of psychological constructs upon those developed by the lay person. The implications of this argument for the conduct of future research into shyness are discussed, and it is suggested that researchers dealing with like terms in other areas of psychology should also be alert to these dangers.
310	14	2	1984	 The early social experiences of firstborn, laterborn, and only children were  analysed from the viewpoint of how those experiences influence the child §s general image of human nature. It was hypothesized that there are some differences in the centrality of an evaluative dimension, that are related to birth order. Subjects in Poland and in the United States rated 20 known stimulus persons on 25 trait dimensions. The results supported the hypotheses and seem to point to some origins of individual differences in certain person perception processes.
311	14	2	1984	 Empirical attempts to explain the genesis of illusory correlations have been largely confined to the demonstration of biased recall processes, although it has been acknowledged that perception and encoding processes may also contribute to the illusion. In the present research, illusory correlations between person types (a student versus a clerk) and educational attitudes (liberal versus authoritarian statements) are demonstrated under conditions where selective recall processes are highly unlikely. The cognitive bias that gives rise to the illusion is shown to already be effective when the stimulus information is perceived. Interestingly, there are marked interindividual differences between experimental participants. The results are discussed in the context of the literature on illusory correlations.
312	14	2	1984	 The hypothesis that individuals §s  memory for their past behaviours may be biased toward apparent consistency with their current attitudes was tested by exposing subjects to a message that argued against frequent toothbrushing. Some subjects believed that the source of this message was an expert (high credibility condition), whereas other subjects learned after the message that the speaker was misinformed (low credibility condition). Subjects in the high credibility condition expressed less favourable attitudes toward toothbrushing and reported that they had brushed their teeth less often in the preceding four weeks than did subjects in the low credibility condition. A three week follow up showed that the attitudinal difference was still significant but that estimates of past toothbrushing did not differ reliably between the two conditions. The results suggest that when attitudes are very salient, they increase the accessibility of consistent behaviours in memory.
313	14	2	1984	 This study examines the importance of evaluation and description in attributional inference. Sets of trait attributes were selected to remove the usual confounding of descriptive and evaluative aspects of trait attribution. Results demonstrated that both evaluative and descriptive aspects play an important role in attributional inference. Furthermore, results suggest that extremity of own attitude leads to an increasing influence of evaluative factors in the ascription of personality traits. When subjects were forced to choose between evaluative congruity and descriptive consistency, more extreme subjects tended to ignore the descriptive properties of the trait attributes. This finding suggests that more extreme subjects §s  trait inferences primarily reflect their evaluation of the target. Implications of these findings for attributional inference research are discussed.
314	14	2	1984	 Nogami and Streufert §s (1983) thesis, that the distinction between causal and moral responsibility accounts for contradictory data in the defensive attribution literature, is criticized on empirical and conceptual grounds. It is argued that the results reported may be idiosyncratic to their study given the procedures they used. Moreover, close examination reveals several problems in using their results to account for previous contradictory research findings. 
315	14	2	1984	 Fincham (1984) has argued that Nogami and Streufert (1983) advanced a thesis which (1) attempts to empirically demonstrate that attributions for an accident are lower with severe as opposed to less severe outcomes and (2) applies these data to account for previous contradictory findings of the defensive attribution literature. The present authors show that Fincham §s attribution of intent to Nogami and Streufert is in error and that the divergent views of Nogami and Streufert versus those of Fincham and associates reflect legitimate but different approaches toward the problem of attribution theory and research. 
316	14	2	1984	 Studied the effects of different kinds of similarity between social groups on ingroup favouritism using a modified replication of an experiment by Turner (1978). Instead of replicating the results of Turner, the data showed just the opposite. They are discussed within the framework of social identity theory. 
317	14	2	1984	 This study explored the relationship between children §s sociometric status (SMS) and ability to recognize emotions from facial expressions. As expected, high SMS children obtained significantly higher emotion recognition scores than did low SMS children. However, there was an unanticipated inverse correlation between low SMS children §s recognition scores from adult photgraphs and child photographs. Possible reasons for the observed relationships are discussed.
318	14	3	1984	 Two experiments investigated the impact of social motives or individuals §s  preferences for specific self other outcome distributions, on behaviour in an n person game. Subjects §s  social motives (altruistic, cooperative, individualistic, competitive) were assessed prior to the decision making in either 7 person games (Experiment 1) or 20 person games (Experiment 2). A modification of the n person game format normally employed is introduced in this research to permit the choices made by players on a given trial to modify the payoff matrix available to self and others on subsequent trials. The game format, a simulated social dilemma, was presented in terms of a conservation of resources problem. In Experiment 1 communication opportunities were manipulated. As predicted, there were consistent differences between the four classes of social motivation in the amount of the resources taken for self competitive subjects took the most, individualistic subjects took less than the competitive ones but more than the average, while cooperative and altruistic subjects took the smallest amount of the resources for themselves. Moreover, competitive subjects expected the others to take fewer resources than they intended to themselves, and altruistic subjects expected the others to take more resources than they intended to themselves. These findings are only partly consistent with existing theories concerning the relationship between behaviour and expected behaviour of others. In addition, when communication was allowed, significantly fewer resources were taken for self Contrary to the predictions based on previous research findings, subjects in the 20 person groups did not take more resources for self than subjects in the 7 person groups.
319	14	3	1984	 Results from 680 plays, gathered in four different 3 person characteristic function game experiments, are summarized to show that there is considerable inter group variability in payoff disbursement in coalition formation experiments that does not decrease with practice. This Variability is inconsistent with models predicting unique payoff vectors, one for each coalition structure. Data from a 3 person game experiment by Komorita and Kravitz are then employed to test and corroborate a recently proposed model, which predicts a range of payoff vectors in which each point depends on a single parameter interpretable as a standard of fairness.
320	14	3	1984	 Based on a social psychological concept of aggression, in which the processes of definition and judgement of acts of behaviour are credited with central meaning, the situational context of aggressive interactions was systematized for a specific field (school). It is assumed that the particular circumstances of a situation provide information for the interpretation of a particular action, and that this interpretation varies depending on these circumstances. In the following study, norm deviation, intent and injury, are used as central criteria for judging on action as aggressive in order to establish a taxonomy of social situations, presented as verbal scenarios, that is both field and behaviour specific. 686 school children aged between 13 and 19 years participated in this study. By using a multivariate analysis procedure, groups of situations were identified in which similar judgements of a particular action emerged. Both typical judgement patterns and corresponding situation characteristics were used in the interpretation of the resulting situation taxonomy.
321	14	3	1984	 The present study investigated the general assumption of perspective specific dissent between actor and victim in evaluating aggressive interactions. Four experimental designs were established to test the relation of evaluations between (a) actor versus victim when judging a single act, (b) initiator versus reactor when judging action and reaction, and (c) actor as well as recipient when judging own versus other §s behaviour. Results of 2 × 2 ANOVAs supported the hypotheses showing a consistently more favourable evaluation of identical actions by actors versus recipients with respect to the dependent variable appropriateness. For the second dependent variable aggressiveness differences were not significant.
322	14	3	1984	 A study was conducted, according to a 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 design and using the Buss aggression machine paradigm, to investigate the aggression eliciting properties of slides of firearms. One hundred and twenty highly irritable and 120 low irritable subjects, equally divided between males and females, were given the opportunity to deliver electric shocks to an experimental confederate after having been randomly assigned to one of the six different conditions resulting from presence versus absence of previous instigation to aggress and from exposure to aggressive slides versus exposure to non aggressive slides versus non exposure to slides. It was found that aggressive cues, were sufficient per se to increase subsequent aggressive behaviours in observers, whether or not previously instigated to aggress. While sex differences did not seem to play any relevant role, the importance of irritability was stressed, especially where exposure to aggressive slides followed a previous instigation to aggress.
323	14	3	1984	 This study tested the hypothesis that in situations, incorporating demands for opposing allocation rules, people will only compromise between the relevant rules if the allocational computation is fairly simple. Male secondary school pupils were given a description of one of three situations (an unambiguous equality, an unambiguous equity or an ambiguous equality and equity situation), and they were then asked to divide 100 units of reward over four persons in easy or in complex computation circumstances. Instead of the expected interaction between situational ambiguity and complexity the results showed a computational complexity main effect: compromising decreased with complexity. In addition, in the ambiguous conditions, the proportion of equitable distributions was greater in the simple and smaller in the complex condition than the proportion of equal distributions. It was concluded that greater computational complexity not only decreases the amount of compromising, but also induces a preference for equality over equity allocations, if situational demands for equity are not too strong. Both are considered expressions of the same tendency to switch to computationally easier allocations, as allocation computations become more complex.
324	14	3	1984	 This study explored how group members perceived a fellow group member who made either group serving or group effacing attributions following success or failure. Forty male undergraduates from the Chinese University cooperated in pairs with a confederate on a demanding group task. After learning that their group §s performance had exceeded or failed to meet a standard, the subjects heard their confederate partner make group effacing or group serving attributions. As predicted, subjects evaluated the group serving partners more highly (p < 0.05). Preference for group enhancing members was discussed as a pancultural response arising from the interdependence of group members. Given the process of social categorization, group members rise or fall together and are therefore socialized to support their group. 
325	14	3	1984	 This article evaluates the present state of research on personal relationships on the basis of a selection of recently published books. After shortly sketching the historical development of socio psychological research on interpersonal attraction and relationships, eight volumes dealing with relationships are reviewed and salient conceptual, methodological, and theoretical trends in recent research are discussed.
326	14	4	1984	 120 subjects took part in an Asch type experiment, using a material which was suitable for the measurement of indirect influence. The subjects were given the consistent incorrect response of a source which was either a majority (the response given by 88 per cent of a parent population of college students) or a minority (12 per cent). Part of the subjects were told that the experiment was investigating perceptual illusions and an example of such illusions was given. An authority condition was also introduced: the experimenter himself gave the incorrect response. A control condition did not involve any influence or illusion. The results show that direct influence increases when there is a stronger symbolic social pressure. They also show that an indirect influence may be induced by a numerical majority (provided that the subjects believe that there is an illusion) as well as a numerical minority (provided that an illusion does not invalidate its response). These results underline how important it is to control the exact significance of experimental situations that are supposed to represent the psychological conditions of majority or minority influence.
327	14	4	1984	 Semin and Strack (1980) demonstrated that the findings obtained by Snyder and Swann (1978) with respect to an hypothesis confirming strategy in social interaction were due to the assigned task, and not to a person §s hypothesis. In our first experiment we replicated Semin and Strack §s results. In a second experiment, employing a more effective manipulation of the subject §s hypothesis, support was obtained for an effect of the hypothesis factor. It was concluded that both an assigned task effect and an hypothesis effect can be demonstrated in the laboratory and probably exist in reality.
328	14	4	1984	 The present study investigated social consensual conceptions concerning the appropriateness relation between an initiative aggressive action and the reaction to it. To this end subjects were asked to choose between four configurations of mediatory information between B §s initial act and A §s reaction (i.e. A §s offence at B §s behaviour, inappropriateness of B §s behaviour, A §s personal standards, A §s fear of negative consequences), so as to combine identical initial acts with incompatible reactions (i.e. escalation, breaking of, and compensation) into meaningful episodes. The statistical procedure used, configural frequency analysis, shows that as compared with the number of theoretically possible configurations, very few were selected by subjects (with a high degree of unanimaty) as being specific to a particular type of reaction. Apparently subjects have definite and uniform conceptions about the appropriateness of incompatible reactions to certain aggressive actions in interpersonal conflicts.
329	14	4	1984	 The influence of the factors norm deviation, intent, and injury, on the judgement of a critical act as aggressive and sanctionable was tested using a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design. Scenarios depicting aggressive interactions represented the experimental conditions. 859 school children rated these scenarios on bipolar rating scales. The results show that norm deviation, intent, and injury, are important criteria for the interpretation of aggressive behaviour. Judging an action as sanctionable proved to be more sensitive for the variation of factors than the interpretation of behaviour as aggressive. In addition, an analysis of how the scenarios representing the experimental conditions were subjectively interpreted by the subjects was carried out. This showed that all combinations of the three definition criteria are psychologically meaningful. However, preferences were observed for specific interpretation patterns.
330	14	4	1984	 Two studies are reported indicating that changes in attractiveness induced by psychological reactance are eliminated by a restoration of freedom only if the restoration occurs immediately following the threat. When the restoration was delayed, changes in attractiveness were attenuated but were still significant, no matter whether the restoration occurred by chance or was under subjects §s  vicarious control. A threat immediately followed by a restoration, however, may be perceived as one event, and thus may not be very threatening. Therefore, the absence of reactance effects after immediate restoration may be due to a weak induction of reactance rather than to a reduction of reactance. To this extent, the incomplete reduction of reactance effects found after delayed restoration, on the other hand, calls into question earlier conclusions (based on immediate restoration) that reactance is completely reduced by restoration of freedom and that reactance effects will no longer be obtained.
331	14	4	1984	 The effects of occupational deviance and role overload on Fear of Success (FOS) scores were investigated following Bremer and Wittig §s (1980) finding that these inflate FOS scores when a story cue describing a female character is given to respondents of both sexes. This finding was replicated by the present study. However, stories were also given that described events involving a male character. In this condition occupational deviance and role overload produced no such effect upon the FOS scores. Bremer and Wittig §s suggestion that these two variables are independent of the sex of the cue character is therefore refuted and it is argued instead that these variables will be interpreted very differently depending on the sex of the cue character. The finding that male and female respondents produce very similar FOS scores to the same stories provides further evidence that such measurement techniques evoke sex role stereotypes rather than an indication of the individual §s motivation. The particular relevance to Parsons and Goff §s (1980) emphasis upon the incentive value component of the McClelland/Atkinson Motivational Model is also explored.
332	14	4	1984	 Different attribution theories differ from each other less by their relation to different epistemic problems than by their taking account of different goals to which causal attributions can be functional. The process of causal attribution is influenced by the goals to which causal attributions are functional. A second criteria for differentiating attributions theories is that they proceed from different information bases.
333	14	4	1984	 Effler §s recent criticisms of the lay epistemic model are considered. It is argued that various attributional models indeed address various attributional goals but this is because of (and not instead of) their concern with different attributional problems. Furthermore, while some attributional models deal with causal dimensions rather than with specific causes, and/or attend to the influences of important human needs this does not satisfactorily establish the non arbitrary character of goals featured in those models. Finally, while noncommon deducibility constitutes a principle applicable only to a multi propositional problem rather than universally, logic, motivation and cognitive contents enter conjunctively into the process of human inference. This view is juxtaposed to the suggestion that they represent disjunctive strategies of inference on which the knower may draw in various circumstances.
334	14	4	1984	 In the present experiment subjects made a decision between two alternatives which was either reversible or irreversible. After the choice, subjects evaluated the attractiveness of both alternatives once more under different time levels. It was found that with increasing time level, re evaluation of alternatives increased under irreversible and decreased under reversible conditions. The results are discussed in the framework of dissonance theory. 
335	14	4	1984	 Prolonged deprivation and future orientation (FO) were studied in 200 Indian and Nepalese students of 14–16 and 18–20 years with verbal measures. In both cultures low deprived subjects were significantly more future oriented. In the development of FO both age and deprivation were significant with experiential aspect of socialization exerting greater influence than physico economic deprivation. 
336	14	4	1984	 This study examines the problem of why some motives are understood at an earlier age than others. Currently, the accepted explanation for this is that general cognitive level constrains children §s reasoning in the social domain. An alternative explanation is that an important process in understanding others is projection. To investigate this young boys and girls from two age groups were presented with cartoon stories depicting situations involving altruistic deception and self centred deception. Pairs of matched cartoon stories, each of which came in two versions, differing only in motive type were constructed. As predicted, self centred deception was understood earlier than altruistic deception. These results are congruent with the idea that the underlying process in understanding others is projection.
337	15	1	1985	Two studies are reported. The first one is concerned with an examination of the degree to which higher order models of personality differ from everyday social representations of personality. The second study consists in an analysis of intersubjective variations in the organization of everyday personality theories through an examination of the semantic field in which trait terms are represented. It is argued that hypothetico deductive models of personality rely primarily on ordinary language descriptions of persons and do not constitute higher order models. Further, it is suggested that the development of such models relies primarily on a linguistic context, rather than extralinguistic considerations to social interaction in which person terms feature centrally. The two studies provide empirical support for both contentions. Finally, a cross cultural comparison of the semantic representation of trait terms is provided.
338	15	1	1985	"Within the literature, in theoretical discussions individuals are conceptualized as agents, capable of choosing and planning their actions. Situations are open to definition and may be construed differently by different individuals. On the other hand, the majority of studies of situations treat them as concrete givens with specific properties merely waiting to be discovered. The present paper attempts to explore the possibility of empirically treating individuals as agents, capable of choosing and planning their actions and of treating situations as being open to definition. It focuses on the choice of settings to fulfil different goals and on aspects of the setting considered salient once the goal is specified. The two studies described in this paper have illustrated that there is some consensus in the way people choose settings for different goals and that different uses of the setting lead to different aspects of the setting being considered salient. The high consensus with which two different groups of subjects, performing slightly different tasks, associated goals and settings suggests that there is some shared, at least subcultural, knowledge concerning the appropriate places in which to achieve specific goals. Individuals enter settings for specific purposes. Individuals entering a particular setting for different purposes tend to report using the setting in different ways. Both the goal and the particular setting affect the aspects of the setting considered relevant to the goal; neither the goal nor the setting alone is sufficient."
339	15	1	1985	This article reports on an initial attempt to improve our knowledge of the cognitive processes which are elicited by the perception of an unjust event. High school students were given a story describing an unfair treatment of a student by his teacher and were asked to place themselves either in the role of the unfairly treated student or in that of a non affected fellow student. They were then asked to write down all questions and thoughts coming to their minds in the described situation. The reported questions and thoughts were classified into three categories: attributions, action oriented thoughts, and assessments and evaluations. Statistical analyses of the frequencies and the temporal sequence of occurrence of these categories of responses revealed that victims of an unjust event reported attributions and action related thoughts more frequently and in an earlier position than non affected observers. Assessments and evaluations, on the other hand, were more frequently reported by observers than by victims.
340	15	1	1985	Two perspectives on the nature of the social group and psychological group formation are discussed. The traditional social cohesion approach traces group formation to processes of interpersonal attraction, while the social identity approach defines the group in cognitive terms and considers identification, or self categorization, to be the mechanism of psychological group formation. On the basis of an experiment by Turner, Sachdev and Hogg (1983) it is hypothesized that interpersonal attraction (positive or negative) is related to group formation only in so far as it enhances intergroup distinctiveness. This hypothesis is experimentally tested in a 2 × 3 (interpersonal liking/disliking per se versus no explicit categorization/random categorization/criterial categorization on the basis of affect) factorial design employing the minimal group paradigm. People who like each other and were not explicitly categorized formed a group. This effect was enhanced by criterial categorization but disappeared when categorization was random. Although the results do not support the hypothesis, they are not explicable in social cohesion terms. A social identity explanation is furnished attraction influences group formation by acting, under certain specifiable conditions, as a cognitive criterion for common category membership. This explanation is located in current theorizing and is proposed as part of a reconceptualization of the relationship between interpersonal attraction and group formation.
341	15	1	1985	Purpose of this study was the problem solving effectiveness and time required for solution under cooperative, competitive, and individual conditions of 108 sixth grade Greek children. Thirty six three person groups, half all male and half all female, were given Mastermind and Questions problems across all three conditions. The sex (2) × conditions (3) A NOVA with repeated measures across conditions resulted in the most effective problem solver working individually was more effective than the cooperative condition or the competitive condition. The least effective problem solver working individually was less effective than the cooperative condition or the competitive condition. The average individual did not differ in problem solving from the cooperative condition, as would be predicted by Johnson et al. (1981). Cooperative group interaction was more effective than competitive, but only with Mastermind. Individuals were not necessarily faster than groups. No sex differences were found. In comparing problem solving effectiveness of individuals and groups, qualifications should be made regarding comparisons with the average individual or high individual.
342	15	1	1985	This paper seeks to offer an alternative approach to the study of prejudice than that based upon the notion of categorization which is currently influential in cognitive social psychology. It is argued that the categorization approach assumes the inevit
343	15	1	1985	Recent research on social cognition suggests that lifelike visual and vocal information about a person may strongly mediate the impact of prior social categorical knowledge on social judgements. Other research, however, on the contribution of visual cues to impression formation, suggests that they have relatively little impact. This study sought to resolve these conflicting findings by examining the effect of visual cues on social judgements when subjects possess prior social categorical knowledge varying in salience to the experimental task. Videotaped target interviews were monitored by observers in either sound and vision or sound only, and measures were taken of the targets §s  perceived personality, their actual and predicted social performance, and social acceptance by observers. Whilst salience of categorization strongly influenced the quality of judgements, visual cues had little if any effect. However, visual cues strongly influenced subjects §s  confidence in all three sets of judgements, sound and vision subjects being consistently more confident than their sound only counterparts. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research in both social cognition and visual cues.
344	15	1	1985	"A Hong Kong study by Ng (1983) showed that the development of the understanding of bank interest and profit was essentially similar to that of a Scottish sample reported by Jahoda (1981). It also uncovered two minor stages in addition to Jahoda §s six. The present study confirmed the presence of these two stages as well as the others; and, like the Scottish sample, showed a New Zealand lag behind Hong Kong."
345	15	2	1985	The present study was designed to investigate systematically various explanations focusing on information bias, information processing bias, self determination, false consensus bias, quest for positive regard, and self presentation strategies, that have been suggested for the Jones Nisbett (1971) proposition that people describe their own behaviour as relatively more influenced by situational factors as compared to the actions of others. To test the scope and generality of this self other asymmetry, a new methodology was introduced. Using Stimulus Response Inventories of Hostility and Friendliness, the effects of different degrees of familiarity with target persons, of positivity negativity of behaviours, and of the public private nature of the rating context, were studied. Generalizability coefficients were used as indices for a dispositional and a situationist view on personality. The results support only explanations in terms of information processing bias and self determination strivings. Implications of this finding for the conceptualization of self judgments and other judgments are discussed.
346	15	2	1985	"An extension of Heiderian triadic balance (Heider, 1946, 1958) for quantitative data is presented and an algebraic formula is developed: M? = m   s   1, s, m, 1 denoting the smallest, medium, and largest of the relations of a triad; lower values indicating more positive relations than higher ones. M? can be interpreted as a natural structural characterization of a triad which covers the idea that balance is an interaction effect of attraction and agreement in a triad. The formula is applied to the sociometric ratings (P O Q triads) of the members of seven peer groups. AS predicted, the higher the value of M? the more the empirical frequencies of triads exceed their expected chance frequencies. The formula is compared theoretically and empirically with other balance models for quantitative data (Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955; Morrissette, 1958; Wiest, 1965). In the P O Q situation the formula presented is shown to be superior to the other models. Finally some substantial problems related to balance are discussed and a second interpretation of M? is given: M? is an equal weight linear combination of four functions which can be seen as group forming forces in triads (forces towards group integration, towards tight friendships, and two clique building forces)."
347	15	2	1985	A Q methodological study of lesbian identities is reported, which reveals substantive factors representing identity account clusters explicated as the Personal Fulfilment identity, the Special Person identity, the Individualistic identity, the Radical Feminist identity, and the Traditional identity. These identities are supported and illuminated by the use of accounts given by the same respondents in tape recorded interviews and are related to the rather limited previous literature in the field. Further developments in the investigation of accounts of identity are proposed.
348	15	2	1985	A production task analogue of the traditional multiple choice trait checklist method was used to investigate stereotypes. Subjects were asked to supply rather than to select the most characteristic attributes of specified social groups. In a departure from tradition, stability of the content of stereotypes was analysed for personal stereotypes held by individuals rather than for social stereotypes shared by a cultural group. In contrast to the widely held belief that social stereotypes are fixed and unchanging, personal stereotypes were found to be only moderately stable over time. Only about two fifths of the most characteristic attributes were duplicated in sessions separated by one week, and only about one fifth of the most Characteristic attributes were duplicated in sessions separated by one month or two month intervals. Findings also supported the notion that general attributes, most characteristic attributes, and least characteristic attributes of a social category are not totally redundant and are represented quasi independently in memory. Only about half of the most characteristic responses had also occurred on free response protocols and over half of the least characteristic responses tended not to be polar opposites of the most characteristic responses. It was the case, however, that with a production analogue of the multiple choice trait checklist, trait adjectives were the most frequent class of person information and accounted for between 50 and 60 per cent of the responses. However, eleven other classes of person information also occurred. Empirical results were applied toward a reexamination of the concepts of stereotype (data structure for the most characteristic attributes of a social group) and stereotyping (rigid procedures for processing data structures) and to a conceptual analysis of how stereotypes and social categories are structurally related.
349	15	2	1985	It is argued that the social context of ordinary explanations encourages them to be more complex than single attributions, and to be defended by a variety of rhetorical devices. Explanations of personally relevant political events were collected from articulate respondents in a setting allowing conversational freedom. Structural analysis showed that single cause explanations were rare. Modestly elaborate causal networks were used, and personal, group and societal attributions tended to appear at different points in their structure. Rhetorical analysis of how explainers conversationally defended causal structures showed that they used claims about the descriptions of events, data supporting their claims and warrants in virtue of which their arguments were valid. Qualitative analysis suggests that explainers use data to exemplify rather than induce, and explainers use either data or warrant in defence of a claim, but not both.
350	15	2	1985	This book review covers two monographs and ten edited books, mostly psychological in orientation and centered on current research questions about nonverbal behaviour or nonverbal communication. The edited books comprised 213 contributors. In each case, the reader is informed about the origin of the book, its main emphasis, the kind of topics covered, the nature of the material presented (whether theoretical discussions, reviews of research, research reports…), its general interest, and the type of readers who would mostly benefit of it. The material has been organized into five classes: Books of readings, introductory books, books on methods, specific dimensions, and specific topics.
351	15	3	1985	Public ability attributions of public task performance were investigated as a function of test performance (high or low), task performance (high or low), and the availability of information about test performance to the audience (audience informed or audience not informed). The results were largely in agreement with self presentation expectations, Ability attributions concerning public task performance addressed to an audience which was not informed about test results, were found to be strongly self serving, although they were also influenced by consistency of test and task performance. In ability attributions directed at an informed audience, self serving biases were completely absent, the attributions being in accordance with the consistency or inconsistency of test and task performances. 
352	15	3	1985	Social desirability is one of the most common sources of bias affecting the validity of experimental and survey research findings. From a self presentational perspective, social desirability can be regarded as the resultant of two separate factors: self deception and other deception. Two main modes of coping with social desirability bias are distinguished. The first mode comprises two methods aimed at the detection and measurement of social desirability bias: the use of social desirability scales, and the rating of item desirability. A second category comprises seven methods to prevent or reduce social desirability bias, including the use of forced choice items, the randomized response technique, the bogus pipeline, self administration of the questionnaire, the selection of interviewers, and the use of proxy subjects. Not one method was found to excel completely and under all conditions in coping with both other deceptive and self deceptive social desirability bias. A combination of prevention and detection methods offers the best choice available. 
353	15	3	1985	A revised version of earlier models by Stephan and Gollwitzer, and Weiner, has been proposed to study the relations between cognitions and emotions in the achievement related contexts. Accordingly, factors classified along the arousal relaxation dimension should modify the intensity of initial emotional response to the outcome, and the degree of egotism/positive evaluation in the pattern of causal attributions. Then, specific affective modalities are seen as joint products of the former cognitive emotional interaction. A 5 (arousal conditions) × 2 (outcomes) experiment was designed to test the model. 160 male undergraduates from University of Jos in Nigeria served as subjects. Results have showed that the highly aroused subjects suppressed their negative emotions after failure, while the relaxed ones reported lower intensity of success related affects. The hypothesis of attributional egotism did not get support from the causal ascription data. The causal dimension of Evaluation was found to be a better predictor for affects than Locus was. 
354	15	3	1985	"In the 1967 version of Fishbein §s model of the attitude behaviour relationship a distinction was drawn between personal and social normative beliefs. Personal normative beliefs were later removed from the model on the grounds that they act as an alternative measure of behavioural intention. It is argued that the existing literature does not support this hypothesis and data is presented which indicates that personal normative beliefs are not an alternative measure of behavioural intention. It is argued that personal normative beliefs can be reconceptualised as measuring a person §s ideal behavioural intention; a variable which mediates the relationship between attitudes, subjective norms and intentions, Evidence is presented which supports this hypothesis, but it is further demonstrated that an alternative model can be fitted to the present data. It is argued that it is impossible to discriminate between these alternative models on the basis of path analytic techniques, and the implications that this finding has for attitude research are discussed. "
355	15	3	1985	The present article is concerned with first considerations and data for a theory of social cognitions. A taxonomy of social cognitions is suggested comprising three classes: causal, evaluative and finalistic thinking. These classes are subdivided according to the social perspective taken, i.e. self directed versus other directed thinking. The situational preconditions of these social cognition classes are studied in different social episodes each comprising either positive or negative, expected or unexpected events. The results show that the most reasoning about a situation occurs when it is an important private episode with an unexpected and affectively negatively experienced event. The data concerning the natural occurrence of the three cognition classes is interpreted as providing suggestions of their functional meaning: The functions of the three classes of social cognitions are labelled information integration (self directed evaluative thinking), action planning (self directed finalistic thinking and other directed causal thinking), control of negative feelings (self directed causal, and finalistic thinking) and understanding (other directed finalistic and evaluative thinking and self directed causal thinking). 
356	15	3	1985	Eighty first grade children were pretested on a variety of conservation tasks. Subjects who were either nonconservers or intermediate conservers were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: social interaction, social observation, and individual control. Subjects in the social interaction condition worked collaboratively on conservation tasks with a same sex partner. Subjects in the social observation condition individually observed pairs of subjects working together and control subjects worked individually on conservation tasks. The purpose of the social observation condition was to control for the effects of task relevant information that was expressed during dyadic interactions. All subjects were individually post tested on conservation tasks that were the same form but different content than the pretest items. Subjects in the social interaction condition had significantly greater cognitive change scores (post test less pretest) than subjects in the social observation and control conditions. There were no significant differences between change scores of subjects in the latter two conditions. Also, subjects in the social interaction condition gave significantly more novel explanations for conservation judgments than subjects in the social observation condition. These findings supported a socio cognitive conflict model of cognitive development in young children. 
357	15	3	1985	This study is concerned with the relationship between expectations and preferences prior to an interaction, and their effects on behaviours enacted during the interaction. Expectations and preferences of therapists regarding several specific therapist §s and client §s behaviours were assessed prior to a therapy meeting. After that meeting, the therapists described the behaviours that had occurred during the meeting. It was found that the correspondence between expectations and preferences is affected by the amount of control one has over the behaviours. There seems also to be a clear indication that expectations predict the behaviours better than preferences. Still, it should be noted that preferences do predict behaviours, and this relationship, although weak, holds even after the effect of expectations is removed. 
358	15	3	1985	Mere belongingness to self is tested as a sufficient condition for the enhancement of the attractiveness of visual letter stimuli. Experimental evidence is presented that, independent of visual, acoustical, aesthetic, semantic and frequency characteristics, letters belonging to own first and/or family name are preferred above not own name letters. The effect is obtained in the absence of awareness of the Gestalt of any name, thus challenging current understanding of fundamental affective processes. 
359	15	3	1985	Groups of matched British students(N = 53) and school children (N = 70) and South African students(N = 86) and school children(N = 69) completed the Rubin Peplau Just World scale which yields three scores: beliefs in a just world (JW), beliefs in an unjust world (UJW), difference between just and unjust scores. A three way (2 sex, 2 nationality, 2 education status) ANOVA was computed which showed that although there were no sex, and only one educational status difference, nationality yielded a highly significant difference on both just world, and total scores. The results were interpreted in terms of previous studies of just world beliefs and authoritarianism in South Africa. It was argued that beliefs in a just world help people justify the status quo in unjust societies. 
360	15	3	1985	Additional results from Rutte and Wilke §s (1984) study are presented. In the context of a social dilemma situation two variables were manipulated: use and variance. Preference for various decision structures is the issue of the present paper. It appeared that a large majority structure and an unanimity structure were mast preferred. A small majority structure and a structure in which each decides for him/herself were intermediately preferred. Whereas a structure in which one person, a leader, decides for all was least preferred. Further analysis of these data suggested that only the latter two decision structures were influenced by the use and variance manipulations. 
361	15	4	1985	"This paper critically examines the notion of social representations by way of a systematic analysis of media and participants §s  accounts of the St Pauls street disturbances of 1980. The analysis concentrates on two major explanatory categories which appear in the accounts: (A) race; (B) government cuts and amenities. In each case it is possible to distinguish three different levels of consensus between accounts: (i) particular explanatory schemata can be recognized as available but treated as mistaken; (ii) particular explanatory schemata can be recognized as relevant and adopted to explain the particular events, although in different ways; (iii) particular schemata can be adopted and used to explain events in the same way. The flexible meaning of these categories is highlighted along with the recurrent reference to alternative explanations. These findings raise problems for the suggestion that social representations minimize conflict and create consensual universes, and question the straightforward relationship between social representations and identifiable social groups. In conclusion the need is identified for a more detailed analysis of the language in which social representations are couched, and the relationship they bear to different contexts of use. "
362	15	4	1985	This paper reports an experiment testing two hypotheses. The first is that the value or utility associated with a payment to one §s self and a payment to a co worker can be represented as an additive function of a utility for own payment (nonsocial utility) and a utility for the difference between own and other §s payment (social utility). The second hypothesis is that changes in the amount of work accomplished by one §s self and/or the other should influence the social, but not the the nonsocial utilities. Support for both hypotheses is reported. 
363	15	4	1985	Ajzen and Fishbein §s attitude behaviour model was applied to the problem of stimulating the demand for dental care, Subjects were 329 members of Amsterdam health insurance companies. They had not received regular dental treatment and/or a certificate of dental fitness for at least two and a half years. Applying for treatment and acquiring a dental certificate were the behavioural measures. The effectiveness of the communication based on Ajzen and Fishbein §s model was compared with the effectiveness of messages based on the Health Belief model and the notion that knowledge of Rights and Obligations is a prerequisite for seeking dental care. Results lend support to the validity of the Ajzen and Fishbein model. Relationships between the components of the model are moderate to strong, both before and after subjects were exposed to the message. The message proved effective in changing beliefs about seeking dental treatment. Ajzen and Fishbein §s claim that their approach has exclusive merits, however, was refuted. A differential effectiveness of the three messages was absent. In all, 47.4 per cent applied for treatment. No control subjects applied. Fifteen months later 70 per cent of the applicants had obtained a dental certificate. Contrary to our expectations, a condition of no message application form  only proved equally effective as the message conditions. 
364	15	4	1985	This study investigated the independent effects of power differentials on intergroup behaviour. Using a variant of Tajfel §s minimal group paradigm (Tajfel and Turner, 1979), subjects were arbitrarily categorized into groups of differing power (0 100 per cent) at two levels of salience. Subjects were asked to distribute resources to ingroup and outgroup others using Tajfel §s matrices. Intergroup perceptions, group identifications and self reported strategies constituted our other dependent measures. Minimal group results, replicated in equal power conditions, were systematically eliminated in unequal power conditions on the matrix measures but not on the intergroup perception measures. Dominant group members were more discriminatory, felt more comfortable and satisfied than subordinate group members. Though consistent with Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979), results suggest we may also have identified boundary conditions for minimal group discrimination. Without power, social categorization does not lead to effective discrimination. 
365	15	4	1985	This research attempted to integrate Tajfel §s (1978) social identity theory with self presentational concerns by exploring attributions about perceived group differences in behaviour. As such, it dealt with group level rather than individual level attributions, exploring whether bias in making such verbal attributions varied as a function of the interviewer §s group identity and the presence of an ingroup audience. Undergraduate men and women at The Chinese University of Hong Kong rated the appropriateness of ingroup favouring and outgroup favouring explanations for male typed and female typed behaviours in a face to face interview. A group serving bias was found for female typed behaviours, but only when the same sex audience was absent. A conceptual replication of the experiment was run in the United States to examine the possible cultural basis for the Chinese moderation of favouritism in the audience condition. The group serving bias was more robust for the American undergraduates, extending across male  and female typed behaviours and also across audience conditions, It was argued that these cultural differences in attributional bias appear to reflect the strength of the movement for women §s liberation and norms surrounding the avoidance of conflict in the United States and Hong Kong. 
366	15	4	1985	Two studies examined the quality of clerk customer interactions. In the first study, customers in a mall were followed from one purchase to another and retest reliability of customer sociability was found to be 0.73. A second study of the same and another mall found a retest reliability of 0.56 for customer sociability and a correlation of 0.57 between sociability of different salespersons serving the same customer. These results indicate that the sociability of salesperson customer interactions is determined by stable individual differences in customer sociability, and suggest that salespeople do better to echo than to escalate customer sociability. 
367	15	4	1985	In an experiment using the Asch paradigm, a source whose response was denied (source younger than subjects, in an experiment context implying the development of visual acuity) was found to have less direct influence than a validated source (older or same age as subjects), tending to specialize in a pattern of influence similar to the so called conversion phenomenon (i.e. direct influence only). 
368	16	1	1986	The article presents a personal history of European social psychology as advanced by the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology during the last twenty years. It is argued that this association did indeed create a new forum for European social psychologists through organizing summerschools, general meetings, workshops, east west conferences and through the foundation of a scientific journal and a series of monographs. The Association may also have promoted a different perspective in social psychological research by emphasizing more the collective nature of social behaviour rather than interpersonal processes and by favouring substance over method. 
369	16	1	1986	It is proposed that ideas about nature and culture, key concepts in structural anthropology, have an important bearing on assumptions underlying rival theoretical approaches in social psychology. Experimental social psychologists tend to make the tacit assumption that they are dealing only with nature, while ethogenists like Harré explicitly concentrate on culture and treat nature as irrelevant. Others like Tajfel and Moscovici occupy a middle ground, being concerned with both aspects. Perhaps the most radical critic is Gergen, whose rejection of nature and culture is discussed in detail and shown to be largely based on western cultural beliefs. It is further suggested that mainstream experimental social psychology, epitomized by Aronson §s The Social Animal, is equally culture bound, although masquerading as the study of nature. This contention is supported by an account of predominant failure of replication in a not greatly dissimilar culture. It is concluded, with Doise and Berry, that we need multiple social psychologies, and with Tajfel and Pepitone that social psychological research must consider the wider system within which social behaviour takes place. 
370	16	1	1986	In his Tajfel Memorial lecture Gustav Jahoda (1986) proposes that experimental findings infrequently reflect natural laws of human action, but are reflections of cultural conventions. In developing his arguments he finds it useful to criticize a number of my earlier ideas (Gergen, 1982). The present paper demonstrates that this critique is not only misguided, but that if the implications of my earlier work had been properly elaborated neither the argument for cultural convention nor general laws could be adequately sustained. Because of the non objective character of behavioural interpretation, neither of these positions can be empirically warranted. Their justification is more properly considered in ethical, or ideological terms. 
371	16	1	1986	Afrer noting some areas of common ground, in particular my acceptance of the fact that causal analysis is not sufficient to capture motivation and meaning, the main disagreement is pinpointed: in my view causal explanations are relevant to human actions. In response to Gergen §s contention that cross cultural replications have no bearing on theories, which essentially turn on language games, I submit that his account of cross cultural work is in several respects misleading. It is suggested that ignoring the striking regularities of social behaviour runs the risk of a return to empty scholasticism. 
372	16	1	1986	Subjects who previously expressed either partial or full agreement with an attitudinal position were exposed to a low  or high threat essay advocating the position. Anonymous post communication measures of opinion indicated a reactance effect (negative attitude change) only for subjects who (1) read the hrgh threat essay, and (2) previously expressed complete agreement with the communicator. Theoretical implications are discussed. 
373	16	1	1986	The present study investigates subjective expectancy of formation of conservative coalitions as a function of status characteristics of actors and nature of the task. Five predictions, derived from Expectation States Theory (cf. Berger, Rosenholz and Zelditch, 1980) are tested. Thirty four university freshmen participated in the experiment. Subjects estimated the formation of coalitions in eleven choice situations, which were composed by varying status differences between scenario actors, the nature of the status characteristic and the task to be performed. The predictions derived from Expectation States Theory were generally supported: (1) differentiation on a relevant status characteristic appeared to lead to the expectation of conservative coalitions, (2) a burden of proof process appeared to operate, and (3) the expectation of conservative coalition decreased as the path of relevance was longer. Contrary to predictions, however, it appeared that irrelevant status characteristics did not led to the expectation of conservative coalitions, and that the expectation of conservative coalitions did not covary with the magnitude of the status differentiation. In the discussion of these results two modifications of the burden of proof theorem are proposed and discussed in the light of other findings. 
374	16	1	1986	"The aim of this article is to highlight, 25 years on, the innovations of Festinger §s theory of dissonance as regards its conception of cognitive functioning. Analysis of the dissonance ratio, on the basis of which Festinger evaluated the total amount of dissonance D/(D + C) gives rise to three propositions: (1) The total amount of dissonance is evaluated on the basis of a particular cognition G. (2) This cognition is neither the denominator, nor the numerator of the dissonance ratio; it is the cognitive expression of an effective conduct. (3) No presupposition is made concerning possible consonance or dissonance relations between cognitions C and D. Thus reduction in dissonance is not presented as a process that always orients cognitive activity toward greater consistency, but as a rationalization of conduct which may adapt to an increase in certain inconsistencies, and even generate them. This new insight into Festinger §s theory may be thought of as a new version that is quite distinct, both from earlier revisions of the theory, and from the various theories of cognitive consistency. It is hoped, moreover, that it will provoke reflection concerning the current orientatlons of cognitivism in social psychology. "
375	16	1	1986	This study empirically tested the assumption that in prejudical judgements cognitive processes are mediated by group anchoring. This assumption was supported in the case of estimations about participation in traffic accidents by different groups. 
376	16	1	1986	Group membership generally entails that individuals are both defined, and define themselves, as members of that group. This study investigated the effect of incompatibility between these definitions on intergroup behaviour. Subjects were allocated to one of two groups of differential status such that the allocation was compatible or incompatible with their self categorization. The results indicated that the effect of incompatibility depended on the status of the group imposed on the subjects. 
377	16	2	1986	Attitudes has been the central concept of social psychology in three different periods, over which the interest evolved to three progressively more sophisticated topics. The first of these three peakings was the 1920s and 1930s preoccupation with the static topics of attitude scaling and relation to behaviour. Then, after a 1935–1955 interlude in which the study of group processes supplanted attitude as the central concern of social psychology, attitude research re emerged as the dominant interest during the 1950s and 1960s enthusiasm for the dynamic topic of attitude change, approached by a convergent style in the 1950s and a divergent style in the 1960s. During the 1965–1985 period interest shifted from attitudes to social cognition, including representational reductions in information encoding and decoding as well as inferential extrapolations in meaning attribution, person perception, and cognitive ramifications. Now we are experiencing the beginnings of a third flourishing of attitude research likely to dominate the 1980s and 1990s, this third peaking focused on more evolved structural issues, including the structure of individual attitudes, of systems of attitudes, and of attitudinal systems as they relate to other systems within the person. Intrinsic and extrinsic forces underlying these shifts of interest are considered. 
378	16	2	1986	"Before participating in an Maximizing Difference Game (MDG) subjects were classified with the help of a social motive test (GDG, Liebrand, 1984) as having a cooperative, an individualistic or a Competitive preference for own/other outcome distributions. Thereafter subjects did make choices in an MDG. A status (high, equal, low, no feedback) × matrix (advantage: 8/6, disadvantage 6/81) × preference (competitive, individualistic, cooperative) design was employed, whereas one control condition, i.e. equal statuslmatrix equal (616) was added. Equity theory could explain the data rather well. Support was found for the status hypothesis, i.e. high status subjects made more D choices in an MDG than equal status subjects; equal status subjects made more D choices than low status subjects, and for the matrix hypothesis, i.e. matrix disadvantage subjects made more D choices than subjects playing in a matrix advantage position. Equity theory could also explain a significant status × matrix interaction effect. Support was partly found for a preference hypothesis: Competitors made more D choices than cooperatives, while contrary to the hypothesis, individualists behaved more like competitors. "
379	16	2	1986	"The frequently cited finding that mood congruent information can be better recalled than mood incongruent information is tested using categorically organized stimulus material which imposes a systematic structure on the recall process. A target person was described with respect to six categories of social behaviour, with predominantly desirable behaviours in some categories and predominantly undesirable behaviours in others. Participants were induced either an elated mood state or a neutral state using Velten §s procedure. Instructions (impression formation versus memory) were also manipulated. Although the mood manipulation apparently worked and did influence the impression judgments of the target person, it did not selectively facilitate the recall of mood congruent material, neither at the level of specific items nor at the categorical level. However, when only deviating behaviours are considered which do not fit the structural constraints, mood congruent information is indeed better recalled. To interpret these results, it is argued that the manifestation of mood effects depends on the restrictions of different tasks or response modes. Three other findings were obtained: Superior recall of redundant, structurally consistent information compared with deviating information; an advantage of positive over negative information which is confined to the impression formation condition; and, surprisingly, an incongruency effect for the encoding mood which may reflect the deeper processing of incongruent material. "
380	16	2	1986	Minority influence, although possible, is relatively difficult for an active minority to achieve. One of the obstactes encountered by a minority in the diffusion of an innovation is psychologization which consists in the establishment of a link between the ideological positions defended by the source of influence and psychological characteristics which are specific to that source. The experiment presented here seeks to show that psychologization constitutes an ideological barrier only to minority influence while this mode of interpretation of the source does not reduce the influence of a majority. The results obtained seem to confirm this hypothesis, above all when subjects possess opinions relatively close to those of the influence source. When on the other hand subjects have opinions that are relatively distant from those defended by the source, the explicit induction of psychologization does not seem to affect the degree of influence. It was also found that in the absence of such induction, distant subjects would spontaneously psychologize a minority source, in particular attributing its arguments to psychological imbalance. 
381	16	2	1986	Attributional ambiguity is a strategy used to avoid having to attribute potentially negative performance on a task to ability. If the outcome of a task is attributable to ability, if no external cause for failure is available, and if a person is aware that the outcome is attributable to the self, ambiquity can be created with regard to the causation of the outcome. Heightened attribution of an outcome to self, as results from self focused attention, was expected to produce less effort when external causes for potential failure were explicitly removed. In a 2 × 2 experiment, a positive mood was induced that was then either suggested or excluded as a plausible explanation for potential failure on a task said to be indicative of general intellectual ability. Subjects for whom self awareness was experimentally induced, and for whom an external attribution of failure was explicitly removed, put significantly less effort into the task. Self focus, however, has also been shown to enhance task performance. An indirect measure showed increased readiness to perform in direct contrast to the obtained lower self reports of effort. The range of generalizability and application of attribute ambiguity is discussed. 
382	16	3	1986	"Human social systems, and groups in particular, are conceived as units which, as a whole, actively strive towards the achievement of external and internal goals. This group action consists of simultaneous integrated processes on various individual and social levels. Our theory comprises four groups of constructs, which refer to task structure, group structure, information processing and execution. In an ongoing group action, the task structure is projected on the group structure; according to the resulting pattern, the group processes its action related information and executes the act. The latter two processes proceed on two levels, on an individual and on a group level. There are cognition, emotion and volition on the individual, and communication on the group level of information processing; execution proceeds in individual action and in cooperation. A specific part of the theory concerns analogies between individual cognition and intragroup communication. "
383	16	3	1986	The four granting strategies of the German Science Foundation (DFG) are introduced in order to demonstrate the place special granting (Sonderförderung) has within the general funding policy of the DFG. A look back to the beginning and the development of the Sonderforschungsbereich 24 (SFB 24): Social scientific decision research, exhibits reasons for problems concerning cooperation beiween projects and research strategies. 
384	16	3	1986	Decisions to allocate rewards to ingroup and outgroup members are under the dual pressures of equity and intergroup bias. This study examined variations in equity and bias resulting from the incongruity and salience of intergroup status. Incongruity arose from a mismatch between high subjective and low accorded status. Congruity occurred when subjective status and accorded status were both high or both low. By pairing school classes with known subjective and accorded statuses, an incongruous and a congruous status setting were derived naturally. The setting was made either salient or nonsalient experimentally. It was hypothesized that bias would progressively increase, and equity would progressively decrease, with incongruity and salience. Each set of hypotheses was partially supported. Further data analysis showed a robust tendency to under reward both ingroup and outgroup members. This interpersonal negativity bras was shown by incongruous status allocators either when rewarding superior performance or in the salient condition. Apparently, it served to safeguard personal rather than social identity. The implications for equity and social identity theories were discussed. 
385	16	3	1986	The experiment deals with the impact of self esteem and liking for the partner on the attribution of agreement and deadlock in bargaining. Fifty eight male and 70 female students played the Harsanyi Selten bargaining game with incomplete information eight times, allegedly each time with a randomly selected partner. In fact in four games a computer program simulated the partner. Combining an experimental variation of liking (liking disliking), own costs (low, high), partner costs (low, high) the experiment followed a 2×2×2 repeated measures design. As predicted by a path model from balance theory (a) failure (deadlock) was attributed more to the partner and less to self than success (agreement), (b) success was attributed more to the liked than the disliked partner, whereas failure was attributed more to the disliked than the liked partner. 
386	16	3	1986	In the present study it was investigated how information about the profession affects the judgment of a person characterized by traits. Two main effects in judgments of likeability were found. More responsible professions produce a lower overall mean of judgments (contrast effect) and more polarized judgments than less responsible professions do. Additionally, an interaction of these effects with the scale value of the traits could be found. For higher scale values a striking difference between the polarization scores for more and less responsible professions was obtained, whereas for lower scale values this difference was small. To obtain more insight into the process underlying the influence of profession response probabilities were analysed using psychometric functions. Two mechanisms seem to mediate this influence: Firstly, the acceptability of the person to be judged is integrated as a peripheral dimension together with the likeability as a focal dimension into a decision continuum. Secondly, a neutral point of the function representing the relation between acceptability and likeability is integrated into an internal standard the value of the decision continuum is to be compared with. The analogy of findings in attitude research is discussed. 
387	16	3	1986	This study tested whether reactance theory can account for private acceptance of a minority opinion under simultaneous majority/minority influence (reactance against majority rather than conversion toward minority). Subjects were either exposed to simultaneous majority /minority influence or to a majority source only. As predicted by conversion theory, subjects moved away from the majority only in private and in the presence of a consistent minority. In the absence of a consistent minority, subjects accepted the majority opinion in private, ruling out reactance as an alternative explanation. 
388	16	4	1986	"A paradigm named administrative obedience was designed to study obedience in carrying out orders to use a kind of violence that is typical for our times, namely psychological administrative violence resulting in definite harm. In this study, the victim was an applicant for a job, who came to the laboratory to take a test, This test would determine whether or not he would get the job. Subjects were ordered, in the context of a research project, to make the applicant nervous and to disturb him during the test; consequently, the applicant failed the test and remained unemployed. More than 90 per cent of the subjects carried out these orders, although they considered them unfair and did not enjoy doing the task, The level of administrative obedience found in our study is higher than the level of obedience found in the comparable experiment by Milgram. The experimental conditions Experimental absent and Two peers rebel produced a reduction of obedience in our paradigm comparable to that which occurred in Milgram §s paradigm. "
389	16	4	1986	It was hypothesized that the effects of novelty on social category membership salience may be mediated by perceivers §s  current tasks, rather than by an automatic perceptual bias (Taylor and Fiske, 1978). Subjects viewed tape slide portrayals of mixed sex groups (1 male 5 females, 2M 4F, 3M 3F, 4M 2F, 5M 1F) under individual (focus on one target person) or collective (focus on entire stimulus group) task conditions. Results on measures of sex stereotyping strongly supported the hypothesis, indicating that individual task subjects tended to maximize stereotyping in the 1M 5F and 5M 1F conditions whilst collective subjects did so in the 3M 3F condition. It is concluded that novel category memberships are not automatically prepotent in social perception, and the results are discussed in the context of a functional approach to the salience problem. 
390	16	4	1986	"The effects of psychologization on the conversion phenomenon were studied for cases where influence was exerted either by a minority or by a majority. In a 2×2×3 ANOVA design (minority source versus majority source, personality versus aesthetics, phases) 48 subjects are faced with a confederate who represents either 18.2 per cent or 81.8 per cent of a population and consistently responds green when an objectively blue slide is shown. Colour perception is said to be associated with either aesthetic or personality factors. The prediction is in this last case that psychologization of the majority induces conversion of the subjects, while psychologization of the minority stands in the way of this latent influence. Influence is measured by four response levels for each trial of the three phases (pre influence, post influence in the presence or in the absence of the influence source). Manifest influence is measured in terms of the Subjects §s  Judgements and by the way in which they adjust their stimulus colour perception, as determined with the help of a spectrometer. The latent influence is reflected by the subjects §s  judgements about the colour of the afterimage upon presentation of the stimulus, as measured on a nine point scale and with the help of spectral adjustments of this afterimage. The subjects having been influenced without being aware of their conversion shows up in the shifts toward green or the complementary colour of green. Results indicate a cross over for the effect of indirect influence. Under the personality condition, psychologization has the anticipated effect. The majority is the only one to produce a conversion. The attenuating effect of minority influence again manrfests itserf (Mugny and Papastamou, 1980). Under the aesthetic condition, non psychologization also induces latent and perceptive shifts, but they go in the opposite direction and coincide closely with other results (Moscovici and Personnaz, 1980; Personnaz, 1981). In this condition, only the minority exerts an influence on all three levels. "
391	16	4	1986	Paradoxical performance effects (choking under pressure) are defined as the occurrence of inferior performance despite striving and incentives for superior performance. Experimental demonstrations of these effects on tasks analogous to athletic performance and the theories that may explain them are reviewed. At present, attentional theories seem to offer the most complete explanation of the processes underlying paradoxical performance effects. In particular, choking may result from distraction or from the interference of self focused attention with the execution of automatic responses. Experimental findings of paradoxical performance decrements are associated with four pressure variables: audience presence, competition, performance contingent rewards and punishments, and ego relevance of the task. The mediating factors of task complexity, expectancies, and individual differences are discussed. 
392	16	4	1986	"Judgments of the contingencies between the opinions expressed by three persons in a video taped group discussion were investigated. Although a purely statistical interpretation of the contingency judgment task was called for by the experimental instruction, the intrusion of non statistical information in the judgment process was demonstrated: Temporal contiguity (order of speech) and spatial contiguity (eye contacts, body movements) systematically affected the estimated frequency of agreement among discussion participants. Similar biases were obtained in a memory test for the observed opinion statements which also suggests that intensional information (structural similarity of the discussants §s  arguments) influenced the cognitive representation of the contingencies. An attentional focus manipulation was also effective; attending to a certain pair of discussants resulted in higher agreement ratings for that pair. The implications of these findings for experiments which use purely statistical models of contingency as a normative criterion are discussed. "
393	16	4	1986	The influence of the categorization process is investigated in the context of conceptions of categories as fuzzy sets, represented by prototypes. The experiment specifically considers two social categories corresponding to Italian regional groups: for each of these, stimuli were constructed which represented the respective categories in different degrees. We hypothesized that the accentuation of the degree in which individual exemplars represent a category, obtained by the addition of an attribute of the category, produces the effect of accentuating inter category differences and intra category similarities. Our results confirm the hypothesis regarding differentiation, but not that regarding assimilation. The effect of differentiation is strong at the category borders, i.e. for the less representative exemplars. A final issue considered is the theoretical problem of distinguishing, within the prototype of a category, between stereotypical attributes and those which permit categorial identification of individual cases. 
394	16	4	1986	This research attempted to examine underlying processes of group polarization under leadership conditions. One hundred and twenty two subjects formed in groups of four and five members answered to the Choice Dilemma Questionnaire first on an individual basis and then after group discussion. Experimental conditions were manipulated through different rules of group discussion and types of appointed leaders. It was found that leadership is associated both with group polarization and with group depolarization but whether the group polarizes or depolarizes is determined by the explicit or implicit group rules which act as a systemic decisional structure. 
395	17	1	1987	Six person groups of male or female undergraduates played 12 trials of a simple coalition game that varied the sizes of the coalitions available to the players. Results indicated that the size of a player §s smallest available coalition was inversely related to the player §s outcomes. The most important outcome differences included effects of player position and interactions of position by trial block. The critical implications of these results for minimum power theory, Roth Shapley value, weighted probability model, bargaining theory, and equal excess model are discussed, and quantitative tests of these theories are also presented. Minor gender differences were obtained, and it is suggested that future research use both male and female subjects. A description of the bargaining process, based on the subjects §s  responses to a post session questionnaire and our observations, is given. 
396	17	1	1987	Two experiments have been conducted to investigate the aggression eliciting properties of an aggressive commercial. The first experiment investigated the influence of an aggressive commercial on subsequent delivery of shocks to a confederate by male or female subjects, in presence and in absence of previous instigation to aggress. The second experiment examined the heart rate modifications before, during and after exposure to the aggressive commercial. Twenty males and 20 females participated to each experiment. Findings justify the concern for the aggression eliciting properties of aggressive commercials. 
397	17	1	1987	Professional attitudes can be studied as expressed in the individual §s opinions of conventional and more recent professional stereotypes. It was hypothesized that these opinions, together with their stability and change, depend mainly on the degree of professional identification, a higher degree of which inspires a more sew reliant and independent approach to professional work and thinking. The study was carried out with 58 young architects, exploring the differences between and changes in their images of the anticipated actual, empirical actual, and ideal architect. The results support the hypothesis concerning the role of professional identification and are in agreement with Tajfel §s analysis of manifold social Junctions of stereotypes. 
398	17	1	1987	The bargaining and minority influence literatures offer contradictory theories for the efficacy of compromise for influence. Assuming that the relative merits of these two classes of theories lie in their concentration on the public versus the private aspect of influence, we predicted that consistency (without compromise) would be more effective for attitude change but that compromise would be more effective for public concessions. We further predicted that the timing or context of the compromise could change the meaning and the consequences of that strategy. In particular, compromise at the last minute was assumed to be a negotiating tactic that fostered both public concessions and private attitude change. The predictions were generally confirmed. 
399	17	1	1987	The present experiment was concerned with the way in which the characteristics of the helper the task and the recipient affect the willingness to seek help. In line with past theory and research it was reasoned that seeking help would be most threatening when one needs help on an ego   central task, and the helper is perceived as similar to oneself. Consequently, individuals were expected to seek least help under these conditions. Further it was expected that individuals who enjoy a high self esteem would be more sensitive to this self threat and seek less help under these self threatening conditions than would individuals who have a low self esteem. The experiment consisted of a 2 (similar versus dissimilar helper) times 2 (ego central versus non central task) times 2 (high versus low self esteem subjects) between subjects design. Subjects worked on a difficult anagram task, and their actual help seeking behaviour served as a dependent measure. The findings support the experimental hypotheses. The conceptual and applied implications of these findings are discussed. 
400	17	1	1987	Two studies on the impact of temporary moods on judgments of satisfaction with life in general and with specific life domains are reported. It was hypothesized that individuals simplify the complex task of evaluating their life in general by referring to their mood at the time of judgment, but evaluate specific life domains on the basis of domain specific information. In accordance with this hypothesis, both studies demonstrated strong mood effects on judgments of general life satisfaction but only weak and non significant effects on judgments of specific domain satisfactions. The findings are interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that affective states serve informative functions. 
401	17	1	1987	Subjects are required to estimate sociability as expressed in questionnaires supposedly completed by different individuals and make a prediction of conduct for each of these individuals. The results are compared to four models: three versions of the individual differences model (IDM) and a dialectical model. Two rudimentary versions of the IDM give the best approximations to results obtained, one for absolute value judgments of sociability, the other for conduct prediction. The conclusion is that the IDM does exist as a model in implicit psychology before becoming a model in learned psychology. The fact that such a model be preponderant in intuitive psychology in spite of its known inadequacies is discussed in terms of self fulfilling prophecy in the exercise of power. 
402	17	1	1987	"Learned helplessness theory may provide a framework within which the correlates of sociometric status in children can be fruitfully investigated. Several parallels between learned helplessness and the characteristics of sociometric status groups are noted. It is argued that children who are rejected, and especially neglected, by peers are likely to manifest learned helplessness in social situations. In addition, reanalysis of Goetz and Dweck §s (1980) study on learned helplessness in social situations provides data to support this viewpoint as: (a) rejected and neglected children resembled learned helpless children in regard to both attributions and behaviour following social rejection; (b) neglected children showed greater behavioural deterioration following rejection than rejected children. The implications of the proposed integration of research on learned helplessness and sociometric status are outlined, especially in relation to clinical disorders in children. "
403	17	1	1987	This review examines recent books on altruism and prosocial behaviour. Psychological approaches, biological approaches, and economic approaches are covered. The list of variables known to influence prosocial behaviour includes situational determinants, motivational orientations, and personality variables. Psychological theories emphasizing norms, cost benefit calculations, and developmental factors have been used successfully to explain prosocial behaviour. Attention is given to models of helping and social and therapeutic treatment programmes. Genetic variables in prosocial behaviour are also reviewed. 
404	17	2	1987	An experiment examined the effects of role ambiguity and relative group status in an intergroup situation where a superordinate goal was salient. One hundred and fifty six subjects in groups of three undertook a cooperative task under conditions where the groups §s  roles were clearly Different, Similar, or not allocated (Control). In addition, the groups §s  perceived competence at the task was either equally High, equally Low, or unequal. Financial rewards were contingent on successful completion of the joint task. Two contrasting hypotheses were derived from Social Identity Theory: one (H1) predicted most favourable intergroup attitudes in the Control condition where lack of any clear differentiation in group roles might facilitate a superordinate identifcation. In contrast, (H2) predicted least favourable attitudes in this condition on the grounds that groups lacked a distinctive identity. Support for the second hypothesis was found since friendliness towards the outgroup decreased with increasing role ambiguity. The status variable also had consistent effects. As predicted, mutual evaluations tended to reflect the consensually agreed status differences: least bias being shown towards high status outgroups, most by high status ingroups. Task performance was also affected by role ambiguity. Judges §s  ratings of the group products were found to be more favourable as role ambiguity increased, in contrast to the friendliness data. The implications of these findings for Social Identity Theory, the Contact Hypothesis, and theories of group performance are discussed. 
405	17	2	1987	The present study explores the effect of crossing social categorizations upon subsequent intergroup discrimination. In the simple categorization conditions, subjects were divided into groups either on an explicitly random basis or on the basis of a very trivial similarity. In the crossed categorization condition, these two categorizations were criss crossed. After performing a perceptual estimation task, subjects had to evaluate the performance of the different groups in this task. Subsequently they had to evaluate the groups on general characteristics less directly related to task performance. There was significant intergroup discrimination favouring the own group in the two simple categorization conditions, but this discrimination was strongly reduced in the crossed categorization condition. This was true for both kinds of evaluations. Subjects of a no categorization condition exhibited no self favouritism. The theoretical implications of the data are discussed. 
406	17	2	1987	In a 2 × 2 factorial design, 165 high school girls gave their opinions about abortion (direct influence) and about contraception (indirect ifluence) after reading a message advocating abortion said to have been written by either an ingroup (same sex) or an outgroup (opposite sex) minority and explicitly opposed by the majority opinion of either the ingroup or the outgroup. Results show that there is less direct influence when the ingroup majority is opposed to the minority, and more direct influence when the process of identification is less involved. Indirect influence appears in an intergroup context where categorization of majority and minority into different groups is superimposed on their ideological dissent, which has the effect of allowing recognition of the minority §s distinctiveness and validity over and above the discrimination that appears at the direct influence level. In discussing the results, a theoretical integration of social comparison and validation processes is proposed as a step towards explaining the diversity of minority influence phenomena. 
407	17	2	1987	This study is concerned with assessing whether social marking, i.e. the correspondence between the cognitive solution of a task and the social relation expressed in the material, is a mechanism of cognitive progress which depends on specific forms of socio cognitive conflict or on presence of familiar social relations in the material. In the first experiment 5 6 year old non conserver children were selected during a pre test that comprised three spatial transformation tasks. During the test phase, 56 children worked on spatial transformation tasks with an adult partner in four socially marked conditions in which the correctness of the adult model varied. All subjects were individually post tested on the same tasks with unmarked content. Results showed that, under the same marked conditions in the test phase, more progress took place, at the post test phase, when subjects had interacted with an incorrect adult model than when they had interacted with a correct one. In the second experiment the hypothesis of an interaction between the nature of the material and the kind of social interaction was examined by means of a factorial design in which the factors were adult versus child partner and marked versus unmarked material. The procedures in the pre  and post test phase were carried out in the same way as in Experiment I. In the test phase 61 non conserver children interacted with partners who presented completely incorrect model. The results of post test phase indicated that there was a main effect of social marking although findings of a condition in which children interact with another child on unmarked material also have shown a certain amount of progress. The findings are discussed with respect to the psycho social model of cognitive development. 
408	17	2	1987	Two experiments were conducted to examine the role of the idealism variable and sew focus in value behaviour consistency. The idealism variable was measured by means of a questionnaire (Idealism Scale–IS) devised by the author. The scale is based on the assumption that although every individual is able to declare his or her ideal self if requested, only some of them actually develop such a structure and use it in their behavioural choices. The first experiment revealed that the level of defensive attribution was a predictable function of the content of the ideal self for individuals with high scores on the IS to a greater extent than it was for low scorers. The second experiment showed that both high idealism and situationally induced sew focus were necessary to obtain a predictable influence of the preference of the value honesty on cheating behaviour. Processes which are likely to mediate between ideal self content and behaviour are discussed. 
409	17	2	1987	Two studies are reported which examine the availability of scientific propositions of personality in lay conceptions of personality. It is argued from a social constructivist perspective that models of personality must derive from and refer to lay conceptions of persons. Eysenck §s trait type model of introversion extraversion, containing specific propositions about phenotypic and genotypic differences between extraverts and introverts, was utilized as the scientific model of personality and its availability in lay conceptions of personality was examined in two studies. In the first study, subjects were presented with a genotypic characterization of either an introvert or an extravert target person and asked to infer corresponding phenotypic differences. In the second study, the inference process was reversed with subjects being asked to infer genotypic characteristics of introverts versus extraverts on the basis of phenotypic target person desecrations of the two types. Results from both studies show a high degree of accuracy in subjects §s  inferences, suggesting that laypersons have well formed conceptions about personality containing higher order psychogenetic propositions corresponding to Eysenck §s trait type model. The implications of the findings for theory construction are discussed. 
410	17	2	1987	A theory of lay epistemology is applied toward an integration of attribution theory with cognitive consistency theories. The integration follows a three fold partition of the epistemic process into its deductive, motivational and contentual aspects. The commonality of the attribution and consistency paradigms is apparent in regard to the deductive aspect: In both frameworks central role is accorded the criterion of deducibility or consistency whereby cognitions are validated. However, attribution theory emphasizes the consequences of consistent information, which increases attributional confidence, whereas cognitive consistency theories emphasize the consequences of inconsistent information, which detracts from judgmental confidence, hence occasionally induces negative affect. The motivational component represents a neglected dimension in attributional theorizing. It also defines the conditions under which inconsistency may be motivating. This may occur where inconsistency (I) fosters doubt where knowledge was strongly desired, (2) undermines a particular desirable conclusion. The differences among the cognitive consistency and the attributional formulations are ones of cognitive content. However, the same epistemic process is assumed common to all attribution and consistency formulations. Potential research benefits of focusing on this common process are noted. 
411	17	2	1987	Two experiments demonstrate a positivity bias in person memory. Recall is superior for statements endorsed by a target person than for denied statements. This effect of informational positivity is independent of affective positivity (Experiment 1) and on holds for statements associated with one individual as an organizing category (Experiment 2). 
412	17	2	1987	Two samples of Swedish high school student3 rated political party leaders and parties on evaluative scales to test two person positivity bias hypotheses: (1) evaluations of persons are more often positive than negative, and (2) individual persons are evaluated more positively than les personal representations of the same object. The hypotheses were confirmed only under certain conditions. Explanations for the bias are suggested. 
413	17	2	1987	Subjects were presented with 36 opinion statements ostensibly made by residents of two towns (one large, one small) confronted with the building of a new nuclear power station in the vicinity. There were an equal number of pro  and anti nuclear opinions for both towns (nine for each combination) so that there was no relationship between attitudes and town. The probabilistic belief that small towns would contain a higher proportion of antinuclear residents, was predicted to produce an illusory correlation confirming the belief. This was strongly supported. Findings were discussed in terms of the literatures on illusory correlation, stereotyping and attitudes. 
414	17	3	1987	An investigation of the group concept proposed by Tqjfel and Turner shows that group formation and intergroup behaviour cannot be explained by the similarity of group members. Taking into account only similarity of elements leads to conceptual contaminations concerning group and class, group and collective, personal and social identity, and finally interpersonal and intergroup behaviour. It is claimed that only the consideration of group structure and the differentiation of partially individual and partially structural attributes of the group members results in a conceptually adequate theory of group formation and intergroup behaviour of its members. 
415	17	3	1987	This study investigated the independent effects of status differential on intergroup behaviour. Using a variant of the minimal group paradigm (Tueland Turner, 1979), subjects were categorized into groups of differing status (high, equal, low) with two levels of category salience (high, low). Using Tajfel §s matrices subjects rated the creativity of products ostensibly produced by ingroup and outgroup members. Own group identification, intergroup perceptions and self reported strategies on the matrices constituted the other dependent measures. Results indicated a main effect for group status but none for salience. Equal status groups discriminated against each other thus replicating the minimal intergroup discrimination effect. High and equal status group members were more discriminatory against outgroups and more positive about their own group membership than were low status group members. In contrast, low status group members engaged in significant amounts of outgroup favouritism. Results also showed that social categorization per se was sufficient to elicit more ingroup than outgroup liking amongst all group members regardless of status differentials between groups. Overall, the results illustrate important aspects of the interplay between group status, social identity, prejudice and discrimination. 
416	17	3	1987	An experiment was conducted to investigate the importance of inequity distress. In a 2 x 2 factorial design subjects were paid either in a high or low disadvantageous inequitable manner compared to a male confederate. One half of the subjects were led to believe that fictitious infrasonic sound would have arousing side effects, one half expected no side effects whatsoever. According to the hypotheses, (1) subjects in the misattribution condition restored equity less than subjects in the no side effects control group, (2) strongly inequitable treated subjects restored equity more than mildly inequitable treated ones, (3) the misattribution manipulation only had a significant effect on strongly inequitable treated subjects. Thus, the results show that distress is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the restoration of equity. Consequences of the results for future research are discussed. 
417	17	3	1987	The present study investigated the role of emotion in the area of intergroup relations. Results showed three ways in which emotions are relevant when Dutch autochthonous people are confronted with members of the three major ethnic minorities in The Netherlands: Surinamers and immigrant workers from Turkey and Morocco. First, four categories of emotions could be identified which appeared to be strongly associated with ethnic attitude positive mood, anxiety, irritation and concern each related to a specific kind of action readiness. Second, the influence which proximity of an ethnic group appeared to have on ethnic attitude could be explained by the specific kind of emotional experience related to different levels of proximity. The third way in which emotions appeared to be relevant was their ability to differentiate between the qualitative aspects of various forms of ethnic contact. With Surinamers, more personal forms of contact were associated with an increase in positive mood and a decrease in anxiety, irritation and concern. But for Turks and Moroccans, who can be considered to be in more basic respects culturally dissimilar from the Dutch, only negative aspects of close contact were found. The correspondence of the results with several research findings in the field of intergroup relations, is extensively discussed. 
418	17	3	1987	Two studies are reported which aimed to answer several questions relating to Atkinson §s model of achievement motivation. Firstly, how successfully the theory can predict the occupational choices of two different populations and what changes, if any, need to be made to the model to make it more suited to such predictions. Several conceptual errors were found in the theory which make it unsuitable in its present form for predicting occupational choices and suggestions are made as to the possible correction of these. Secondly, a comparison is made between Atkinson §s model and the expectancy valence models currently utilized to describe and predict occupational decision making. In particular Atkinson §s incentive component is contrasted with the valence measure described by expectancy valence models, and the possible influences of the motive factors (motive to succeed and motive to avoid failure) are considered since these are typically omitted by other models of career choice. Finally, the existence of sex differences in career choice, as well as in the various components of the model are studied and discussed. The changing conceptualization of fear of success is also included in this consideration. 
419	17	3	1987	Differences between paired paintings in a minimal group context were accentuated when assigned preferences served as the categorization basis. Failure to replicate resource allocation bias in control groups was attributed to the procedural emphasis on paintings, which may have precluded the use of the random categorization as a meaningful comparison dimension. 
420	17	3	1987	Male and female subjects observed a discussion by a group with one of three sex ratios (9M IF, SM SF, 1M 9F) and in which the male contributions were expressed in a more or less stereotype consistent manner. The results indicated that male speakers were stereotyped less than females and that male compared with female speakers were stereotyped increasingly less as the number of like speakers in the group increased. 
421	17	3	1987	Zimbardo §s de individuation concept was tested in a field experiment using games of fieldball. The results support the assumption that higher degrees of anonymity lead to more aggressive acts. 
422	17	3	1987	The present experiment was aimed at comparing the efficiency of the foot in the door technique (Freedman and Fraser, 1966) to that of the low ball technique (Cialdini Bassett, Cacioppo and Miller, 1978). Subjects were requested to abstain from smoking for 18 hours. The results demonstrated the superiority of the low ball technique. An original method of operationalizing the low ball technique (the use of intermediate behaviours) is presented herein. 
423	17	3	1987	The return rate of lost postcards was hypothesized to depend upon the precision of the image that the finder can form of the relationship sender recipient, Signature and length of the message were taken as indices and confirmed this role in two studies using a representative design. 
424	17	3	1987	Previous research found that greater personal optimism was produced during selective left hemisphere activation. In that research the selective activation was manipulated by contralateral visual orientation of attention. The present experiment replicated and extended this effect using monaural stimulation. In addition, a significant reduction in variability of responding was found, as expected, in the monaural as compared to binaural groups, and a significant correlation was found between individual desire for control and optimism. 
425	17	3	1987	An experiment tested three hypotheses about the conditions under which someone can be held vicariously responsible for the actions of another. Two of the hypotheses received empirical support: that the vicariously responsible person is in a superior relationship to the person who caused the damage and is able to control that person §s causing of the damage. A third hypotheis, that a person is held vicariously responsible because of a relatively greater ability to pay compensation to the victim, was not supported. 
426	17	4	1987	The hypothesis is tested that mere ownership of an object is a sufficient condition to enhance its likelihood to become one of the most attractive items of the entire set of similar objects. Evidence is presented that isolated visual letter stimuli belonging to one §s own name are more often ranked among the six most preferred letters of the entire alphabet than identical not own name letters. Across 12 different European languages, an (own) name letter effect was found for (initial and/or not initial) letters belonging to own first and/or family name. The fundamental theoretical relevance of the effect is outlined as well as its heuristic value for research on individual versus collective ownership and on affective asymmetry. A cross lingual analysis of the six least preferred letters while also confirming the mere ownership hypothesis calls for a critical reformulation of Zajonc §s mere exposure theory. 
427	17	4	1987	As in other areas of research we have in small group research classical studies with a paradigmatic character. These separated studies define the basic knowledge. But what is necessary is to combine these classical studies and to construct a theoretical concept which shows the similarities and dissimilarities between them. This is the main intention of the paper. The theoretical concept tries to reconstruct the now classical data from a model with normative and in formational components. Both king of components are integrated hierarchically with the normative elements as antecedent variables and the weights of the information integration as dependent variables. With the help of the model it is possible to reconstruct data in such different areas as, e.g. social facilitation, autokinetic effect, Asch conformity studies, Milgram conformity studies, equity theory studies, prisoner §s dilemma. As predictions research in the choice shift and the wage negotiation are presented. Finally, the connection with the research in social cognition is established by a reconstruction of classical study from the aspiration level and the dissonance theory. 
428	17	4	1987	Moscovici §s model of minority influence and Hollander §s model of idiosyncrasy credit were compared in an experiment conducted with I6 discussion groups composed of four male undergraduates (N = 64) and a confederate. Their task was to rank order unanimously 10 proposals to remediate urban problems, to which the confederate attempted to have one more added, thus introducing a norm change. Two variables were manipulated: Status of the innovator (minority versus elected leader) and Ideological criterion for innovation (avant garde versus reformist). It was predicted that the consistent behavioural style of the minority would make him more influential under the avant garde condition than under the reformist condition whereas the idiosyncrasy credit of the leader would make him more influential under the reformist condition. Although the adoption hypotheses failed to be supported, the evaluations of the confederate were consistent with both the Moscovici and Hollander models. While the minority con federate §s action gained him visibility and distinctive attributions of determination and assurance, the leader con federate §s initiative cost him his competence and cooperation credits. Strategies devised to adopt the innovation or to reject it (five groups versus four) pointed to the importance of interactive networks within the majority and to the decisive role played by group leaders for the innovator §s influence to be exerted. These findings lead to speculate that Hollander §s theorizing could be complementary to Moscovici §s to account for the diffusion of minority influence. 
429	17	4	1987	The course of bargaining is determined in part by interdependent individuals exchanging messages so as to influence other §s behaviour, and thereby to increase the likelihood of achieving outcomes consistent with their own goals. The communication of threats and promises are two major message strategies that are employed to influence the behaviour of others in a bargaining relationship. The present study examines the effects of players §s  level of commitment to these forms of message strategies upon behaviour in a duopoly bargaining task. Past research has operationalized commitment in terms of the consistency with which an individual has followed through on threats or promises in the past. In the present research, Becker §s (1960) concept of a side bet is employed to provide an alternative means for defining and manipulating commitment. A side bet obtains when either a threatener or a promiser posts a valued resource, say a bond, which they forfeit if they do not follow through on their stated threat or promise. The main expectations of the present study were that increased commitment to threat meassages would lead to more competitive behaviour and outcomes within a duopoly bargaining task, whereas increased commitment to promise messages would produce more cooperative behaviour and outcomes. Partial support for these major expectations, as well as confirmation of a number of secondary expectations, was obtained. 
430	17	4	1987	The pun of a sketch from the Benny Hill show was related to a switch of cognitive in formation processing programmes underlying the interpretation of the scene represented. The audience would be biased to interpret it following a cognitive programme anchored on the constructs self and other (SO programme), while Benny Hill makes a statement that would impose a cognitive programme anchored on constructs associated with the third pronominal person (3P programme). In an experiment it was attempted to make subjects to switch from SO  to 3P programmes (Benny Hill effect) when they were making subjective estimations of outcomes of bargains concerning distributions of rewards. The hypothesis was confirmed that the 3P programme was activated by providing additional in formation pertaining to substantiate the stimulus persons in such a way as to make them stand out as anchors for the processing of the in formation. However, the data showed also that the mere substantiation of stimulus persons was not yet sufficient to produce the given shift of cognitive programmes. The results are discussed in the light of theories concerning fairness, social values and allocation rules. 
431	17	4	1987	In a 2 × 2 experiment, the influence of attitude relevance and behaviour relevance on attitude behaviour relationship was examined. The highest attitude behaviour correlation was found in the situation where no external factor made relevant neither attitude nor behaviour, while the lowest correlation was found in the situation where both attitude and behaviour were made relevant. 
432	18	1	1988	"The present study proposes an extension to the phenomenon of ingroup favouritism, based on the hypothesis that judgments about ingroup members may be more positive or more negative than judgments about similar outgroup members. It contrasts predictions issued from the complexity extremity hypothesis (Linville, 1982; Linville and Jones, 1980), from the ingroup favouritism hypothesis (Tajfel, 1982) and from Tesser §s (1978; Millar and Tesser, 1986) attitude polarization model. Our main prediction, based on Social Identity Theory, is that judgments about both likeable and unlikeable ingroup members are more extreme than judgments about outgroup members. This phenomenon, coined the Black Sheep Effect, is viewed as due to the relevance that ingroup members §s behaviour, as compared to that of outgroup members, has for the subjects §s  social identity. Three experiments supported our predictions. Experiment I additionally showed that inter trait correlations were stronger for the ingroup than for the outgroup. Experiment 2 showed that the black sheep effect occurs only when the judgmental cues are relevant for the subjects §s  social identity, and Experiment 3 showed that levels of information about the target of the judgment were ineffective in generating judgmental extremity. Results are discussed in light of a cognitive motivational alternative explanation to a purely cognitive interpretation of outgroup homogeneity. "
433	18	1	1988	The relationship between conservation skills and subjective responsibility (SR) in moral judgment was examined in two studies. The Kohlberg ontogenetic priority hypothesis stating that conversation is a necessary but not sufficient condition of SR was pitted against the common structural basis hypothesis advanced by Damon. Piaget §s notion of heteronomy as a combination of preoperational thought and unilateral respect was studied by using the behavioural independence tasks by Subbotsky as indicators of unilateral respect. A teaching experiment using Galperin §s and Obukhova §s method to induce conservation indicated significant transfer from conservation to SR. SR was found to be more susceptible to regression over a 3–month period than conservation. Conservers were less likely to regress on SR than nonconservers. Unilateral respect was related to objective responsibility but not to conservation. Taken together the data fail to support Kohlberg §s ontogenetic priority hypothesis and only partially support the Piaget and Damon model of a common underlying structure. It is concluded that SR judgments largely reflect individual judgmental strategies and the effect of conservation on SR is intepreted in terms of increasing cross situational consistency in the use of these strategies. 
434	18	1	1988	The experiment which is presented in this paper was designed to overcome some of the problems associated with previous research investigating the effects of social categorization and minority influence. Sixty eight fourteen year old British Secondary School pupils indicated their attitudes towards a 'grant for pupils §s  before and after reading a text which advocated a minority position. The text was attributed as being the work of either pupils from their own school (ingroup minority) or from a school they discriminated against (outgroup minority). Responses were either made in public (by telling subjects that other pupils would see their responses) or in private (by subjects putting their responses into a ballot box). The results showed that on public responses ingroup minorities had more influence than outgroup minorities while there was no difference on private responses. Also, greater change occurred when responses were made in private than in public. These results are compatible with the intergroup analysis of minority influence. 
435	18	1	1988	The classical studies by Thurstone (1927b) and Coombs (1967) on the seriousness of crimes and offences are replicated here for a sample of male and female students. Eighty subjects used both forced choice and graded dominance ratios to assess all pairs of 10 crimes/offences. The direct ratio estimates correlate very highly with pair comparison probabilities, thus making it possible to interpret the former as direct estimates of dominance probabilities. These data can be scaled with excellent fit in Thurstone §s sense. The resulting scales are quite similar to those obtained by Thurstone and Coombs. An analysis of the individual data shows, however, that 69 per cent of the average data are aggregated over a variety of distinct subgroups of individuals who partition the crimes/offences into subsets that are incomparable in their seriousness. Thurstone §s and Coombs §s  seriousness scales must therefore be considered a population lawfulness. 
436	18	1	1988	Two different strategies for making causal attributions are distinguished. The first is the classic inductivist approach, which uses covariation information to arrive at causal attributions. The second is the knowledge structure approach, which uses information relevant to knowledge about plans and goals to explain behaviour. Two experiments are reported in which information activating both types of strategy is given. The results indicate that goal relevant information activates expectancies that resist the presence of explicit covariation information. The results are interpreted as indicating that expectancies generated by knowledge structures are therefore different to those activated by verbs, which do not resist the effect of explicit covariation information. It is concluded that knowledge structures constitute an alternative strategy of causal attribution to the inductivist strategy, and the nature of the relationship between the two strategies is considered. 
437	18	2	1988	Henri Tajfel §s contribution to the experimental study of intergroup relations is highlighted and recent complementary approaches are presented. The distinction between deductive and inductive aspects of social categorization and the links between within group and between group interaction and differentiation are commented. A plea is made for studying self as social representation and for considering ethical issues of intergroup relations. 
438	18	2	1988	Developments within the social identity tradition have led to work on the inductive aspects of categorization and the relation between personal and social identity, individuality and groupness. Other issues raised by Doise represent important areas for research and theoretical discussion. 
439	18	2	1988	In this discussion of papers by Doise (1988) and Tajfel (1982) it is argued that a conceptual distinction should be made between social groups and social categories. A social group can be considered as a dynamic whole or social system, characterized by the perceived interdependence among its members, whereas a social category can be defined as a collection of individuals who share at least one attribute in common. This distinction is crucial for the understanding of outgroup favouritism in the minimal intergroup situation, the basic similarity between large scale groupings and face to face groups, the difference between group identification and social identity and the issue of categorizations versus attributions in intergroup conflict. 
440	18	2	1988	Thirty two groups of three subjects each participated once in an intergroup public goods game (IPG) in which two groups compete for the provision of step level public goods. Half of the groups were allowed to discuss the conflict before their members decided privately and anonymously whether to contribute their endowments to their group benefit, and half were not given this opportunity. The results show that preplay group discussion enhances the percentage of contributors and changes the players §s  estimates about the decisions of the other players. The theoretical implications of the results are examined within the framework of a new model which relates the individual decision to contribute or not to the reward structure, altruism, and the individual §s belief structure. 
441	18	2	1988	In almost all experimental studies on choice behaviour the consequences of choices are limited to denumerable goods (usually money) and represented in a numerical way. It is argued that a different way of representing consequences would cause differences in social orientations. In an exploratory study (1) the kind of consequences (money, satisfaction with money and satisfaction with the situation) and (2) the way of representing consequences (numbers, rectangles, and faces) were varied. No differences were found between the three kinds of consequences represented by rectangles. Representation of money by numbers did not differ from representation of money by rectangles. However, subjects in the condition in which satisfaction with money was represented by faces were more cooperative and altruistic and less equality oriented than subjects in the corresponding condition in which satisfaction with money was represented by rectangles. Additional correlational analyses showed differences between ways of representing consequences. It was concluded that both for theory and for future research it is important to consider how consequences are represented. 
442	18	2	1988	Two studies investigated biases in the use of base rate information when assessing the probability of a witness §s  accurate identification of a white or West Indian as a burglar. An adapted version of the Kahneman Tversky cab problem was used, to provide a social decision in which biases could be measured against some normative standard. Ethnicity of youth (white/West Indian) and nature of base rate (incidental/causal) were manipulated in a 2 × 2 between subjects design. A significant interaction effect revealed that subjects took no account of the base rate for a West Indian subject, but used the base rate only when it was causal and the youth was white. This prejudice effect against a West Indian youth and exoneration effect for a white youth were replicated in a second study, using a microcomputer and chronometric analyses. Results are discussed in terms of heuristic decision making, social schemata, and the cognitive versus motivational bases of bias in the use of base rates. 
443	18	2	1988	This research examined favouritism in group product evaluations as a function of personal involvement. After being divided into groups on an arbitrary basis, subjects worked at a group brainstorming task. Some subjects then assessed the merits of their own group §s product relative to that of an outgroup §s product, whereas other subjects assessed the merits of an ingroup §s product relative to that of an outgroup §s product. In both conditions, a significant bias was observed such that owngroup and ingroup products were rated as superior to outgroup products. Moreover, this bias was equally strong regardless of whether subjects were appraising a product they had personally helped create. The implications of the findings for understanding the antecedents of group bias are considered. 
444	18	2	1988	Ajzen and Fishbein  §s attitudes model was applied to the prediction of voting in the Autonomous Basque Parliament Elections held on the 30th November 1986. On the whole, the model §s predictive power was acceptable. Nevertheless, the model §s predictive power was found to improve considerably when past experience was taken into account. 
445	18	2	1988	The study addressed the influence of a close relationship with a partner. The hypothesis that stronger interpersonal bonds (partner §s support, cohesiveness, emotional ties) lead a goal pursuer to expand greater effort and to feel greater satisfaction in working toward self set goal was tested. The data were collected from 200 Ss involved in a close relationship by means of a Goal Questionnaire referring to goal properties (importance, expectancy, conflict), to action dimensions (effort, persistence, satisfaction) and to interpersonal relations between a goal pursuer and his partner (support, dependence, emotional control). The data analysis (ANOVA) revealed that the high support (vs. low) was significantly related to greater effort, persistence and satisfaction. Also high emotional control was related to higher persistence and high dependence resulted in stronger satisfaction from goal related activity. The path analysis showed that partner §s support influences the goal related activity in two ways, directly through enhancing persistence and satisfaction and indirectly by increasing individual §s expectancy of successful goal attainment. 
446	18	3	1988	Moscovici has ushered in the era of social representations widely welcomed as a European alternative to what are increasingly regarded as the shortcomings of mainline American social psychology. The rapid and enthusiastic adoption by many psychologists of Moscovici §s theoretical approach has not so far evoked a great deal of critical appraisal of the ideas he put forward. The present paper seeks to make a start in jilling this gap by an examination of the conceptual structure and some of its underlying assumptions. There appear to be a number of internal inconsistencies and some doubt concerning the logical status of social representations It is suggested that clarification of such issues, together with the establishment of closer links with the findings of neighbouring disciplines, would help to strengthen what is undoubtedly one of the most stimulating new departures in the field. 
447	18	3	1988	The theory of social representations occupies a place apart in social psychology both by the problems it raises and the scale of the phenomena with which it deals. This provokes many a criticism and misunderstanding. Such a theory may not correspond with the model of social psychology as it is defined at present. One attempts however to show that it answers important social and scientific questions, in what it differs from the classical conception of collective representations and, from the very beginning, adopts a constructivist perspective which has spread in social psychology since. Several trends of research have confirmed its vision of the relations between social and cognitive phenomena, communication and thought. More detailed remarks aim at outlining the nature of social representations, their capacity to create information, their function which is to familiarize us with the strange, according to the categories of our culture. Going farther, one insists on the diversity of methodological approaches. If the experimental method is useful to understand how people should think, higher mental and social processes must be approached by different methods, including linguistic analysis and observation of how people think. No doubt, social representations have a relation with the more recent field of social cognition. But inasmuch as the former depend on content and context, i.e. subjectivity and sociability of people, they approach the phenomena differently from the latter. Referring to child psychology and anthropology, one can contend, despite appearances, that it is also a more scientific approach. There is however much to be learned from criticisms and there is still a long way to go before we arrive at a satisfactory theory of social thinking and communication. 
448	18	3	1988	The same ordering task with social marking is used in two experimental training conditions. In one of the conditions, the answers based on the social norm contradict the answers that result from the cognitive processing of the examples provided. In the other condition, the two types of answers are the same. When compared to a control training condition, both of the test training conditions are shown to have the same effect. The observations made during training as well as the justifications given by the children support the hypothesis that the influence of social marking cannot be explained, at least for one of the test conditions, by the existence of socio cognitive conflict. Social marking may lead to better representation of the task. In one of the experimental conditions, it may also lead to the use of a problem solving procedure that is based on the properties of the objects to be ordered. 
449	18	3	1988	While proponents of biological theories of emotion claim the existence of universal emotion and expression patterns, recent theories stress cognitive appraisal mechanisms as elicitors of emotion, thus suggesting the influence of cultural and social factors on emotional experience and emotional expression. Data from a large scale questionnaire study with about 2400 respondents in 30 countries allowed us to test that notion in part. In this study, respondents had to describe in detail situations in which they had experienced the emotions of joy, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, shame, and guilt. The results indicate that emotional expression patterns do seem to be universal, while characteristics of the subjectively experienced emotion, in particular its duration and intensity, show a high variance across country samples. An attempt is made to link these differences to economic data for the different countries, specifically to the gross national product. The rather striking differences found between rich and boor' countries are discussed in terms of the frequency of confrontation with emotion eliciting situations and the importance of such situations. 
450	18	3	1988	"While dissent has been construed in terms of social support and informational influence, this paper hypothesizes that exposure to dissenting minority views, even when they are wrong, stimulates resistance to conformity and increased adherence to one §s own views. In this study, individuals in groups of four judged the colour of a series of blue stimuli and were exposed to one individual who consistently judged the stimuli to be green: inconsistently judged them to be 'green' or expressed no dissent. In a subsequent setting, when judging a series of red slides; subjects were exposed to a majority who repeatedly judged them as 'orange. Exposure to dissent, whether it was consistent or inconsistent, substantially reduced the level of conformity. In fact, exposure to the consistent dissent led to almost complete independence. "
451	18	3	1988	The purpose of this study is to examine how external conformity affect internal conformity in the conditions in which the degree of discrepancy between majority opinion and physical reality are different. The 106 subjects were divided into eight groups of 2 (male and female) × 2 (high external conformer and low one) × 2 (large discrepancy and small one). We found the effect of interaction between discrepancy condition and external conformity to internal conformity. 
452	18	3	1988	Two experiments yielded further evidence for the black sheep effect (Marques, Yzerbyt and by ens, 1988). In the first experiment, 66 subjects were presented with two good or two poor speeches, one supposedly made by an ingroup member and the other supposedly made by an outgroup member. In the second experiment, 37 subjects were presented with one good and one poor speech supposedly made either by two ingroup members or by two outgroup members. The black sheep effect was predicted and found in both experiments: subjects over evaluated likeable ingroup members and under evaluated unlikeable ingroup members as compared to equally likeable and unlikeable outgroup members. Collapsing the data of the two experiments suggests that social comparison may be performed, in purely symbolic terms, against a cognitive standard of positivity rather than an outgroup present in the judgmental situation. The emergence of the predicted effect when strongly individualized information was presented in inter  as well as in intra group situations supports the robustness of the black sheep effect. 
453	18	3	1988	Previous research on the Self image bias §s  has demonstrated a defensive tendency to overestimate the importance of positive general self attributes (e.g. warm, patient) when forming impressions of other people. The current research replicates and extends the self image bias findings in an area of theoretical as well as applied relevance: The evaluation of other peoples specific skills, and resulting social preferences. 
454	18	4	1988	"The norm of internality is defined as a social valorisation of explanations of behaviours (attribution) and outcomes (locus of control) which emphasise the causal role of the actor. It is shown in this paper: (1) that internal explanations are linked to self presentation strategies; (2) that internal explanations are more often selected by middle class subjects; (3) that these explanations are learned by children and by adults in psycho socio educational settings. Finally, the norm of internality is assumed to be linked to social practices (evaluation practices). "
455	18	4	1988	"The background and development of motivational hypotheses in social identity theory are examined, revealing two general motives for intergroup discrimination: a desire for cognitive coherence, or good structure; and a need for positive self esteem. The latter (self esteem hypothesis: SEH) has received most attention. Both the theoretical and empirical bases of the SEH are largely rooted in research using the minimal group paradigm. However, it remains unclear whether self esteem is to be considered primarily as a cause or an effect of discrimination. When real social groups are considered the SEH appears to provide only a partial explanation, and a variety of more or less powerful alternative social motives may underlie discriminatory behaviour. We explore some social structural, individual and interpersonal limits to the SEH, and we call for an awareness of these motives and a re examination of the good structure thesis. The SEH, as it stands, provides only a partial contribution to our understanding of the relationship between social identity and discriminatory intergroup behaviour. "
456	18	4	1988	Various field studies and experimental simulations demonstrated that causal reasoning increases after unexpected as well as after unpleasant events. However, unpleasant events are seen as less likely than pleasant ones in everyday life. Accordingly, the subjective probability of the event and its hedonic quality were naturally confounded in these studies. To isolate the contribution of both determinants, the subjective probability and the valence of an event were independently manipulated in a laboratory experiment. Subjects completed an ostensible professional skills test and received either success or failure feedback in relation to a criterion set by the experimenter. The subjective probability of success was varied by informing subjects about the distribution of success and failure in a comparable population (either 23 per cent or 77 per cent were said to meet the criterion). The results indicate a pronounced valence effect: The intensity of causal reasoning and the number of possible reasons reported for the outcome was greater after negative than after positive feedback, independent of the a priori probability of the outcome. No evidence for an increase in causal explanations after unexpected, as compared to expected, events was obtained. Several mediating processes are discussed. 
457	18	4	1988	Three experiments were conducted in order to compare the influence of ingroup and outgroup minorities and to assess the role of Zeitgeist perception in minority influence. The results confirmed that ingroup minorities are more influential than outgroup minorities. This overall finding was observed in two different experimental paradigms, using either a small group setting in which subjects interacted with the minority or the simultaneous social influence paradigm in which both influence sources impinge simultaneously (via written information) upon the subjects. These results were supportive of Tajfel §s social identity theory while contradicting Kelley §s augmenting/discounting principle. Finally, subjects §s  perception of the Zeitgeist was unrelated to the magnitude of minority influence. 
458	18	4	1988	Bulgarian students who first learned to write in the Cyrillic alphabet prefer own name letters in the Cyrillic but also in the Roman alphabet, with which they became acquainted only many years later. These findings which are intra individually correlated, support Nuttin S interpretation of the Name Letter Effect in terms of attachment to self and contradict a primacy of own name writing explanation. 
459	18	4	1988	The effects of ingroup and outgroup minorities upon public and private levels of influence was examined. The results show that whilst ingroup minorities have greater influence in public, outgroup minorities can have as much, if not more influence than ingroup minorities when responses are made in private. These results are consistent with previous research and support the social identijkation model of social influence. 
460	18	4	1988	A quasi experiment was conducted to examine the effects of self categorization in overlapping categories on intergroup differentiation. Old aged women was used as the first, sports as the additional category. It could be shown that intergroup differentiation was significantly reduced under crossed categorization conditions. Implications for social compensation strategies are discussed. 
461	18	5	1988	This study was conducted in order to compare the influence of ingroup and outgroup minorities and to assess the role of perceived source credibility in minority influence. The subjects were exposed to the simultaneous majority/minority influence paradigm. Ingroup minorities were more influential than outgroup minorities. Subjects moved toward the minority position in private and toward the majority position in public when the minority was represented by members of the ingroup. On private responses subjects were not affected by outgroup minorities who argued for abortion, and they became more positive toward abortion when outgroup minorities opposed abortion. Final &, ingroup minorities were perceived as more credible than outgroup minorities and greater credibility of minority source was associated with greater attitude change toward the minority position. The superior influence of ingroup minorities held when controlling for source credibility. Overall, the results were highly supportive of social identity theory. 
462	18	5	1988	Two experiments were carried out investigating the effect of categorization on attitude change. It was predicted that the division of a number of individuals into two subgroups (categorization), in such a way that initial attitudes correlate with subgroup membership, would lead to accentuation of attitudinal differences between subgroups. It was further predicted that an identical distribution of initial attitudes without superimposed categorization would lead to convergence of attitude positions. In experiment 1, the effect of a male female classification on attitude change was studied. It was indeed found that subjects changed their attitudes in the direction opposite to the position of the outgroup (intergroup attitude differentiation), but only for groups who were initially more extreme than the comparison group. In the control condition (no categorization), conformity effects were observed. In experiment 2, an antagonistic intergroup setting was induced. In this situation, strong intergroup attitude differentiation effects were observed, which were not affected by the magnitude of the initial intergroup discrepancy. In the control condition, subjects did not show conformity to the overall group mean, but maintained their initial noncentral attitude position. 
463	18	5	1988	In recent years in research on intergroup relationships, the assumption has increasingly been made that discrimination dominates decisions when individuals allocate resources between (members of) own and other group. Conversely, in empirical studies of interpersonal decision making, including an extensive literature on the development of children §s allocation rules within dyadic relationships, it has been repeatedly observed that in dyadic relationships choices though responsive to various changes in the environment, are more strongly governed by fairness rules. The present research extends the interpersonal fairness paradigm to the intergroup case, and examines the effects of some of those variables, namely, children §s age, input and attitudes toward other, that have been observed to influence choice behaviour within interpersonal relationships. The findings indicate that as children are socialized, fairness rules also play an increasing dominant role in intergroup allocation decisions, and that both relative input and the language of the outgroup influence such decisions. At the same time, there is some preliminary evidence to indicate that the relative strength of self interest may be somewhat stronger in intergroup than in interpersonal relationships. Finally, a number of the issues that must be confronted in comparing the two more important forms of human social choices, interpersonal and intergroup decision making, are considered. 
464	18	5	1988	Two experiments examined the effects of answering a question about a specific component of life satisfaction on respondents §s  assessment of their overall satisfaction with life. The results suggest that the use of primed information in forming subsequent judgments is determined by Grice §s conversational norms. In general, answering the specific question increases the accessibility of information relevant to that question. However, the effect that this has on the general judgment depends on the way in which the two questions are presented. When the two questions are merely placed in sequence without a conversational context, the answer to the subsequent general question is based in part on the primed specific information. As a result, the answer to the general question becomes similar to that for the specific question (i.e. assimilation). However, this does not occur when the two questions are placed in a communication context. Conversational rules dictate that communicators should be informative and should avoid redundancy in their answers. Therefore, when a specific and a general question are perceived as belonging to the same conversational context, the information on which the answer to the specific question was based is disregarded when answering the general one. This attenuates the assimilation effect. The conditions under which these different processes occur are identified and experimentally manipulated, and the implications of these findings for models of information use in judgment are discussed. 
465	18	5	1988	"A 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design was employed to test the effects of competition on justice rule preferences in contributive and retributive settings. The factors included task structure (cooperative versus competitive); allocation (contributive versus retributive); and input information (no information, ability only, effort only). The data showed that, in contribution conditions, competition alone was insufficient to produce changes in allocation preferences. However, in the contribution ability condition, competition produced a shift toward more equitable allocations. In retribution situations, competition was sufficient to create stronger preferences for equity in all conditions except retribution ability. In general, allocators in competitive conditions exhibited a stronger preference for equity. In particular, the combination of competition and retribution produced the strongest preference for equitable allocations. "
466	18	5	1988	An experiment is reported to test Davidson §s (1983) hypothesis that there is a pervasive third person effect' whereby people see the mass media as more likely to affect other people than it is them. Respondents were asked to judge the likely impact of three different media issues, a political campaign, the influence of violence in the media and a drink driving advertising campaign. While an issue effect was found, so that the serf was most likely to be seen as infuencible by an anti drink driving campaign and significantly less so by media violence and politics, in all cases others were seen as being much more affected than the self. The results of the study are discussed with reference to the concept of the Ifalse consensus effect. 
467	18	5	1988	This experiment examines ingroup and outgroup minority influence when group membership was determined by a trivial categorization. The results show that ingroup minorities had more public influence than outgroup minorities when the categorization was trivial and when subjects also believed that they were similar to their ingroup. However, no differences were found when group membership was not associated with similarity. These results are interpreted as supporting the social identification model of social influence. 
468	18	6	1988	It has been argued that the self concept is divided into two sub systems, one relating to personal and the other to social identities. The salience of these identities will depend upon the particular situation. How can the relationship between the individual §s personal and social identities by conceptualized? To answer this question, Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher and Wetherell (1987) proposed a hierarchical system of self categorization. At one level, social identities are determined though comparisons between groups, and at another level, personal identities are determined through comparisons between the self and other members of the ingroup. In the present study, adolescents described a number of self and others §s  identities in relevant social situations. Multidimensional scaling revealed three dimensions which subjects used to differentiate amongst the various identities. The first dimension separated peer group identities from ascribed social identities. The second dimension separated ingroups from outgroups and the third dimension differentiated personal identity from all other social stimuli. The latter dimensions therefore supported Turner et al §s self categorization model. 
469	18	6	1988	Two experiments demonstrate that individuals use an interindividual comparison strategy to evaluate a specific life domain if their attention is drawn to only one aspect of that domain, that has either positive or negative evaluative implications. If their attention is drawn to two aspects with opposite implications, however, an intraindividual strategy, based on the comparison of both aspects, is preferred. Whether one or two aspects bearing on a specific domain are salient is, among other conditions, a function of the number of aspects assessed in a questionnaire. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed. 
470	18	6	1988	Two experiments were conducted to investigate some of the factors affecting social identification. In Experiment 1 ingroup identification was measured for subjects who were members of high or low status groups with either permeable or impermeable boundaries, and who received high, average or low ability feedback. The main results are that (1) members of high status groups show more ingroup identification than members of low status groups (2) members of low status groups with permeable boundaries identify less with their group than members of low status groups with impermeable boundaries and (3) in low status groups ingroup identification decreases as group members have higher individual ability. In Experiment 2, in addition to manipulating group status and individual ability, permeability was further differentiated into separate possibilities for upward and downward mobility. The most important results of Experiment 2 are that (1) members of high status groups show more ingroup identification than members of low status groups and (2) group members with high individual ability identify less with their group when upward mobility is possible than when upward mobility is not possible. These results are discussed in relation to social identity theory. 
471	18	6	1988	"Paralleling closely an experiment on group polarization by Vinokur and Burnstein (1978), subjects discussed one of three risky, cautious, or neutral choice dilemmas. For each of the value items, one half of the six person groups consisted of a cautious minority and a risky majority; the other half consisted of a risky minority and a cautious majority. The minorities always consisted of trained confederates. The results indicated that on risky items minorities that argued for risk had more influence than minorities advocating caution; on neutral and cautious items the majority was not influenced by the minority whether it advocated the risky or cautious alternative. "
472	18	6	1988	In attempts to simplify and improve the measurement of social orientations in the minimal group paradigm, a number of alternative reward distribution procedures have been developed. (See Bornstein et al. for a review of Tajfel §s original procedure and other procedures.) This note concerns a nonparametric test for data collected by use of those procedures. 
473	18	6	1988	While a strategy of compliance without pressure (Joule, 1987) had the effect of inducing almost all of a group of smoking subjects to stop smoking first for 18 hours then for 3 days, simply observing someone (an accomplice) break his or her own initial agreement to abstain from smoking for 18 hours was enough to bring about a substantial reduction in the willingness of other subjects to later abstain for 3 days. However, subjects did not follow the lead of the accomplice immediately, and persisted in their agreement to abstain for 18 hours. This pattern of indirect, but not direct influence, suggests that there may be a type of minority influence at work here that represents a sort of behavioural conversion. 
474	18	6	1988	Using a near minimal  group paradigm (see Taifel et al., 1971), this research tested whether the reasons people think about following group categorization can account for the magnitude of ingroup bias. College students were randomly assigned to four conditions. These conditions instructed subjects either to think about reasons for ingroup choice (ingroup condition), outgroup choice (outgroup), to think about anything they wanted (basic), or to think about distracting activities (distraction). The hypothesized ordering of ingroup bias and polarized attitudes was: ingroup > basic > distraction > outgroup. The results support both hypotheses. The meaning of these results are discussed in relation to social identity theory and Billig §s (1985) rhetorical approach to prejudice. 
475	19	1	1989	"In the experiment reported here, 116 male and female adult subjects allocated the points of Tajfel §s matrices to the self; an ingroup (same sex), and an outgroup (opposite sex) member, on the basis of gender stereotypical comparison dimensions, individually or in the presence of an ingroup and two outgroup members. Results show that interindividual and intergroup differentiation are associated with masculine characteristics, but not with feminine ones and that there are differences in the male and female patterns of differentiation. Results are discussed within the framework of social identity theory. A theoretical integration of social stereotypes and social identity is proposed, in order to elucidate the process of intergroup discrimination between gender categories. "
476	19	1	1989	An asymmetry effect is known to exist in the estimation of interpersonal distance, depending on whether the point of reference for the estimation is the subject (How far are the others from you?) or the others How far are you from the others?). It looks as though, through the effect of a self centring schema, subjects feel that others occupy their own space more than they occupy the space of others. A self centring schema has also been found in many other processes involving judgment or comparison of oneself and others. It is generally interpreted as a sign of the affirmation and defence of personal identity. The three experiments reported here attempt to relate the asymmetries in the distances perceived between persons represented on a map to the following three areas in which one §s sense of personal or group identity is involved: (1) in the perception of one §s own specificity with respect to others (or of the specificity of the group to which one belongs with respect to other groups) (experiment 1), (2) in one §s ability to put oneself in the place of others (exocentrism) (experiment 2). and (3) in the individuation of oneself by others (experiment 3). The results of these three experiments lead us to believe that it is indeed the processes of identification and affirmation of personal and group identity   along with the underlying categorization processes   that are the source of the asymmetries observed in interpersonal distance estimation. The consistency of the data obtained in different situations also validates the technique used for estimating interpersonal distance. 
477	19	1	1989	"The present study is based on a social psychological concept of aggression, focusing on typicalities in the subjective definitions and interpretations of aggressive interactions. The study was conducted to explore whether perspective specific divergences in the evaluation of longer aggressive interaction sequences are accompanied by different descriptions of the content and different segmentation of the interaction from the actor §s versus the recipient §s viewpoint. Two hundred and fifty three pupils participated in the study. The data obtained indicate that   while only slightly differing in the free descriptions and segmentations of the interaction   subjects evaluate the single behavioural segments more positive if they are in the position of an actor than of a recipient. Presenting the subjects an ambiguous situation leads to perspective specific differences in the subjective definitions of the beginning of the aggressive interaction, showing that there is a tendency to reject the initiator §s role. Four kinds of segments were distinguished; the MANOVA results show that actions initiating the conflict and actions defined as serious are evaluated more negative than other, not specified segments. Actors §s  judgments are more affected by the distinction between segments than are those of recipients. "
478	19	1	1989	Ranking and pair comparison methods are proposed for the recording of individual social orientations. The experimental data were analysed with random utility models that were specially developed by the authors. The utility functions used contain almost all the social motives discussed in the literature as special cases. In order to classify the subjects into classes of similar social orientation, a procedure was proposed that was based on the particular utility function. The experiments were carried out with 144 subjects. The proposed recording methods and analysis procedures proved to be suitable. Results showed that not only simple social Orientation, such as individualism, competition, etc., could be observed in the subjects, but that orientations with more complex utility functions could also be found that have not previously been reported in the literature. The classification of the orientations using both methods showed a high level of agreement. 
479	19	1	1989	"Thirty seven academics participated in a field study in which perceptions of the size and attributes of a majority and minority group were obtained. (The groups concerned were male and female academics at a British university). These observations were used to examine the phenomenon of illusory correlation, and to test hypotheses concerning the perceived homogeneity and competence of ingroup and outgroup in majority minority contexts. To test for the illusory correlation effect estimates of the numbers of male and female senior staff were elicited. These estimates were consistently inaccurate, producing a lower perceived correlation between gender and seniority than actually existed. Measures of intragroup homogeneity revealed that, as predicted from previous research, members of the minority group saw their own group as more homogeneous than the outgroup. For majorty group members the reverse was true. The intergroup evaluations generally favoured the minority group; this was especially evident in the evaluations from the minority group members themselves. Possible explanations of these findings and their correspondence with those obtained from laboratory research are discussed. "
480	19	1	1989	The purpose of this study was to examine under which social conditions cognitive development of children at the same cognitive development level will be stimulated. One hundred and two children (mean age 7.8 years), understanding conversation of area quantity, but not yet able to grasp the compensatory relationships between the dimensions of length and width of an area, participated in two experimental conditions in which the developmental processes of socio cognitive conflict and coordination were evoked. The results indicate that the resolution of the socio cognitive conflict and the occurrence of coordination is higher in individual than in dyadic conditions, and higher in (inter group) competitive and (adult) supervised conditions than in conditions were task execution was left to the spontaneous initiative of the children themselves. Cognitive developmental progress generalized from the area concept to liquid and mass concepts. 
481	19	2	1989	Two studies are reported which examine the contribution of linguistic factors to attribute inferences and semantic similarity judgements. For this purpose a new method is developed which allows us to examine the contribution of language as a symbolically shared system. The two studies show that a substantial amount of the variance in both attribute inferences and semantic similarity judgements is mediated by socially shared linguistic conventions. The implications of these findings and the methodology for social cognition, and some models of personality and affect are discussed. 
482	19	2	1989	Two related field studies investigated social stereotyping and differentiation between student groups in higher education. In the first, subjects from Exeter and Manchester Universities rated students at both institutions on a number of evaluatively positive attributes. They also judged the degree status and prospective employment opportunities of the groups, in a context which rendered these important. Although subjects displayed strategies of positive differentiation, this was restricted to certain consensual dimensions, reflecting perceived stereotypic differences between the groups. Discrepancies in the pattern of differentiation between the groups, and with finding of comparable studies, are discussed. This paradigm was then extended to the case where Manchester University subjects rated three groups, including the ingroup (Oxford or Exeter University vs. Manchester University vs. Manchester Polytechnic students). From social identity theory it was predicted that comparisons with a higher status outgroup which also excelled on contextually important dimensions (Oxford/Exeter), would increase positive differentiation of the ingroup from a second, lower status outgroup (Manchester Polytechnic students). This was confirmed, although there was weaker evidence for devaluation of the second outgroup in absolute terms. In both studies the relation of group status and dimensional importance of the material factor of career prospects helped to explain the strategies of differentiation adopted. 
483	19	2	1989	Piagetian scholars have argued that cognitive development is fostered by peer social interaction, brought about by socio cognitive conflict between conserver non conserver pairs. The nonconservers often attain conservation after having discussed their different opinions with conserving peers, whereas the conservers do not regress to non conservation. These results are generally taken to indicate the beneficial impact of such peer interaction. In this research, carried out with one sample in the United States and one in the Soviet Union, socio cognitive conflict was engendered between pairs of 5–7 year olds who were differentiated by their level of thinking about a mathematical balance beam. Contrary to the results reported by the Piagetians, regression was found to be at least as likely as development. The results are discussed in terms of differences between research in the domain of conservation and research in a related domain in which children §s levels of thinking and degree of confidence are not confounded. 
484	19	2	1989	An experiment is reported testing an impression management interpretation of previous research demonstrating displaced aggression effects. It was found that superior performance by a confederate and not annoyance was related to increased use of shocks by subjects. Path analyses provided additional support for an impression management interpretation of these results, and disconfirmed frustration aggression theory. 
485	19	2	1989	"A current focus of research on individual versus group performance is social loafing, the decrease in individual effort that occurs when the individual works within a cooperative group rather than alone. This result is also referred to as the Ringelmann effect. But what has been ignored until now is the increment in group performance through systematic variation of individual performance rates within the group, although this effect was reported by Moede (1927) in the same article which influenced research on the Ringlemann effect. Within a narrow range of performance rates from 4.5 to 3.5 in dyads Kohler found an increase in group performance to a level above that of the individual performances. Kohler obtained comparable results from 3–person, and 4–person groups using the experimental procedure of weight lifting and winch turning. This phenomenon should be called the Kohler effect; although it is still to be replicated with modern ergometers. "
486	19	2	1989	Simmons, Dawes and Orbell (1984) suggested that greed provides a more important motive for non cooperation in a social dilemma than fear. However, there are at least three reasons to reinvestigate the relative impact of fear and greed on cooperation in social dilemmas. First, the Simmons et al. results were not replicated in a recent study (Van Avermaet and Van Nieuwkerke, in press). Second in the two forementioned studies a step level public good game was employed, a game which does not meet the formal requirements of social dilemmas as they were defined by Dawes (1980). Third, in contrast to previous research, we employed a complete experimental design to investigate the effect of the saliency of the two motives. In the present study, 128 subjects were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 (saliency of fear: high, low) × 2 (saliency of greed: high, low) factorial design. First of all it appeared that our fear and greed manipulation was successful. In addition the results indicated a significant interaction effect: cooperation was highest when both motives had a low saliency. 
487	19	2	1989	This article deals with Lewin §s early intentions to promote applied psychology, especially with his essay Die Sozialisierung des Taylorsystems (The Socialisation of the Taylor System). The authors point out that certain characteristics of Lewin §s social psychological approach can already be seen in this early article. Furthermore, they want to show how important the role of applied psychology has been in the development of Lewin S scientific work. 
488	19	3	1989	After a conceptual and methodological critique of Social Identity Theory (SIT), it is argued, in sharp contrast to SIT but consistent with a Behavioural Interaction Model (BIM), that the allocations in the standard Minimal Group Paradigm (MGP)  which provide the main evidence for SIT  can be best reinterpreted as instrumental, rational behaviour aimed at maximizing the economic self interests of the subjects rather than efforts on their part to strive for a positive social identity as SIT has claimed. Explicit social categorization appears to be only one of the many unit forming factors which may affect allocations within and between group boundaries in the MGP. Group polarization effects indicate that groups, guided by their perceived interdependence on the recipients of their allocations seem more rational and effective than their individual members prior to the group discussion in maximizing their economic outcomes. Finally, it is concluded that BIM provides probably a more parsimonious explanation of all the usualfindings obtained by the standard MGP than SIT. 
489	19	3	1989	Recently a number of critics of traditional approaches to the study of attitudes have stressed the need to study the ways in which people express views in natural discourse. The present study examines the rhetorical aspects of holding strong views by providing a detailed case study. It focuses on the discourse of a family discussing the British Royal Family, where one member of the family is recognized to hold strong views. A number of rhetorical complexities of the discourse are highlighted and particular attention is placed on the argumentative dimensions of holding strong views. It is suggested that strong views are held in relation to opposing views and in arguing about the issue of monarchy participants are also reflexively arguing about arguments. Examples are given to show that the holder of strong views, as opposed to the holder of weak views, does not necessarily have a greater opposition to the assumption of multisubjectivity, for the discourse of views is paradoxically marked by both assumptions of multisubjectivity and intersubjectivity. It is also shown that the holder of strong views may produce a variable discourse. The rhetorical nature of such variability is discussed and implications are drawn for the study of beliefs and for analysing the relations between thinking and arguing. 
490	19	3	1989	Three experiments were conducted to examine the effects which if then instructions of the type if you eat X, then you will get Y, have on the evaluation of the foods addressed in the if and the then parts of the instructions, respectively. Based on research on intrinsic motivation it was hypothesized that liking for food X that one is induced to eat by means of if then instructions will be impaired, whereas liking for food Y offered as a reward for the consumption of X will be enhanced. Experiment 1 revealed an enhancement of liking effect for the thenfood lasting for at least six weeks, but no impairment of liking for the if food. Experiment 2 explored the possibility of reducing children §s dislike for foods by means of paradoxical if then instructions presenting the disliked food in the then position as a reward for the consumption of another food. No significant effects were obtained in this study. Experiment 3 examined the effects of introducing yet unknown foods to children by means of if then instructions. Results revealed that liking for the new food is impaired when it is the iffood, but is enhanced when it is offered in the then position. Discussion is centered on the possibility that the effects of if then instructions are more pronounced in single trial compared to multi trial treatment conditions. 
491	19	3	1989	The present study examines the impact of non diagnostic individualized information on judgments concerning stereotypic and non stereotypic behaviours performed by ingroup versus outgroup members. Ninety five Law School students were confronted with either a lawyer or a teacher in mathematics and were given either the category label alone, the category label plus written individualized informations or the category label plus a videotaped interview of the target. Subjects indicated the likelihood that the target would perform each of four behaviours, two of which were stereotypic and two of which were counter stereotypic of the target §s professional category and this in four different situations. In accordance with classical dilution results (Nisbett, Zukier and Lemley, 1981), individualized information weakened the influence of stereotypes. Also, in line with Park and Rothbart §s (1982) work on the outgroup homogeneity hypothesis, judgments were more extreme for the outgroup than for the ingroup target. However, a derivation of Linville §s (1982) complexity extremity hypothesis was not supported: the dilution effect was not more effective for the outgroup than for the ingroup target. Lastly, our data argue against Nisbett et al. §s explanation for the lack of dilution these authors found for stereotype irrelevant behaviours. Taken together, our results may be seen from an optimistic as well as from a pessimistic point of view. The latter perspective points out the pervasive polarization of judgments about outgroup targets across individualization levels whereas the former stresses upon the dilution taking place for both in and outgroup targets. 
492	19	3	1989	Subjects were led to believe that two sub groups were created according to similarity. Then they were assigned resources, received bogus offers, and asked to negotiate a mutually acceptable reward division. It was found that low resource members negotiated payoffs approximately equally. In contrast, high resource members negotiated larger payoffs to themselves when paired with outgroup members. 
493	19	3	1989	In two experiments, it is shown that interviewers bias to a larger extent their questions towards their hypothesis when they interact with an interviewee than when they only prepare questions for a future interview. Also more biased questions are asked at the beginning of the interview than at the end. This does not seem to be due to the certainty entertained by the interviewers about their hypothesis. More likely, it appears that biased questions have an adaptative value and that they smooth the interview. All in all, our subjects were not especially concerned with diagnosticity. 
494	19	4	1989	The present research addresses the interface of social cognition and the use of interpersonal language. Based on a linguistic category model proposed by Semin and Fiedler (1988), it is demonstrated that under different conditions language users tend to describe other people §s behaviour either in concrete and specific terms (descriptive or interpretive action verbs) or in abstract, dispositional terms (state verbs, adjectives) A two stage process is postulated by which these variations in abstractness can lead to the reification of social information: In the first stage, the rules of cooperative and efficient communication encourage the use of abstract statements about other people. Once the social information is represented on an abstract level, a top down bias will then, in the second stage, influence the interpretation and judgments of subsequent specific behaviours in a way which tends to reify or confirm the abstract statements. While the abstraction tendency is expected in free communication, when information is taken for granted, the reverse top down bias should be observed in social judgment tasks, when the truth or validity of statements is open to be judged. Study 1 demonstrates the abstraction tendency in a serial communication game involving the successive re telling of person descriptions. Study 2 utilizes a priming technique to examine the top down bias in social judgment: influences of prior judgments regarding abstract attributes on subsequent judgments of specific attributes are stronger than transfer influences in the reverse direction. Moreover, this top down bias is independent of whether the applicability of the prime attribute to the target person is affirmed or denied. Study 3 supports the view that abstract language is due to taken taken for granted conditions, showing a reversal from abstract to more specific language even in free communication when the validity of statements is challenged. 
495	19	4	1989	The major theoretical contributions to the study of attribution, those of Heider (1958), Kelley (1967) and Jones and Davis (1965) have worked from the assumption that person perception is analogous to object perception and scientific investigation. Goffman §s dramaturgic analysis of the social self provides an alternative framework for addressing the problem of how we perceive and understand the behaviour of others. In this paper, I explore the implications of the dramaturgic perspective for the study of person perception and discuss the ways in which it diverges from the traditional approach to attribution. In addition, I present an alternative account of the Fundamental Attributional Error that arises in light of Goffman §s dramaturgic analysis. 
496	19	4	1989	Previous research indicated a face ism bias in media depictions of men and women: me media tend to represent men with their faces, whereas women §s depictions include larger parts of their bodies, rendering their faces less prominent. To explore the impact of facial prominence on impression formation, male and female subjects received either full body or portrait style photographs, made from the same negatives, of male and female stimulus persons of different likeability. Male and female subjects evaluated all stimulus persons as more competent (intelligent, assertive, ambitious, etc.) if presented with a high (portrait) rather than a low (full body photograph) degree of facial prominence. This main effect of facial prominence was not qualified by interaction effects with any of the other variables. PIUS, the media §s face ism bias is likely to contribute to a perception of men as more competent than women. In addition, female but not male subjects also evaluated stimulus persons as more expressive and likeable under conditions of high facial prominence, reflecting a global positive effect of facial prominence. 
497	19	4	1989	"In the present study it was investigated if choice behaviour in a social trap situation was affected by feedback about the choice of others. On top of the social trap reward structure investigated by Schroeder, Jensen, Reed, Sullivan and Schwab (1983) a bonus was added. In the individual bonus condition subjects were promised an unspecified bonus if they would obtain more points than any other group member of one §s group. In the group bonus condition subjects would obtain a bonus if the own group acquired more points than the other group. As expected, in the group bonus condition one took fewer points than in the individual bonus condition. As suggested by the reciprocity explanation of choice behaviour (Liebrand, Wilke, Vogel and Wolters 1986; Liebrand, Jansen and Rijken 1986) it appeared that first choice corresponded strongly with one §s expectations about the choices of others. Before the second choice and also before the third choice one received purported feedback about the choices of other members of one §s group. In the conserving condition one learned that all others made a conserving choice, whereas in the consuming condition one learned that all others made a consuming choice. According to the reciprocity explanation it was found that when choice behaviour was in agreement with own previous expectations and previous choice, no choice change did occur. Shifts took place in conditions in which own previous expectations about the choices of others and own choice were disconfirmed by information about choices of others. "
498	19	4	1989	"In a resource management game we investigated how regular group members respond to a leader who promotes group success or fails to do so, while operating in a predictable or totally unpredictable environment. The subjects (N = 110) were confronted with a bogus leader who purportedly took decisions on behalf of the whole group. Performance of the leader and Predictability of the environment were manipulated by means of a 2 × 2 factorial design. As predicted, a failing leader received weaker endorsement than a successful leader (Performance main effect). The Performance × Predictability interaction effect was ascribed to two circumstances: (a) As predicted by the attributional approach of leadership (Calder, 1977; Pfeffer, 1977), endorsement of a successful leader was weaker in the Unpredictable than in the Predictable environment. However, (b) endorsement of a failing leader was not significantly weaker in the Predictable than in the Unpredictable environment. Additional data showed that regular group members §s  attributions played a mediating role. "
499	19	5	1989	This article examines some stylistic differences in social psychological explanations. Described are different styles in formulating problems, in constructing theories, and gathering evidence. Styles are not to be confused with method since a given method   say, factor analysis   can reveal itself in contrasting stylistic approaches. Comparisons are drawn from music and art. 
500	19	5	1989	"Social psychology traditionally studies conspecific (homosocial) determinants of human behaviour. This suggests that an adequate understanding of (human) conspecific influence and interaction presupposes research on uniquely social psychological processes, effects and theories that lay beyond the reach of standard psychological concepts, procedures and theories. A fundamental and cumulative science of behaviour (homosocial or not) might profit from a heuristic quasi social analysis, as a research tool for a more parsimonious conceptual screening of homosocial phenomena. Whenever the phenomenon under study is experienced, at the pre scientific level, as genuinely social, one of three quasi social contrast filters can be superposed upon it: (1) a heteroquasisocial contrast in which the homosocial determinant is substituted by a member of another species (e.g. man dog); (2) an object quasisocial contrast in which the other becomes an inanimate object (e.g. woman P. C.); (3) an auto quasisocial contrast in which the organism interacts with or influences itself (dog chasing her own tail). Theories and processes whose essential features are masked by any of the three quasi social filters, should be considered as only quasi social. They do not justify a separate homosocial science of behaviour. The proposal is illustrated by a quasi social screening of Harlow S classic analysis of the Nature of Love. "
501	19	5	1989	Genetic constructivism developed by Piaget and his school is considered to be a grand theory which is also of great relevance for experimental social psychology. However according to J. M. Baldwin, the founder of genetic psychology, and to contemporary researchers in the area of moral judgement and development social psychology, the notion of social performism should be incorporated in constructivist theory. Deutsch 5 crude law of social relations is cited as a theoretical assumption implying that social preformism can be studied experimentally. 
502	19	5	1989	The paper starts by outlining a general perspective in social psychology. It may turnout that social constructivism, the perspective outlined in the early sixties is one of the major contributions of European social psychology to social sciences in general. Whatever its fate, some particular points are made: a)physics is not the only model we have to follow b) the existing ways of explanation can and must be upgraded c) more complex theories are required d) changes in methodological and statistical criteria are expected in order to deal with new and complex phenomena. Nevertheless the main problem today is description and not explanation. That is the discovery and observation of a wider range of new social phenomena. How successful we will be in this endeavour decides if social psychology becomes a major science or not. 
503	19	5	1989	By comparison with the physical sciences psychologists tend to pay little attention to ontology. This has had unfortunate consequences. Contemporary trends suggest a dual ontology, with psychology rooted in neurophysiology and social conversation. The notion of a conversational skill bridges the two basic categories of psychological reality. The use of causal concepts in writing up psychological research is to be avoided since it enshrines a misunderstanding of the kind of necessity that is important in the normative control of social activity including conversing. Classical psychological experimental methodology needs radical revision since it is not appropriate to the investigation of collective semiotic structures. These points are illustrated with examples from recent empirical work by social constructivist psychologists. 
504	19	5	1989	Many social psychologists take increasing comfort in cognitive explanations of human action. This paper first attempts to demonstrate that cognitively based formulations not only delimit the possibilities for social understanding, but create a range of intractable conceptual problems. If real world events are reduced to cognitive representations of the world, then social events cease to exist for the discipline as legitimate foci of concern. Further, once the reality of cognition is granted, there is no conceptual means of viably explaining either the origins or acquisition of cognitive categories (schemas, representations, etc.), or the relationship between cognition and action. The paper then goes on to argue that the cognitive revolution in psychology blinds the discipline to the far more pervasive revolution occurring elsewhere in the intellectual world, that of social epistemology. When cognition is replaced by language as the major means for representing the world, then the individual is replaced by the social relationship as the central focus of concern. Theory and research within the framework of social epistemology are reviewed and their implications discussed. 
505	19	6	1989	Two studies are reported which apply a language based model to the actor observer domain in attribution theory. This model distinguishes between four classes of interpersonal terms (descriptive action verbs, interpretive action verbs, state verbs, and adjectives) that have been shown to mediate different cognitive inferences. An adaptation of this language based model suggests that actor observer differences can be understood as differential language conventions used by actors and observers. This hypothesis finds support in the first study where subjects were asked to give free descriptions to a number of social events. A second study examined the more specific implications of this general case by replicating an experiment reported by Nisbett et al. (1973). The same language based conventions are shown to be used by actors and observers in this more specific case. The implications of these findings are drawn out with special reference to the influence of culture on cognitive processes. 
506	19	6	1989	Pairs of friends wrote descriptions of abstract stimuli for one another. Later, each subject attempted to identify the referents of three sets of messages: those created by the subject, those created by the friend, and those created by a stranger for his J her own friend. Subjects were most accurate with their own messages, but, more interestingly, they were more accurate with their friends §s  than with strangers §s  messages. The lexical characteristics and content of messages for friends were compared with those intended for a generic other student or for oneself in Fussell and Krauss (1989). Contrary to our expectations, friends §s  messages were similar to those for another student in length, vocabulary distribution, and figurative language use, while both differed significantly from messages for oneself: The findings are discussed within a common ground framework for communication. 
507	19	6	1989	The present study investigates the effect of social comparison information on learned helpless and mastery oriented children §s attributions, behaviour, and affect following a failure experience. Ninety one fifth grade children experienced failure in the context of high consensus or group failure feedback, low consensus or personal failure feedback or no social comparison feedback. The Jindings point to the robustness of the helpless and mastery response patterns: the behaviour of learned helpless children, as compared to mastery oriented children, deteriorated following failure regardless of the social comparison feedback they recieved. However, the attributions made by the two groups of children differed. Mastery oriented children appeared to use social comparison information more accurately in that they appropriately made higher task difficulty ratings when receiving group failure feedback than when receiving personal failure feedback. Learned helpless children were more likely to use a self derogatory bias and made attributions to their low ability, even when presented with social comparison feedback that was contrary to their bias. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for education and for intervention with learned helpless children. 
508	19	6	1989	In this study evidence is given on the mechanisms subjects use to guarantee the stability of their social representations. An initial interview was held in which subjects were asked about the causes of AIDS, affected groups and modes of transmission. Their responses were found to divide into two social representations of AIDS: a conservative blaming representation and a liberal representation. Subjects were then given technical information about AIDS. Two weeks later, the same subjects were given a free recall test and a recognition test. The results of these tests confirmed subject §s tendency to select information which is congruent with their pre existing representations, and to distort the recall of contradictory information in order to make it compatible with pre existing representations. 
509	19	6	1989	In studies investigating the effects of reattribution training, reattributing to effort is confounded with forcing subjects to think about causes of their performance. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects on performance of having people think about causes of outcomes by means of measuring attributions for success or failure. The results indicate that measurement has a beneficial effect on performance after failure. Measurement of attributions after success does not affect performance or may even slightly deteriorate it. Explanations for these results are discussed. 
510	20	1	1990	Three models of social influence are presented and their principles discussed in depth: social impact theory, the social influence model and group situation theory. A detailed model of social impact is developed and combined with the group situation theory. The integration of these concepts is utilized to reanalyse several classical studies in social facilitation, social inhibition, crowding, social loafing, and helping in an emergency. Finally, in order to emphasize their differences, the three models are used to explain the Asch studies. The combination of a detailed version of social impact theory with group situation theory results in a middle range theory of group behaviour. 
511	20	1	1990	In this article, we examine the interpretations by social psychologists of Asch §s widely cited study of independence and conformity. Though it has become known as the Asch Conformity Study, Asch equally, if not more, intended and interpreted it as demonstrating the powers of independence. The evidence for this analysis consists of 99 accounts in social psychology textbooks published between 1953, following the appearance of his study, and 1984. We asked whether these accounts were accurate, or whether, as we suspected, they minimized the role of independence and exaggerated that of conformity. We found that authors have often distorted Asch §s findings, and that this trend has increased substantially with time: they have increasingly accentuated the role of conformity and underestimated that of independence. We suggest several reasons for this distortion. For one, there has been insufficient care in reading the findings and drawing conclusions. Second, authors have generally limited themselves to reports of quantitative results. Although these were strong and beyond question, authors have usually neglected the intimately connected qualitative findings, which would have discouraged the misinterpretations. Third, the study of Asch was an integral part of his perspective on social psychology, which authors again ignored, thus encouraging a limited and out of context view of his study. We conclude with a thematic presentation of Asch §s general theoretical framework, showing how it bears on independence and conformity. 
512	20	1	1990	It was hypothesized that the manner in which attitudes influence behaviour is moderated by the level of effort required to perform a behaviour. The effort needed was manipulated in a field experiment by varying the difficulty of getting access to the attitude object. When the behaviour required substantial effort, the mediating role of intentions was strong, and attitudes had only indirect effects on behaviour, consistent with the theory of reasoned action. When the behaviour required little effort, however, attitudes had a significant direct effect on behaviour, and the mediating role of intentions was reduced. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. 
513	20	1	1990	To provide evidence of the effects of academic training on causal attributions, university students in social science, commerce and engineering were compared at different points of their training in terms of their explanations of poverty and unemployment. Results of cross sectional analyses showed no field differences in causal attributions at the beginning of the first academic year but significant differences at the end of the year, with social science students blaming the system more than commerce or engineering students. Longitudinal analysis showed that, within a six month interval, the causal attributions of the students changed significantly as a function of their field of study. Differential employment prospects, while not accounting for the effects of academic training, were found to be related to attributional change. These results confirm the hypothesis that causal attributions are affected by socialization in a particular culture and that exposure to the culture of the social sciences reinforces a system blame ideology. The implications of these findings for theories of the attribution process and theories of intergroup relations are discussed. 
514	20	1	1990	Advance planning discourse strategies are examined in an experiment where subjects expect to be in a communicative situation (discussion vs appraisal) with another speaker (expert vs peer) whose opinions on a given topic differ diametrically from theirs. Findings indicate that two complementary processes are implemented: one on the level of the components of the universe of reference (via predication operations) and the other on the level of relationships between actors (through hedges). 
515	20	2	1990	"The importance of synchronic consistency as a factor facilitating minority influence had not previously been the object of a systematic study. We carried out a 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 experiment aimed at studying the consequences of a) ideological similarity or dissimilarity of two minority sources belonging to b) a single minority or two different ones, on subjects c) ideologically both close and distant from positions defended by the influence sources, d) according to the absence or presence of psychologization. In the main, our hypotheses were confirmed. As expected concerning the close subjects, in the absence of psychologization, the similarity and dissimilarity between minority sources take over, respectively, the signification of consistency and inconsistency and, consequently, increase or decrease the influence exerted by the minority sources. Psychologization decreases the benefits of synchronic consistency. Contrariwise, the distant subjects did not seem to follow the same logic: the condition of opinion dissimilarity in the same minority is the most influential; its influence, however, diminishes when the divergence of opinion is explained by means of a psychological dissimilarity. Data related to the image of the sources indicate that the influence process is no longer determined by perceived consistency or inconsistency, but by the objectivity attributed to minorities. Under these circumstances, intra minority pluralism became the guaranteer of objectivity. "
516	20	2	1990	Two experiments investigated the role of majority size (social pressure) in minority influence. Opposite predictions were derived from an attributional account and two social impact models. In Experiment 1 there was a tendency for minority influence to decrease with increasing majority size when the minority argued against gay rights. The results were stronger and clearer in Experiment 2. For pro abortion minorities, the minority §s impact clearly declined as the size of the opposing majority increased. As predicted by the social impact models, this decline occurred during the initial increase of the majority size. The limitations of the mathematical models are discussed. 
517	20	2	1990	"In this article, a theoretical distinction is proposed between representative outgroup minorities (representative of a minority category in the society, e.g. gays) and dissident outgroup minorities (defined as a minority subgroup within a larger outgroup category). Two studies are reported comparing the social influence of dissident outgroup minorities with that of ingroup minorities (belonging to the subject §s own social category). It was predicted that a position advocated by a dissident outgroup minority would be more readily accepted than that of an ingroup minority, but that the ingroup minority would be more likely to elicit the generation of new, alternative solutions. A first experiment in which subjects were either exposed to an ingroup minority, an outgroup minority, or no influence source confirmed these predictions. In a second experiment, subjects were either exposed to a majority or to a minority source either belonging to the subject §s own social category or to the outgroup. The results indicate that the position of an ingroup majority was readily accepted whereas the otherwise identical message of an outgroup majority was rejected; neither ingroup nor outgroup majority stimulated the development of alternative proposals. Again, in line with Nemeth' (1986a) theory, the position of an ingroup minority was rejected but stimulated the generation of new, alternative proposals. The differential role of social category membership in minority and majority influence and the applicability of Nemeth' (1986a) theory to the attitude change area are discussed. "
518	20	2	1990	The present research was designed to identify types of events in everyday life that people regard as unjust and to find a meaningful structural representation of these types of events. Two hundred and eighty descriptions of unjust events were collected from various student samples using different methodologies. Interestingly, a considerable proportion of the injustices which were reported did not concern distributional or procedural issues in the narrow sense but referred to the manner in which people were treated in interpersonal interactions and encounters. An intuitive classification of the descriptions by two experts led to 22 different types of unjust events. Subsequently, a sample of 84 descriptions was selected and sorted by naive subjects into similar groupings. The grouping data were then subjected to cluster and multidimensional scaling analyses. A nineteen cluster solution reproduced the intuitively defined main types of unjust events very well. An eight cluster solution, which provided the most meaningful higher level grouping, and the MDS results indicated that a meaningful structural representation of types of injustices has to consider the particular content of unjust events as well as the social setting where they occur. With regard to the latter aspect, injustices in task oriented relationships of unequal power and impersonal short term encounters are distinguished from injustices occurring in personal, long term, social emotional relationships of equal power. 
519	20	2	1990	"Four experiments were conducted to demonstrate that embarrassment and shame are distinct emotions that result from violations of different types of internalized standards. Embarrassment results from violating one §s particular persona; shame results from violating a shared, objective ideal. Subjects vividly imagined themselves in situations and indicated their emotional reactions. In Experiment I, we demonstrate that people differentiate between embarrassment and shame systematically (F(1,27) = 74.4, p < 0.001). In Experiments 2 and 3, we demonstrate that embarrassment results from violating a persona (n = 34, p < 0.001; n = 23, p < 0.001), and shame results from violating an objective ideal (n = 34, p < 0.001; n = 23, p < 0.001). In Experiment 4, we demonstrate that it is the type of standard that is violated (n = 30, p < 0.001), not whether or not the violation was intentional, that determines whether one experiences embarrassment or shame. We argue that both shame and embarrassment play an important role in maintaining personal identity. "
520	20	2	1990	This paper describes an innovative investigation of commonsense conceptions of emotion using a two person game where one player asked questions intended to determine the nature of an emotional state imagined by the other player. All questions used by players were then sorted into categories by expert judges. Based on cluster analysis, questions were categorized as relating to causes, characteristics, and consequences of emotional states. Potential advantages and applications of this technique are discussed. 
521	20	3	1990	Four studies test both the alternative explanation advanced by Hoorens and Todorova (1988) for Nuttin §s (1984, 1985, 1987) name letter effect (NLE), and two interpretations for an unexplained finding of the former authors. Flemish, Hungarian and Thai children show an increasing rather than a decreasing NLE over primary school grades (studies 1, 2 and 4). Thai university students and school children prefer own name letters in their mother alphabet (Thai) but also in their second (Roman) alphabet (studies 3 and 4). All these results contradict the primacy of own name writing or mastery pleasure hypothesis. Independently of the time interval between the acquisition of both alphabets, a stronger NLE is found in the subjects mother alphabet than in their second alphabet, contradicting a mitigated mastery pleasure explanation for the stronger NLE in one §s mother alphabet (Hoorens and Todorova, 1988). All the data are consistent with Nuttin §s interpretation of the NLE in terms of the affective consequences of mere ownership. Finally, the striking generality of the NLE over languages, alphabets, and cultures is again demonstrated. 
522	20	3	1990	Quantified behavioural signs of depression in relation to pessimism across cultures. First, by observing workmen in 1985 East and West Berlin bars, we found more behaviour consistent with depression in East Berliners than in West Berliners. We then measured pessimism in both cultures by assessing explanatory style in newspaper reports of the 1984 Winter Olympic Games. Despite having more Olympic victories to report, East Berlin newspaper accounts were more pessimistic than West Berlin reports. We suggest that, with proper controls, convergent measurements of explanatory style and behavioural signs consistent with depression allow to quantify pessimism and depression across culture and time. 
523	20	3	1990	Previous social psychological theory and research based on the Minimal Group Paradigm have stressed the dominance of ingroup bias in intergroup evaluations and allocation behaviour. However, fairness in intergroup allocations has also been observed. Tested here were hypotheses derived from three non mutually exclusive theories: (1) Social Identity Theory (e.g. Tajfel and Turner, 1986), which predicts ingroup evaluative and allocation biases, (2) Ng §s (1981) Fate Control/Equity Paradigm, which predicts that ingroup bias in allocations occurs in relationships of mutual but not unilateral fate control, and (3) Social Value Theory (e.g. McClintock, 1972), which predicts that intergroup evaluations and allocation behaviours will vary as a function of the social value orientations of subjects. Evaluations were consistent with expectations from Social Identity Theory. Subjects, in general, evaluated ingroup members more favourably than the outgroup members. Allocations, however, were generally consistent with expectations from Social Value Theory, with prosocial subjects preferring fair to biased allocations, competitive subjects biased to fair ones. Neither allocation behaviour nor intergroup evaluations varied significantly as a function of the fate control relationship. 
524	20	3	1990	The paper reports a study concerned with the effects of cognitive conflict, socio cognitive conflict and imitation on children §s socio legal thinking. Nine year old children whose socio legal thinking was lower level were paired with 9  and 11 year old children whose socio legal thinking was intermediate between lower and higher level for interaction in same sex dyads on legal transgression items. In total, 54 9 year old children and 18 11 year olds participated in the study. An experimental board game was used for all dyadic interactions. The four investigative phases included a pre test interview, dyadic interaction, one immediate and one delayed post test interview. The results indicated no overall superiority of subjects who could engage in socio cognitive conflict over subjects who were limited to cognitive conflict alone. In addition, lower and intermediate level subjects in both conflict conditions advanced over both post tests compared to a control group, arguing against a straightforward imitation account. Elements of subjects §s  discourse during conflict were correlated with post test advancement. Marked differences emerged between lows and intermediates for socio cognitive conflict consonant with the constructivist view that social interactions and cognitive stages are interdependent. A complementary pattern of positive correlations emerged between discourse and cognitive conflict subjects §s  advancement. 
525	20	3	1990	The influence of group status and group size on intergroup attitude differentiation was investigated. Hypothesized was that members of high status groups would polarize their attitudes more than members of low status group, and that minorities would show greater sensitivity to status differences than majorities. The results show that status affected intergroup differentiation as predicted, while group size did not. 
526	20	3	1990	Although folk wisdom suggests that a smile may enhance physical attractiveness, most studies in the area have failed to consider or control this factor. The present study was intended to examine the impact of smiling on judgements of physical attractiveness and other characteristics stereotypically ascribed to attractive persons. Consistent with predictions, it was found that smiling increased rated attractiveness when compared to a non smiling neutral expression. The necessity for controlling this factor in studies of attractiveness is therefore indicated. It was also demonstrated that smiling subjects were attributed greater degrees of sincerity, sociability, and competence, but lesser levels of independence and masculinity. Mediation analysis revealed that the effects of smiling on trait attribution were not due to increases in perceived attractiveness, suggesting that the impact of smiling on ratings of beauty and goodness occurs through independent processes. Potential explanations and implications of these processes were discussed. 
527	20	4	1990	On the basis of social identity theory, we argue that the search for a positive social identity is characterized by the accentuation of perceived ingroup homogeneity relative to perceived outgroup homogeneity (the ingroup homogeneity effect). To test our specific hypotheses, we conducted an experiment in which some subjects were provided with a well defined group membership and others were allocated to ill defined groups. We also manipulated the information about the relative sizes of the groups. Subsequently, several measures of perceived dimensional and general group homogeneity were administered. As predicted, members of well defined groups revealed the ingroup homogeneity effect for an attribute associated with the definition of their group. On the other hand, members of ill defined groups displayed social creativity and selected alternative attributes to accentuate the relative ingroup homogeneity. Moreover, when intergroup comparisons did not contribute positively to the self concept, subjects accentuated their positive personal identity and evinced the outgroup homogeneity effect. Consistent with previous research, subjects identified more strongly with a well defined group when it was a minority rather than a majority. Minority members also perceived more general homogeneity within the ingroup than within the outgroup, whereas the majority members showed the opposite effect. Finally, the interrelationship between personal and social identity is briefly discussed. 
528	20	4	1990	This longitudinal study was aimed at illuminating some fundamental problems with respect to the application of equity theory in intimate relationships. First the relationship between perceived equity and satisfaction was tested, and next it was ascertained whether inequity produces dissatisfaction or vice versa. A second issue addressed in the present study was whether global assessments of equity represent some type of calculation made by the subject of all the relevant inputs and outcomes. Finally, the elements subjects take into consideration when they respond to a global equity measure was assessed. These issues were examined in a sample of 736 primarily married subjects, including 259 couples who had been married for varying lengths of time. The results provide some evidence that equity has an effect upon satisfaction and not vice versa. The assumption that global assessments are based upon a weighted summing up of a representative set of inputs and outcomes was not supported. Instead, it was found that the global measure particularly reflects exchange elements such as commitment to the relationship, sociability and attentiveness. 
529	20	4	1990	"Studies that examine causal attributions for acts by ingroup and outgroup members are reviewed. The tendency for attributions to favour ingroup over outgroup members is found in three paradigms   explanations for positive and negative outcomes, success and failure, and group differences   and in most of the 19 studies reviewed, but the evidence provides only limited support for Pettigrew §s (1979) ultimate attribution error. The evidence is limited to specific dimensions in a given study, but strongest for three general findings: (1) More internal attribution for positive acts, and less internal attribution for negative acts, by ingroup than outgroup members; (2) More attribution of outgroup than ingroup failure to lack of ability, and explaining away outgroup success to good luck, high effort or an easy task; (3) A preference for ingroup serving versus outgroup serving attributions for group differences. Finally, theoretical issues and methodological shortcomings are discussed with reference to future research. "
530	20	4	1990	Individuals appear to be more successful in discounting invalid evidence in studies which are set in courtroom settings than in studies done in the belief perseverance paradigm. Several differences between the two paradigms may explain this pattern. Most of these differences are ruled out by past research. We focused on differences in two domains, namely, encoding of the information and strength of the discounting appeals, and manipulated them experimentally. Even though the two manipulations were effective in influencing other judgments, they had no effect on success of discounting with guilt judgments. As in previous studies done within the courtroom paradigm, subjects were successful in discounting invalid evidence. Our interpretation for these findings involves the active process of discounting. Specifically, we assume that court settings activate a schema that leads people to deliberately correct for potential biases on the relevant guilt judgments. Since other judgments are less central within the court schema, they are not monitored actively and consequently are more susceptible to the effects of an invalid testimony. 
531	20	4	1990	On the basis of prior research on the false consensus effect and on the perception of group homogeneity in minority majority contexts, it was hypothesized that (1) with no information regarding group size available, group members would see their own group in the majority position and perceive more outgroup than ingroup homogeneity and (2) this outgroup homogeneity effect would not occur, when there is no doubt about the numerical equality of ingroup and outgroup. Both hypotheses were confirmed in a laboratory study (n = 88). 
532	20	4	1990	Subjects estimated how many Germans drink vodka or beer, or estimated the caloric content of these drinks. The former judgment, but not the latter, produced contrast effects on subsequent ratings of how typically German various drinks are. Thus, highly accessible extreme stimuli did only affect ratings if the first judgment pertained to the same underlying dimension. 
533	20	5	1990	Recent research suggests the potential importance of dynamic aspects (e.g. speed of onset and offset and degree of irregularity) of facial movement for the encoding of spontaneous versus deliberate emotional facial expressions. The present studies were conducted to investigate whether emotion elicited and deliberate facial expressions of happiness and disgust differ regarding their dynamic features. Two experiments were designed to elicit spontaneous and deliberate facial expressions of happiness and disgust. The experiments differed regarding the deliberate facial expressions, which were either poses (Experiment 1) or masking deceptions (Experiment 2). Experiment 2 confirmed Ekman and Friesen S (1982) notion, that spontaneous expressions have slower onsets and offsets than do deliberate expressions. The data show that dynamic aspects of the facial expressions differentiate between elicitation conditions. However, the evidence was more consistently found for the degree of irregularity of the expression than for the speed of onset and offset. 
534	20	5	1990	The Tajfel Turner Theory of Social Identity was used as a framework from which it was predicted that pupils of low attainment in secondary school should come to define themselves as indifferent to or opposed to the values of their schools. This hypothesis was examined in France and England, on self report measures covering values, aspirations, perceptions, evaluations, beliefs and motivations. While results show numerous differences between low and high attainers common to both countries, the differences are more pronounced in England. National differences are such that the French pupils are more like high attainers. Results are interpreted as being more consistent with low attaining pupils being victims of boredom rather than failure, with the French school culture providing greater insulation against such reactions. 
535	20	5	1990	"The general aim of this paper is to show some of the limitations of the attribution theory approach to ordinary reasoning when compared to a discourse analytic alternative. Three central shortcomings with attribution theory are documented, each stemming from the method of presenting subjects with factual vignettes from which they are required to draw inferences: (a) its asocial and unexplicated notion of information; (b) its realist view of linguistic description; (c) its constrained account of participants §s  activity. These paws are illustrated in practice through a discourse analytic study of the management of factual versions in a political dispute (over a controversial briefing between a British politician, Nigel Lawson, and a group of journalists). Specifically, it focuses on consensus information, examining the way notions of consensus are used when warranting and undermining versions. Two features of consensus accounts are examined: (a) consensus across a group of observers of an event; (b) corroboration between independent individuals. In each case, the rhetorical organization of factual accounts is documented by analysing both the way the consensus is constructed and the way it is undermined or discounted. The analysis explores how the facts of the matter, rather than existing as criteria for the resolution of disputation, were themselves part and parcel of the disputation itself: In attribution theory terms, the clear distinction between consensus information and the attributions which flow from it becomes unworkable. It is suggested that the analysis provides an exemplar for a discourse orientated social psychology of fact. "
536	20	5	1990	Appreciation of literature (understanding beyond literal comprehension and inference) is hypothesized to depend on readers §s  application of knowledge derived from personal experiences, a cognitive process called personal resonance. The influence of cultural differences in personal experience on appreciating a literary work was studied through retrospective reports about remindings that occurred while reading. A Hungarian short story in which geographical and temporal location were left open was read by Danish (culturally distant) and Hungarian (culturally proximate) subjects. Cultural proximity was found to influence considerably readers §s  location and overall evaluation of the story as well as the nature of remindings during the reading process. The culturally proximate Hungarian readers exhibited a higher level of personal resonance: they had more vivid remindings and were reminded of more complete events (as opposed to decontextualized event elements), particularly more personally experienced events. The personal relevance, pleasantness, and aggressiveness of the evoked memories were important determinants of readers §s  overall evaluation of the story, but with very different patterns in the two cultural groups. 
537	20	5	1990	Do emotional states influence the social judgments made by groups and individuals? Based on affect cognition theories and research on group judgmental shifts, we predicted that group discussion will enhance positive mood effects on judgments, but inhibit affectively based distortions in dysphoric moods. Positive, neutral and negative moods were induced using audiovisual presentations. Individual and group consensus judgments of nine person categories on three judgmental dimensions (evaluation, competence and self confidence) were obtained in two experimental sessions separated by a two week interval. Results showed that individuals made more positive judgments when happy, and more negative judgments when sad than did controls. Group discussion resulted in a further polarization of positive judgments, and the attenuation of negative judgments. The findings are interpreted as evidence for the important role affect plays in mediating both individual cognitive processes and interactive social behaviours. The implications of the results for contemporary affect cognition theories and models of group behaviour are considered. 
538	20	5	1990	Eight  and eleven year olds §s  explanations for the self presentational behaviour of story characters provided clear support for a predicted shift between these ages from understanding in terms of psychological to understanding in terms of interpersonal processes. However, a prediction that the strategy of self promotion would be better understood than that of ingratiation was not supported. 
539	20	6	1990	Examined the prevalence of an interpersonal device, namely insult types, in a collectivistic and individualistic cultural context as an index of how the concept of person is culturally constructed. Insults were divided into three general categories, individualistic (those that refer directly to a person), relational (those that refer to a person and his/her significant relations) and swear words. An examination of the insults subjects produced in Catania, southern Italy (collectivistic), Trieste, northern Italy (individualistic) and Bologna, central Italy, partially confirmed the hypothesized differences in types of verbal abuse. In the collectivistic context instances of verbal abuse are significantly more likely to be directed to a person and his/her relations than in the individualistic context. The social psychological implications of these findings are discussed. 
540	20	6	1990	Groups of subjects participated in a series of 30 noncooperative independent single trial resource dilemmas. On each trial the subjects in each group requested privately a number of points from a common pool. Individual requests were granted if and only if the total group request was equal to or smaller than the pool size. The pool size on each trial was sampled randomly from a uniform distribution that was common knowledge. Asymmetry in payoff was induced by assigning to each group member a different points to money exchange rate. The results show that as the uncertainty about the pool size increases subjects (1) overestimate the pool size, (2) increase their requests, and (3) expect others to increase their requests. In addition (4) individual requests and expectations regarding others §s  requests are inversely related to the exchange rates, reflecting attempts to equate payoffs across group members. 
541	20	6	1990	"This study was conducted to determine the impact of social support for the minority position and the minority §s argument refutation of the majority viewpoint. The results indicated that both the minority §s refutation of majority arguments and majority defection to the minority position enhanced minority influence. Subjects changed more toward the minority position when the minority could refute the majority position than when the minority could not; the more arguments the minority refuted, the greater was minority influence. In addition, minority influence was a positive function of the number of the majority members who deserted to the minority position. "
542	20	6	1990	A central contention of much of the literature about the nature of work values and the meaning of work is that there is (or at least has been) a consensual work ethic operating in modern industrial societies. This premise has surprisingly, rarely been put to the test. In this paper, evidence for a modern work ethic is obtained from the European Values Survey. The link between this work ethic and religion is then explored. While one conclusion of the analysis is that it is still an identifiably Protestant ethic, contextual analysis demonstrates that the effect of a country §s religious culture is more potent than the religious beliefs of the individual. 
543	20	6	1990	An experiment (n = 61) investigated the effects of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity on ingroup favouritism, stereotyping and the overestimation of relative ingroup size. As predicted, outgroup homogeneity was conducive to ingroup favouritism. Ingroup homogeneity, however, failed to influence ingroup favouritism. Also unexpectedly, asymmetry in group homogeneity   irrespective of whether the ingroup or the outgroup was the more homogeneous group   led to pronounced stereotyping of both groups and to the overestimation of relative ingroup size. 
544	20	6	1990	Results of two experiments using a forbidden toy paradigm partially confirm those of a former study which showed an interaction between social class level of the children and threat severity on the final rankings of the toy. Lower class children derogated the forbidden toy more than middle class children in the harsh threat condition. Opposed results were observed in the mild threat condition. Interpretation of such results seems difficult in terms of cognitive dissonance theory. 
545	20	6	1990	In this study, the following hypothesis concerning the social value of risk taking is advanced: young men who wish to assert themselves and to gain prestige tend to take greater risks in public when together with other young men than do young men who do not have these wishes, whereas there is no such difference in risk taking in private. This hypothesis is empirically tested and is supported. 
546	21	1	1991	Using a variant of the minimal group paradigm (Tajfel and Turner, 1986), this study tested the effects of power, status and group numbers on intergroup behaviours and perceptions. Subjects (N = 160) were categorized into groups that varied on status (high or low), power (dominant or subordinate) and group numbers (majority or minority) variables within a 2 × 2 × 2 experimental design. Based on their evaluations of others §s  creative products, subjects distributed credit points to ingroup and outgroup others using the Tajfel matrices. Results showed that dominant group members were much more discriminatory and less parity oriented towards outgroup others than subordinate group members. High status group members were more discriminatory and less parity oriented than low status group members. Minority group members who were dominant and of high status were highly discriminatory and were unique in showing no parity whatsoever towards outgroup others. Subordinate low status minorities did not discriminate and were exceptional in showing out group favouritism. Relative to group status and group numbers, group power seemed more predictive of actual discriminatory behaviour. Group status accounted for the greatest variance in social identification and intergroup perceptions measures. Results also showed that social categorization was sufficient to elicit more in group than outgroup liking amongst all group members regardless of their position in the intergroup structure. Overall, this study indicated that power, status and group numbers independently and in combination, have a strong impact on intergroup behaviours and perceptions. 
547	21	1	1991	An experiment tested the hypothesis that the mere categorization of people into social groups spontaneously instigates a mechanism through which group relevant information is perceived and processed in a biased manner. This in turn may result in the erroneous perception of correlation between group and behaviour. Subjects were initially assigned to be members of a minority group, a majority group, or were not assigned to a group. They were then presented with a series of statements that described members of the two groups performing either desirable or undesirable behaviours. Results showed that unaffiliated subjects perceived an illusory group behaviour correlation, indicating the operation of a cognitive bias to associate the minority group with distinctive behaviours. Subjects who were themselves members of the observed groups perceived illusory correlations that favored their own group, indicating a very different sort of bias. The results suggest that a categorization based ingroup favoritism guided the manner in which group information was processed. These data lend support to the contention that social categorization spontaneously instigates specific cognitive mechanisms that contribute to group stereotype formation. 
548	21	1	1991	Examined the hypothesis that information enhancing category differences receives greater weight in estimates of category means than information that reduces such differences. In the first experiment, subjects estimated the cumulative means of test scores of two groups of students. The experimental manipulation involved a gradual shift of the true mean of one group either towards or away from the true mean of the other group. As predicted, changes of estimates were larger when the two means became more dissimilar than when they became more similar. The second experiment involved otherwise identical procedures, but the variance in one category was increased while the mean remained stable. Subjects perceived an illusory change of the mean away from the comparison category. It is suggested that accentuation effects of this kind may limit the reduction of social stereotypes. 
549	21	1	1991	This study presents the outline of a model for collective phenomena. A symmetry breaking model combines a number of well established social psychology hypotheses with recent concepts of statistical physics. Specifically we start out from the regularities obtained in studies on the polarization of attitudes and decisions. From a strictly logical point of view, it is immediately clear that aggregation effects must be analysed separately from group effects as such. The conceptual analysis of the assumed mechanisms reveals that when we deal with phenomena that have until now been designated as polarization phenomena, we are faced not with a single phenomenon, as was believed hitherto, but with a whole class of phenomena. For this reason it would be appropriate to deal with them differentially both from an empirical and from a theoretical point of view. It is possible to show, moreover, that in principle polarization is a direct function of interaction and, beyond a critical threshold an inverse function of the differentiation between group members. A certain number of verifiable conjectures are presented on the basis of physio mathematical psychological considerations. It is to be hoped that these theoretical outlines will make it possible to give a new lease on life to a field of research that has established solid facts, but that became trapped in a dead end road, for lack of a sufficiently broad analysis. 
550	21	1	1991	Subjects were presented with an easy or moderately difficult memorization task and told they could earn either a very low or very high chance of obtaining a modest prize if they did well. A measure of goal attractiveness was taken during an interval immediately preceding the task performance period. As expected, anticipatory goal attractiveness ratings were higher in the moderately difficult condition than in the easy condition when the probability of goal attainment (given success) was high, but were low in both task conditions when the probability of goal attainment (given success) was low. Results are discussed in terms of Brehm §s recent theory of motivation. 
551	21	1	1991	The studies reported here were conducted within the TELEMED project which is funded by the European Community within the RACE program. This study  examines whether the recognition of emotion from facial expressions is impaired by deterioration of spatial resolution, contrast resolution, and picture size. Eighty judges rated 65 stimuli under 11 conditions: Undistorted, reduced spatial resolution (three steps), reduced contrast resolution (three steps), reduced picture size (three steps), and a very hard condition combining the severest spatial and contrast resolution. Variation in picture quality was achieved by using a digital video recorder. Recognition rate and intensity ratings were not significantly affected by variations in contrast resolution or picture size. The only significant reduction of recognition rate and intensity ratings resulted from reduction in spatial resolution, but only with the largest deterioration in such resolution. Results are discussed with respect to the fundamental importance of facial expressions in interaction and communication, and with respect to applications, such as tele conferencing systems. 
552	21	2	1991	Two experiments dealing with the effects of a majority or a minority source influence, solely on the recognition of a portrait, let us study the generalization of the influence to a portrait symbolically linked to a colour. According to the theory of conversion, the bringing into play of the validation process of the stimulus when the source is a minority should allow such a generalization cognitive association. When the source is a majority, a social comparison process should lead to compliance about the portrait, without any cognitive investigation of the whole stimulus. In the first experiment, four slides were shown successively using material similar to Luchins §s  (1945) and progressively drawing the portrait of Lenin, with a red orange background for each phase. The dependant variables are: (1) the drawing, (2) the colour of the background, (3) the after image. On the two last slides for which the answer Lenin is given by the source, changes towards red (and the complementary colour green), in the absence of the source under the minority influence, and changes towards orange under majority influence in the absence of the source are registered. Moreoever, the most significant changes of the colour judgment are due to the subjects who refuse to answer Lenin during the interaction. In the second experiment, only the fourth slide, on which Lenin §s portrait completely appears is shown. The subjects submitted to majority influence answer Lenin more than the control group does, only in the presence of the source and change their judgment on the colour of the after image towards the complementary of orange in the absence of the source. When the source is a minority a sinificant effect towards the red and its complementary colour is shown. 
553	21	2	1991	"An experiment was conducted within a new paradigm for Festinger §s theory of dissonance (1957): the double forced compliance paradigm (Joule, 1986a). Double compliance was used to test dissonance reduction following the execution of not just one, as in the classical paradigm, but two forced compliance behaviours. The first behaviour involved abstinence from smoking, and the second, writing a text for or against smoking. Based on the radical conception of the theory of dissonance (Beauvois and Joule, 1981; Joule, 1986b), subjects were expected to find tobacco deprivation more difficult after having written a text against smoking than before, and easier after having written a text in favour of smoking. The results confirmed these predictions. "
554	21	2	1991	Various implications regarding evaluative inference in social cognition are derived from (a) a relativistic evaluative meaning concept dealing with evaluation as an interaction between descriptive attributes associated with the perceived object on the one side and evaluative standards belonging to the perceiver on the other side, and (b) a concept of evaluative positive negative asymmetry that completes and integrates more simple concepts regarding the halo effect, negativity effect, and positivity bias. In subsequent sections empirical support for those implications is provided from (a) a review of previous research on impression formation, and (b) two new experiments in which effects associated with positivity bias, negativity effect, halo effect and the supplements implied by the positive negative asymmetry concept were isolated from each other using a multifactorial ANOVA design. The results showed strong halo effects and positivity biases. Room for negativity effects was left only under very specific conditions which, however, were consistent with the positive negative asymmetry concept. 
555	21	2	1991	"An experiment on the comprehension of, and memory for, texts of varying degrees of plausibility is reported. Previous studies on conservatives §s  art preferences (concerning poetry and music) showed that they favoured works of art that were conventional and relatively simple; this was explained in terms of conservatives §s  generalised intolerance of ambiguity. The present study sought to extend the previous research by examining conservatives §s and non conservatives §s  memory of and preferences for texts of varying plausibility. When plausibility is disrupted, texts recount strange, unexpected and ambiguous sequences of actions and events. It was found that conservative subjects §s  memory for texts of varying plausibility was similar to that of non conservatives when overall recall is considered, but there was a greater tendency for conservatives to import inferences (novel propositions which had not been present in the original text) into their recall protocols and to distort their recall (although the latter effect is only marginally significant). They also showed much stronger preferences for plausible over implausible texts compared to non conservatives. These results accord well with the previous findings on art preferences, and were explained in terms of the conservatives seeking to avoid or minimise ambiguity. "
556	21	2	1991	In this study 97 subjects were observed during free discussions in same sex triads and dyads. In earlier research, it has been found that rank ordering in ad hoc groups occurs at a very early phase of the interaction. In this study it is shown that, in the absence of status characteristics, rank ordering occurs not only right from the beginning of group interactions, but even exists after a first glance, before one word has been spoken. Not only nonverbal behaviours that are usually associated with the development or maintenance of a dominance position appear to be predictive for the amount of talking in the discussion to follow, but also personality measures. As the verbal interactions do not result in a change of the first glance rank ordering, our data support the view that rapid judgements of interpersonal relationships may occur without much cognitive information processing. 
557	21	3	1991	Two experiments investigated the role of message originality vs. conventionality in social influence. It was hypothesized that subjects would generate more original proposals when confronted with a minority advocating an original viewpoint than when confronted with a conventional minority proposal or with an original majority proposal. In the first experiment, subjects exposed to an original minority paired with a conventional majority produced a wider range and more original proposals than those exposed either to a conventional minority paired with a conventional majority or to a majority source only. The second experiment further demonstrated that the original message induced creative processing only when attributed to a minority source but not when attributed to a majority source. It also showed that the original minority elicited creative processing mainly when paired with a conventional majority, but not when paired with a majority advocating an equally original position. Findings are interpreted in the frame of Nemeth §s (1986) minority influence theory. 
558	21	3	1991	In a 2 × 2 design, 85 subjects were asked to estimate the size of angles (direct influence) that were either 90 or 85°, after being confronted with incorrect judgements of a majority (88 per cent) or a minority (12 per cent) of people estimating the angles at 50°. Additionally, pre  and post test measures were used to establish indirect influence on subjects §s  judgements pertaining to acute angles (i.e. on the estimation of the length of lines constituting the angles, and on the imaginary weight of figures represented by these angles). Overall, little direct influence is observed. This may partly be due to the introduction of a denial of the credibility of the source in all conditions. In fact, some evidence of direct influence is only found in the majority–85° angles condition. An instance of indirect influence (on the estimation of length of lines) appeared as the result of a majority stance when the angles in the experimental phase were 90°. When these angles were 85°, indirect minority influence (on the estimation of weight of figures) was observed. These effects had been predicted on the basis of the hypothesis stating that indirect majority influence would be possible when subjects expected consensus on the correct response (in the 90° angles condition), without being able to reach consensus at the manifest level (because of the denial and the restriction imposed by the clear shape of 90° angles). Indirect minority influence was hypothesized to be stronger in a situation that allows for diverse responses (i.e. for 85° angles). 
559	21	3	1991	A first experiment examined the effects of two methods of dividing resources between Swiss nationals and foreign residents in a study involving 118 subjects. Subjects gave judgments involving either interdependent allocation (resources allocated to the outgroup cannot be allocated to the ingroup) or independent allocation. The results indicated that the socio cognitive functioning preferred by subjects varies as a function of their view of outsiders. Interdependence of judgments was more characteristic of the most xenophobic subjects, whereas the least xenophobic were more likely to reason in terms of independence. On the other hand, intermediate subjects (those who were clearly neither for nor against outsiders) were sensitive to these modalities of judgment: interdependence engendered an ingroup favouritism, while independence counteracted this bias. A second experiment further analysed the influence of a more or less imperative minority argument on the attitudes of 109 more xenophobic subjects. Independent as compared to interdependent judgment facilitated a latent influence by the source, especially when the source employed a more imperative rhetoric to urge a more favourable attitude to foreigners. 
560	21	3	1991	Numerous experiments have illustrated the intervention of social regulations in individual cognitive functioning, applying such concepts as social co ordination, socio cognitive conflict and social marking. Two experiments, involving secondary school pupils are presented within this general framework. The first tests the hypothesis that individual cognitive functioning, highlighted in a task requiring mobilization of knowledge learned to that end, can under certain conditions be regulated by experimentally induced social resources. The second experiment uses the same paradigm to compare the information processing, under anonymous versus individuated conditions, of pupils respectively with successful and unsuccessful academic histories. The results of both experiments indicate that cognitive functioning is strongly influenced by the social situations created within the experimental settings. These results are discussed in terms of the social meta systems which may intervene in cognitive processes. 
561	21	3	1991	Subjects were exposed either to positive–positive evaluations or to negative positive evaluations. In addition, evaluator §s credibility was manipulated (high, low, neutral). Liking for the evaluator, perceived correctness, and perceived contingency of the evaluations were assessed as dependent variables. The gain effect suggested by Aronson and Linder (1965) was not found in any of the three dependent measures. Implications of these findings are discussed. 
562	21	3	1991	Forty two adult subjects, 21 male and 21 female, were asked to rate 16 distinct movement expressions as to their expressiveness of aggression and grief. Each movement expressed anger or grief at one of four levels of diagnosticity. Of each movement two performances were selected, one by a male, the other by a female encoder. With higher levels of diagnosticity, higher ratings were given. The male encoder was rated higher in aggression than the female with movements at a high or moderate level of aggression, and lower than the female with movements at the lowest levels of diagnosticity. The female encoder was rated higher in grief than the male at all levels of diagnosticity. 
563	21	3	1991	Concern has been expressed in the literature regarding the method of scoring beliefs within expectancy value models of attitudes. This paper reviews the major issues and focuses upon some hitherto largely neglected problems with scoring methods. Empirical findings from a series of studies concerned with the theory of reasoned action are examined: with a multiplicative Combination of beliefs and evaluations, it is found that bipolar scoring of belief items leads to higher correlations of the summed products of beliefs and evaluations with attitudes than are achieved with unipolar scoring. These findings contrast markedly with recently reported research and indicate the important role played by contextual factors (such as belief content and the response scales presented to subjects). It is concluded that more attention needs to be paid to the relationship between conceptual and methodological issues. 
564	21	4	1991	The present study examines the influence of pre existing individual differences in social value orentations, or preferences for certain patterns of outcomes to oneself and others (McClintock, 1978), on perceptions of rationality in a social dilemma. In Experiment 1 conducted in Groningen (the Netherlands), it was found that people with pro social orientations expected more cooperation from another described as intelligent than from another described as unintelligent, whereas individualists and competitors expected relatively more cooperation from another described as unintelligent. The cross cultural generalizability of this finding was examined and supported in Experiment 2 which was conducted in Santa Barbara (U.S.A.). Results from both studies are consistent with the Goal Prescribes Rationality Principle (Van Lange, Liebrand and Kuhlman, 1990) which assumes that people with pro social (cooperative) orientations would perceive rationality in social dilemmas primarily from the collective perspective, whereas individualists and competitors would take a strong egocentric perspective on rationality. In addition, we found a strong relationship between expectations of other §s cooperation and own cooperative behaviour when the other was described as intelligent. The strength of this relationship was reduced, particularly for individualists and competitors, when the other person was described as unintelligent. 
565	21	4	1991	Two experiments investigated whether the direction of priming effects depends on the processing stage at which the individual links the prime to a trait that is applicable to the evaluation of an ambiguously described target person. In line with previous research, it is hypothesized that assimilation effects will emerge when primes are processed in terms of a trait concept that is applicable to the encoding task. However, when the primes are not processed in applicable trait terms, they may still affect subsequent Judgments if the individual recalls the prime when judging the target along a trait dimension. In this case, the primes may serve as an anchor, resulting in contrast effects. Two experiments, in which subjects were primed with names of prototypically nice or hostile famous individuals under instructions that did or did not prompt subjects to process the prime in applicable trait terms, supported these hypotheses. Implications for the emergence of priming effects in everyday social interaction are discussed. 
566	21	4	1991	While there has been much research on organizational innovation and on individual creativity, little research has examined the social psychological factors predicting work group innovation. In this exploratory study, using a new measure of innovativeness, eight health care teams were studied. Members of five innovative and three traditional teams (comprising 43 health care professionals) completed questionnaires examining aspects of individual and group work experience, and produced inventories of innovation reports. On the basis of these inventories, team innovativeness was rated by experienced health care professionals. Team innovation was predicted by climate for innovation (in particular tolerance of diversity), team commitment and team collaboration. The content of health care team innovations was also examined to reveal current trends. 
567	21	4	1991	According to Taifel §s accentuation theory, national stereotypes can be thought of as the correlation between trait dimensions and national affiliations, This correlation is high when the trait shows high homogeneity within and high distinctiveness between the national groups. The present study tested the hypothesis that a trait §s distinctiveness would facilitate inductive stereotypic judgements (inferences from trait to nationality) whereas homogeneity would facilitate deductive stereotypic judgements (inferences from nationality to trait). The latencies of inductive and deductive stereotypic judgements of 48 German subjects were assessed for 39 traits and three foreign nationalities (English, French, Italian). Multiple regression analyses using latencies for both types of judgements us criterion variables and both distinctiveness and homogeneity as predictor variables were conducted. The stereotype measures of Katz and Braly and McCauley and Stitt served as additional predictor variables. As expected from accentuation theory, distinctiveness predicted inductive but not deductive latencies, whereas homogeneity predicted deductive but not inductive latencies. For the latencies of deductive stereotypic judgements, the stereotype measure of Katz and Braly as well as that of McCauley and Stitt also proved to be significant predictors. The results are discussed and recommendations are given with respect to the assessment of national stereotypes. 
568	21	4	1991	The existence of context specific ethnic stereotypes and their effect on evaluations of contact with ethnic groups is examined in a survey of 1694 Dutch secondary school students. Interethnic evaluations and 13 trait attributions towards five ethnic groups were measured in three basic social domains: as neighbours, classmates and (marital) partners. The 13 trait attributions were also measured for ethnic groups in general and for people in general. The first hypothesis was that stereotypes operationalized as diagnostic ratios were better predictors of interethnic evaluation than stereotypes operationalized as percentage scores. The second hypothesis was that contextual stereotypes are better predictors of interethnic evaluation than general group stereotypes. It was found that diagnostic ratios do not predict interethnic evaluations better than percentage scores. For most ethnic groups contextual stereotypes are better predictors of interethnic evaluations than general group stereotypes. 
569	21	4	1991	This paper reports a study comparing the memorability of information that either confirmed, disconfirmed, or was irrelevant to, particular real life social group stereotypes. Memory for both stereotype confirming and stereotype disconfirming material was enhanced relative to that for material which was stereotype irrelevant. Further, there were no differences between the memory for stereotype confirming and  disconfirming information. Implications for stereotype stability and change are noted. 
570	21	4	1991	Ninety three students were exposed to majority and minority influence in an inductive reasoning task. The former induced convergent thinking processes, though its effects were not reducible to mere compliance. The latter activated more divergent constructive processes, supporting the predictions of Conversion Theory. 
571	21	4	1991	While a compliance strategy induced almost all subjects to agree to forego first a lunch and then a dinner and the following breakfast, simply observing an accomplice break his commitment to forego lunch was enough to produce a significant reduction in subjects §s  commitment to forego two meals, even though the effect was not immediate. This pattern of influence, similar to a behavioural conversion, appeared if the accomplice had first agreed to the initial request and only later refused to continue, but not if he refused to make the commitment at the outset. 
572	21	5	1991	In 1908 Ebbinghaus distinguished between the long past and the short history of psychology. The short history dated from 1879 when Wundt established a psychological laboratory at Leipzig. The long past concerns the time when psychology was a branch of philosophy. Implicit in such a break with the past is a positivist philosophy of science. I show how this philosophy of science distorts the historical record. I then analyse the history of social psychology. Unwittingly Lindzey and Aronson (1985) distinguish between the long past of social psychology as part of the Western intellectual tradition and its short history as an experimental science that is mainly American. Murchison §s Handbook of Social Psychology (1935), whilst marking the boundary between the long past and the short history, belongs to the long past. The break with tradition came in 1954, when Lindzey published the first Handbook in the modern series. There is a self conscious need, in the post World War II era, to train a whole new generation of social psychologists. The Lindzey series of Handbooks meets that need. The progress of modern social psychology is now measured in terms of its distance from the Murchison milestone of 1935. 
573	21	5	1991	Adolescents from three Italian cities responded to a questionnaire concerning the particular peer group with which they were associated and identification with their family, aspects of the process of coping with seven developmental tasks, and demographic characteristics. The participants were 1600 male and female teenagers, with a mean age of 16.28 years, who were approached at schools and various meeting places in three Italian cities. The study shows that effective coping with developmental tasks depends largely on the degree of identification with both family and peer group. Those who identify with both social groupings show advantages in various critical situations. Adolescents only identifying with either family or peers get emotional and instrumental support from that group but not from the other, thus, they are supported in some critical situations but not in others. Adolescents who are unwilling or unable to identify with their family and/or their peers are less successful in managing the transition to adulthood than others who are close to their parents and peers. Consistent with the findings of previous studies, the type of group adolescents join, be it a formal group or an informal street group, has no significant effect on their coping strategies. 
574	21	5	1991	This study investigated the effects of sex membership and its salience on individuals §s  self stereotyping and the motivation to define oneself positively (self enhancement). Bem §s (1981) gender schema and Markus §s (1977) self schema theories were interpreted within the framework of inter group relations, which emphasized their respective bipolar and unipolar structures. The use men and women made of these cognitive schemas, as well as of self enhancement, was tested by examining latencies in self descriptions on the BSRI attributes (Bem, 1974). Subjects described themselves and rated the stereotypicality and the positiveness of these attributes in one of two situations. A situation stressed a personal level of categorization (the individual setting), another a social level (the group setting). The first hypothesis was that the situations influence individuals §s  selection of specific self defining strategies. Results supported this expectation when considering the motivational strategy and the gender schema. Self enhancement was slightly more used in the individual than the group setting, and the gender schema was salient only in the group setting. The second hypothesis was that distinct self stereotyping processes occur as a function of the sex of the subjects. Support for this hypothesis was again found only for the gender schema, with women displaying this schema more than men. Sex differences in schematic thinking were interpreted as ensuing from status positions of women and men in the social structure. 
575	21	5	1991	An investigation was made into the stability of important self described goals of young men and women aged 18 to 20 years old using the results of analyses of two goal assessments having an intervening period of 5 months. A theoretical perspective was adopted which assumed goals are future selves or possible selves, thus linking the self concept to motivation. An adapted version of Nuttin §s Motivational Content Analysis (1985) was used to assess individual goals. It was hypothesized that women may have greater instability of self concept and possible selves than men. Findings of the study showed the contrary, and revealed that men and women had similarly stable goals over time. Results are compared to other research on the self concept and to the problems of self concept measurement. 
576	21	5	1991	The hypothesis that the degree of contextual dependence of interpersonal verbs (as defined by Semin and Fiedler (1988) in their LCM) significantly affects the strength of causality implicit in such verbs is assessed in an experiment. Results show that both the strength of causal inference induced by the verb and the degree of respondents §s  confidence in their own judgements increases from descriptive action verbs (DAV), to interpretive action verbs (IAV), to state action verbs (SAV), to state verbs (SV). Furthermore, the effect of contextual factors (gender of the stimulus sentence subject and object and respondents §s  gender) is shown to be stronger for more descriptive verbs like DAV and weaker for more abstract verbs like SV. 
577	21	5	1991	Perspective taking is central to much social interaction, but the processes by which it is accomplished are poorly understood. The current study examines accuracy and bias in one type of perspective taking: inferences about what others know. Twenty two New York City landmarks were presented in three conditions: Picture Only, Picture + Name and Name Only. Subjects estimated the proportion of short  and long term New York City residents who could identify each landmark from its picture. They also rated their subjective recognition of the stimuli. Subjects in all three conditions were good at estimating stimulus identifiability, but their estimates were biased in the direction of their own knowledge. Estimates of the difference in identifications by short and long term residents were relatively inaccurate, probably because the two groups differed less than anticipated. For most but not all subjects, subjective feelings of recognition were significantly correlated with estimates of identifiability. We conclude that perceptions of the distribution of knowledge are socially shared. 
578	21	5	1991	Previous research suggests that people who experience romantic jealousy in their relationships are typically low in self esteem and high in neuroticism. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether the effects of personality are moderated by the nature of the relationships. Data based on 101 respondents suggest that the jealousy–personality correlations are more apparent among dating couples with less established relationships. 
579	21	6	1991	When people recall an event collaboratively we may expect the product to be influenced by the combined cognitive resources of the group, interpersonal acquaintance of the members, and social competition engendered by salient intergroup considerations. Using undergraduate students and serving police officers as subjects, a range of experimental conditions was established which varied on the three factors of cognitive resources of the participants (Cognitive Resources), interpersonal acquaintance of the participants (Interpersonal Acquaintance) and professional salience (Professional Salience) of the recall material. Participants answered a questionnaire concerning a police interrogation they had witnessed, and rated how much confidence they had in their answers. Multiple regression revealed statistically significant associations between (i) Cognitive Resources and number of correct answers, (ii) Interpersonal Acquaintance and confidence for implicational errors, and (iii) Professional Salience and (a) number of implicational errors and (b) confidence in confusional errors. The theoretical implications for our understanding of memory as a social process are discussed, and the practical implications for courtroom testimony briefly described. 
580	21	6	1991	Three age groups of children and adolescents (9–10, 13–14, and 17–18 years old) were asked to indicate sources of information which serve as their epistemic authority in nine knowledge areas and to attribute reasons for their choices. In general, the results showed that children and adolescents differentiate among sources and select their epistemic authorities according to knowledge areas. It was found that while the perception of parents as epistemic authorities decreases with age, the perception of self increases considerably and becomes an important epistemic authority. In spite of the decrease in the perception of parents as epistemic authorities, they continue to be a significant source of knowledge. In addition, the perception of friends as epistemic authority increases relatively in social knowledge areas. With regard to causal explanation, it was found that children and adolescents use various reasons to explain their selection of epistemic authority. They differentiated among their reasons on the basis of the selected source. Knowledge denotating source expertise was used as the most important reason. The selection of oneself was mainly attributed to familiarity, and helpfulness was used to explain the selection of mother, friend and father as epistemic authorities. Friend was also selected because of similarity. Age differences with regard to use of reasons reflected changes in source selection. This line of research sheds light on the interpersonal nature of knowledge acquisition. 
581	21	6	1991	Manis et al. (1986, 1988) have suggested that, when a classification is superimposed on a series of items, this can lead to a reduction in the judged differences between the classes (interclass assimilation), whereas most previous research points to an accentuation of interclass differences. In a modified replication of conditions used by Manis et al., 82 subjects were presented with a series of vocabulary definitions, indicative of varying degrees of thought disturbance, supposedly provided by patients at different hospitals. For experimental but not control subjects, each definition was attributed to a patient from one of two hospitals, and the earlier items in the series were chosen so as to induce the expectation that patients from one hospital were more disturbed than those from the other. Subjects then compared pairs of midscale definitions (one from each hospital) and indicated which definition in the pair they considered more disturbed. Ratings of these test pairs by experimental subjects differed from those of controls in a direction of reduced discrimination between the classes, confirming the basic finding of Manis et al. This effect was not consistently influenced by the extremity of the induction series. Since the interclass assimilation effect found for test items also occurred for the induction items, our findings do not favour an interpretation in terms of midscale items being contrasted from other members of their class (within class contrast). However, those subjects who were more confident in their ratings of the induction items showed less interclass assimilation. Implications for theories of category use and social stereotyping are discussed. 
582	21	6	1991	"In order to examine the effects of filmed violence expectancy, male subjects were induced to think that they would watch an aggressive or neutral movie. The behavioural measures of aggression of the potential viewers were collected via an interaction aggressometer that allowed subjects to manipulate the level of aversiveness of electric shocks supposedly delivered to others. Main results indicated that the mere anticipation of viewing an aggressive movie was already effective in producing the usual instigation effect of filmed violence. Evidence was also provided indicating that degree of physical provocation influenced subjects §s  aggressive responses. The results are discussed in terms of Berkowitz' (1984) cognitive neoassociation analysis; anticipating a violent movie may prime aggressive behaviour. "
583	21	6	1991	Two studies investigated the pervasiveness of race as a social categorization and whether the organization of information around racial categories is sensitive to contextual factors. Both studies measured accentuation effects (more intra  than inter race errors) and own group bias (fewer confusions between own  than other group members) in person memory, using the paradigm developed by Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff and Ruderman (1978). Experiment 1 studies the generalization of these effects across ethnic group membership (black/white) and topic (categorization relevant/irrelevant) in a 2 × 2 [× 4] between subject design, with type of error as a repeated measure. There was a highly significant accentuation effect, which was not affected by either topic or group membership. Experiment 2, using white subjects only, manipulated anticipated future interaction/no interaction, which affected overall accuracy/error rate, but not the strong accentuation effect. Neither study found any support for an own group bias. Results are discussed in terms of the automaticity of race as a basis for social categorization. 
584	21	6	1991	To test theoretical ideas derived from classic and recent social comparison theory, two studies examined affiliative tendencies as a response to marital problems among individuals varying in marital dissatisfaction. Study 1 (n. = 632) showed that the higher the degree of marital dissatisfaction and the higher the uncertainty about how things are going in one §s marriage, the stronger was the desire for affiliation (operationalized as the desire to talk with others about one §s marriage). Moreover, among individuals high in marital dissatisfaction, a preference for upward affiliation was found, i.e. for contact with others having better marriages. Individuals with lower levels of dissatisfaction preferred affiliation with similar others. Women experienced more uncertainty and a stronger affiliative tendency than men. In Study 2 (n = 233), these findings were largely replicated. Moreover, it was shown that the desire to affiliate when facing marital stress was particularly strong among individuals high in interpersonal orientation. 
585	21	6	1991	The hypothesis was tested that mere ownership of an object ( in casu an abstract symbol)is a sufficient condition to enhance its attractiveness. The evidence was obtained through experimental manipulation of belongingness rather than in a quasi experimental context as was the case with the name letter effect, a preference for letters occurring in the own name above not own name letters which has been presented as the first evidence supporting the mere ownership hypothesis. Alternative explanations for the present results in terms of stimulus complexity and mere exposure are briefly presented en ruled out. 
586	22	1	1992	During the 1990 1991 Persian Gulf conflict an experiment was conducted with Australian university students (N = 200) to investigate whether the social stereotyping of Americans varied with social contextual manipulations related to the hostilities. The study, conducted in two phases at the start and end of the conflict, examined how the assignment of standard stereotypical traits to Americans was affected (a) by the large scale social change constituted by the war and (b) by variation in the frame of reference provided by relevant comparison groups. The elicited stereotypes were sensitive to both of these contextual variables, demonstrating significant variation and fluidity. Overall, stereotypes of Americans were relatively negative. They were significantly more negative (a) at the end of the war than at the beginning in the restricted frame (when Australia and Britain were comparison groups) and (b) in the first phase of the conflict when the frame was extended to include Iraq as a comparison group. The findings were in line with expectations derived from self categorization theory (Turner, 1985) that the social categorization of self and other into ingroup and outgroup is inherently variable, comparative and context dependent. They question the long held view of stereotypes as fixed, rigid and resistant to change.
587	22	1	1992	In this study, Mulder §s power theory consisting of the power distance reduction tendency (PDR) of less powerful group members towards more powerful others, and the power distance enlargement tendency (PDE) of more powerful group members towards less powerful others, is investigated. In particular, two different interpretations of the relationships Mulder hypothesized between power distance and power tendencies are examined. In Experiment 1 no support was found for the interpersonal interpretation. Evidence for the intrapersonal interpretation was found only for the PDE. The most remarkable difference between these results and the results of previous experiments was that we did not find any consistent support for an increased interpersonal PDR with smaller power distance. Therefore, in Experiment 2 a more extensive investigation was undertaken focusing on interpersonal measures similar to the one used earlier by Mulder and his co workers. Results of these measures yielded support for the interpersonal interpretations of both tendencies. In the discussion an explanation for the obtained results is offered that departs from the (in) stability of the power hierarchy.
588	22	1	1992	Situational and personality variables influencing the accurate understanding of partners §s communications in intimate couples were studied. The situation was varied by inducing either partner focused or self focused attention. The personality variables were gender role attitudes, control orientation, and empathy. Thirty couples who had been living together for at least 12 months discussed an issue which was important to both partners. Afterwards, each selected their partner §s most important statement from their videotaped discussion. The two statements were then rated by each of the partners in respect of their own and their partner §s emotional reaction to them (intentionally sent and actually experienced emotions). Analyses of variance with correctness of decoding as a dependent variable demonstrated strong effects of other focused attention and gender as independent variables. Femininity and secondary control correlated positively with correct decoding. These results are interpreted in a theoretical framework of empathy and communication.
589	22	1	1992	The study reported here takes its lead from the literatures which emphasize the importance of attitude variability and the role of perceived control over action. Within person variability and perceptions of control are investigated in the context of people §s attitudes towards the consumption of two common foods. The role of attitude ambivalence is also examined. The findings indicate that higher attitude variability is associated with weaker relationships between the components of the theory of reasoned action and that attitude variability is negatively related to perceived control. Moreover, perceived control is shown to be related to different sorts of control problem for different behaviours. It is advocated that a more in depth assessment of attitude variability and the perceived control construct is merited and that recent calls for more serious examination of attitude ambivalence are well founded.
590	22	1	1992	The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of social representation on both social perceptions and social judgments. In the first stage of this study, 47 drug users and 80 normal subjects were asked to respond to a questionnaire about representations of drugs. Three weeks later we contacted the same subjects. They were asked to answer some questions about a fictitious story in which an actor labelled as a drug user or a person disputed with a trader. Three different social representations of drugs were found. It was shown that these social representations were anchored in different social groups which were defined by their proximity to the world of drugs. Subjects who were themselves drug users shared an accepting or an ambivalent social representation of drugs but they also made the most negative judgements about the causes of a fictitious dispute between a trader and a drug addict. Moreover, these subjects had the most negative perception of the drug addict. Furthermore, some factors which increase the salience of social representations were studied. The effect on social perception and causal attributions of the interaction between social representations, the context and personal involvement in drugs was also shown. Some relations between the theory of social representations and the theories about asymmetrical intergroup relationships are exposed.
591	22	1	1992	Female undergraduates were or were not exposed to an opinion statement that threatened to a greater or lesser degree their freedom to make an independent assessment of the relative attractiveness of two males. Measures of perceived attractiveness and choice indicated a persuasion effect among subjects exposed to the mild statement and contrary opinions indicative of reactance among subjects exposed to the strong statement.
592	22	1	1992	This paper contains an investigation about research of Dutch social psychologists. Based on reported publications two types of analyses were performed. The reported publications were categorized by means of a topic inventory proposed by Fisch and Daniel (1982), which enabled us to compare Dutch trends with developments in Europe and the U.S.A. Moreover, by means of bibliometric analyses publications of Dutch social psychologists were related to data obtained by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI). Several trends were observed and discussed.
593	22	2	1992	This paper reports the results of a meta analytic integration of the results of 137 tests of the ingroup bias hypothesis. Overall, the ingroup bias effect was highly significant and of moderate magnitude. Several theoretically informative determinants of the ingroup bias effect were established. This ingroup bias effect was significantly stronger when the ingroup was made salient (by virtue of proportionate size and by virtue of reality of the group categorization). A significant interaction between the reality of the group categorization and the relative status of the ingroup revealed a slight decrease in the ingroup bias effect as a function of status in real groups, and a significant increase in the ingroup bias effect as a function of status in artificial groups. Finally, an interaction between item relevance and ingroup status was observed, such that higher status groups exhibited more ingroup bias on more relevant attributes, whereas lower status groups exhibited more ingroup bias on less relevant attributes. Discussion considers the implications of these results for current theory and future research involving the ingroup bias effect.
594	22	2	1992	The present study investigated the conditions under which group members try to obtain membership in another group, or are motivated to protect their group membership when they risk losing it. One hundred and twenty nine high school students participated as subjects in a laboratory experiment. Subjects were divided into two groups, allegedly on the basis of their problem solving style. The relative size (minority/majority) and status position (high/low) of the subject §s group, as well as the permeability of group boundaries (permeable/impermeable) were manipulated as independent variables in a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. The main dependent variables were the extent to which individuals valued their group membership, and identified with their group. The main results are that membership in a group with high status is considered more attractive than membership in a low status group. This differential evaluation of high and low status groups is more extreme in minority groups than ingroups of majority size. Furthermore, when group boundaries are permeable, members of high status minorities show relatively strong ingroup identification, indicating a strengthening of ties with their own group when an alternative (majority) group affiliation is possible. However, our expectation that permeable group boundaries would result in diminished ingroup identification in low status minorities was not confirmed. Some additional data suggest that unsatisfactory membership in a low status group is resolved in a different way.
595	22	2	1992	Social categorization is claimed to elicit a tendency to conform to ingroup norms, which may result in attitude change after exposure to information on the opinions of other ingroup members. It was hypothesized that the degree to which arguments represented ingroup norms, i.e., were prototypical, would affect their potential influence on attitudes, such that prototypical arguments would be perceived as being of higher quality and would elicit more attitude change. Moreover, prototypical arguments were expected to elicit more argument elaboration. Two experiments were designed to test these predictions. In Experiment 1 subjects were exposed to both a set of pro and a set of contra arguments, while one of the sets was allegedly prototypical of ingroup attitudes. In Experiment 2 subjects were exposed to either prototypical or a prototypical pro or contra arguments allegedly originating from in or outgroup. In both studies conformity to ingroup norms was observed. In addition, prototypical ingroup arguments elicited higher quality ratings in the first study. Indications of higher elaboration of prototypical ingroup arguments were found.
596	22	2	1992	This study sought to investigate the utility of several variables to post dict eyewitness identification accuracy in target present and target absent line ups in a staged event paradigm. The incident involved and altercation between an experimenter and a confederate who attempted to take away the slide projector needed for an ongoing laboratory experiment. Sixty two subject witnesses were called back to the laboratory one week after the incident, purportedly to answer some additional questions about the laboratory experiment. They were asked to provide a description of the intruder and to indicate whether or not they though they would be able to identify the target (pre decision confidence). Next, they saw a video line up with or without the target present. Using choice of a line up member as a mediating variable, with choosers post decision confidence (r = 0.58) and decision time (r = 0.43) were strongly related to the accuracy of this choice while pre decision confidence was not. For non choosers, no meaningful relationship between these variables and identification accuracy was observed. There was also some evidence that the number of descriptors was significantly related to identification accuracy (r = 0.28). Results are discussed in terms of the importance of choice as a mediating variable for post dicting identification decisions in studies using both target present and target absent line ups. Forensic implications of confidence and decision time as verbal and non verbal indicators for the post hoc assessment of identification accuracy are stressed.
597	22	2	1992	We examine the proposition that, in ordinary conversation, people are concerned to argue  to justify their claims and to counter potential and actual counter claims. We test out the proposition by analysing explanations in one particular conversation. We attend to the validity claims of what the speakers say, and to the authority with which they say it. Viewed in that light, we find that the majority of what might look like causal attributions turn out to look like argumentative claim backings. We then go on to flesh out the quasi pragmatic rules which might help to decide formally whether any given utterance is better understood as an argument or a causal explanation. These rules revolve around the speaker §s apparent intention and the projected relationship between the clauses in what she or he says. All of this takes us a fair way from attribution theory §s model of explanation as the reporting of a cause, and we end up with an argumentative model of ordinary explanation.
598	22	2	1992	A quasi experimental field study (n = 314) investigated the consequences of framing the problem of HIV infection in terms of risky practices versus high risk groups . It was reasoned that respondents in the risky practices frame would be more conscious of the risks to people in general leading them to make more pessimistic prognoses of HIV spread than those for whom the issue had been framed in terms of high risk groups. This hypothesis was strongly supported on three related indices, and results also indicated more pessimistic prognoses by female than male respondents. The implications of these findings for framing AIDS related issues are discussed.
599	22	3	1992	Research has shown that the behaviour of people in fires and other emergencies is characterized by internally rational, socially and cognitively structured action. It has not been possible to date to discover whether the victims of fires display similar patterns of behaviour to the survivors, or act in a fundamentally different way. Following the public inquiry into the 1987 King §s Cross underground fire in London, data were made available which allowed this issue to be addressed. The data mainly consisted of statements and interviews with survivors and friends of the victims. Examination of this information allowed the likely actions and intentions of 24 of the 31 victims to be pieced together with a good degree of certainty. The results showed that those who died in the fire behaved in a way similar to the survivors. Generally, victims perpetuated actions that were consistent with the normal scripts for the use of the setting, and as shaped by their place related roles and schemata. The study shows that virtually all of the victims attempted to leave the station either by the way they had entered, or by their originally intended route. Implications of the findings for the understanding, modelling and researching of behaviour under life threatening conditions are discussed.
600	22	3	1992	We report investigations of change in, and cognitive representation of young people §s stereotypes of the police, in response to a police schools liaison programme. This programme provides a real life application of the conversion model of stereotype change (in which stereotypes change radically in response to salient instances of disconfirming information). Study 1 revealed that school police officers were rated significantly more positively than the police in general, but that this view did not generalize to perceptions of the police in general. Stereotypes of the police became less positive over one year, although females were more positive than males, and school police officers were not judged typical of the category. Study 2 revealed that subjects categorized their school police officer separately from the police in general, and perceived him to share features with caring and welfare professions, rather than other police officers and authority figures. Both studies converge on the limitations of the conversion model and tend to support the subtyping model (in which extremely disconfirming individuals are isolated from other group members).
601	22	3	1992	The reported study compared change in stereotypic perceptions of homogeneous and heterogeneous groups, when subjects were presented with a pattern of stereotype inconsistent information that was either concentrated in two extreme group members or dispersed across six members. Results provided some support for the conversion model (in which stereotypes change in response to salient instances) in the case of a homogeneous group, where stereotypical responding was lower in concentrated than dispersed conditions. In the heterogeneous group conditions, there was no effect of pattern. In addition, subjects §s estimates of stereotype consistent information were higher, and of inconsistent information were lower, and they perceived more members as typical, and fewer as atypical, when the target group was heterogeneous versus homogeneous. There was also support for the subtyping model (in which disconfirming individuals are isolated from other group members) in the concentrated conditions. A theoretical account of these findings is given in terms of stereotype change via salience for homogeneous groups, and the need to integrate research on cognitive models of stereotype change and perceived group variability.
602	22	3	1992	This paper examines the hypothesis that patterns of stereotypic accentuation reflect the degree to which judged stimuli share the same social category membership as the stereotyper. Following self categorization theory, the degree of this shared identity is operationalized in terms of the meta contrast ratio as a function of the positions of (a) stereotyper and (b) stereotyped target relative to (c) the stereotyper §s frame of reference. Three experiments are reported which sought to manipulate shared category membership either by extension of subjects §s frame of reference or by extremitization of target and subject with respect to that frame. As predicted, greater shared identity was associated with stronger assimilation of the target to subjects §s own position and with change in stereotype content. Findings are discussed in relation to theories of personality, social judgement and social cognition. Like the accentuation processes which underpin them, it is proposed that stereotypes are sensitive to comparative context and that they reflect veridically the social self categorical properties of stimuli.
603	22	3	1992	Data from a survey of 4591 16 19 year olds from four parts of Britain demonstrate that a North South divide is manifested both economically and politically. Southerners are materially better off and more supportive of the Conservative party. Adopting a social identity analysis of sectional effects, we hypothesized that party political support is a manifestation of identification with locality, and also that political support, rather than perceived deprivation, would be associated with intentions to stay in or move out of one §s locality. Results revealed that Labour supporters in the north of England, and Conservative supporters in the south were most committed to their locality. In Scotland, where nationalism is more directly linked to political parties, those who supported the Scottish Nationalist Party or Labour Party identified more strongly with Scotland and had less intention to leave, but also perceived their situation as more disadvantaged than did Conservatives. These findings are interpreted as supporting a social identity approach to political support and geographical occupational mobility. We suggest that despite the apparent irrationality of self denying perceptions and choices, these may also serve self preserving functions in the longer term.
604	22	3	1992	Cooperative decision making was studied as a function of the decision makers §s own, and the interdependent other party §s gain or loss frame. As expected, results showed that (a) an own gain frame produced less cognitive activity than an own loss frame and (b) other §s loss frame caused more cooperation than other §s gain frame, but only in case of an own gain frame.
605	22	3	1992	Male academic staff members received a Low or High threat (freedom restricting) description of measures for the preferential treatment of women in job selection for academic staff functions. The High threat condition evoked more psychological reactance than the Low threat condition. Persons with high self esteem manifested a more negative attitude in the High threat than in the Low threat condition. Social position did not interact significantly with threat.
606	22	3	1992	In Providing behavioural frequency reports, respondents use the range of the response alternatives as a frame of reference, resulting in higher estimates on scales that offer high rather than low values. The present study demonstrates that the size of this effect increases with increasing question difficulty.
607	22	4	1992	Explores how preattributional variables describing an event (i. e. consensus, consistency, distinctiveness, and effectuality) as well as dimensions of attributions given to explain the event (i.e. locus, stability, globality, and control) determine subsequent emotions and expectations. In a first pilot study, subjects described actual emotion evoking incidents. The results indicated that these free descriptions included preattributional variables more often (43 per cent) than attributional appraisals (13 per cent), and that the hypothesized preattributional cues were used to describe the emotions. In a second experimental study, preattributional or attributional information about an event was presented, and subjects were asked to judge an actor §s emotions or expectations. The time needed to make this judgment was recorded Judgments and response times were not significantly different after preattributional or attributional information, but were different for distinct emotions and expectations in accordance with the hypotheses. The data were interpreted as suggesting that people possess cognitive schemas about the preattributional and attributional determinants of emotions, and that these schemas speed up the processing of diagnostic inputs that shape emotions.
608	22	4	1992	Two studies compared the relative strength of motivational assumptions drawn from SIT (e.g. Taifel, 1978) and memory based assumptions drawn from the differential familiarity hypothesis (Linville, Fischer and Salovey, 1989) in explaining ingroup bias and the black sheep effect (Marques, 1986, 1990). In Study 1, 15 subjects estimated member distributions and gave overall ratings of an ingroup and two outgroups. In Study 2, 42 subjects performed similar tasks for ingroup or outgroup, and evaluated likeable and unlikeable group members. Results showed, first, that overall group ratings account better for ingroup bias than do central tendencies of group distributions. In addition, likeable and unlikeable ingroup members were, respectively, upgraded and downgraded relative to their outgroup counterparts. Finally, whole ingroup ratings as well as judgements of likeable and unlikeable ingroup members proved more independent from variability and central tendency of underlying distributions than did similar outgroup judgements. Results are discussed in light of motivational and knowledge based determinants of group judgements.
609	22	4	1992	Western societies can be characterized as individualistic: the person is seen as a situation free distinct agent, relatively autonomous from contextual influences. By contrast, many Eastern societies are collectivistic with a more holistic view of the person: people are reconceptualised in terms of their relation to the environment and their actions are primarily understood in terms of this relation. This difference implies that in Western cultures the psychological self will be prominent, in Eastern cultures the social self will be more salient. We report the results of a study carried out in the Netherlands, comprising Dutch, Turkish and Moroccan children in which these differences in self concept and the comparison of self with similar and dissimilar others, were investigated. A strong culture effect was found in the hypothesized direction: Dutch children referred more to psychological aspects, whereas Turkish and Moroccan children referred more to social aspects. These differences were found in both the self descriptions and the comparison measures.
610	22	4	1992	In the past, leadership was perceived to be the special province of males and still females tend not to occupy top management positions. Traditional social stereotypes hold that a leader needs to have typical masculine characteristics: he needs to be competitive, aggressive, tough and successful. Due to important changes in the conception of the societal female and male gender role during the last decades it can be assumed that the classical sex role stereotypes have at least become less polarized. Obituaries concerning deceased male and female managers, published in the years 1974, 1980 and 1986 in four daily newspapers were content analysed. Terms used to describe the managers were classified into 53 categories and included in a correspondence analysis. The results show that images of male and female managers were dissimilar in 1974 and 1980 and were still different in 1986. Male managers were perceived as intelligent, knowledgeable, experienced, outstanding instructors, unselfish opinion leaders with an enviable entrepreneurial spirit. Women, on the other hand, were described as adorable, likeable superiors in 1974 and 1980. Some years later, in 1986, they became fighting managers: their surviving colleagues described them as courageous, highly committed workers who, nevertheless are still lacking in knowledge and expertise.
611	22	4	1992	For Canadian born Greek Canadians, the failure of Athens §s bid for the 1996 Olympic Summer Games was presumed to evoke social comparison at a group level. Although this process may influence social identity (collective self esteem), the effect was expected to be qualified by the subject §s degree of involvement or self engagement with the event. Pre event (prior to the announcement of the awarding of the Games to Atlanta, U.S.A.) and post event responses were obtained from 63 female and 44 male Canadian born Greek Canadian university students. In a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses controlling for pre event collective self esteem, involvement and levels of post event positive emotions enhanced the prediction of post event collective self esteem on three subscales directly related to self. Low involvement subjects and those experiencing less post event positive emotion evidenced a decline in post event collective self esteem, whereas their high counterparts exhibited a relative stability in esteem scores. With a comparison group of 84 Canadian born Italian Canadian university students, for whom the outcome of the Olympic bid was irrelevant to their ethnic origin, involvement and affect were unrelated to post event collective self esteem. Results were interpreted as consistent with previous research linking group failure to increased group cohesion and involvement with stability in the attitude change literature.
612	22	4	1992	Kahneman and Tversky (1982) have proposed a simulation heuristic such that perceivers tend to substitute normal antecedent events for exceptional ones in psychologically undoing a given outcome. Recently Gavanski and Wells (1989) have demonstrated that exceptional outcomes tend to be perceived as caused by exceptional events and normal outcomes by normal events, a finding more in line with the representativeness heuristic than this normalization principle. We argue that representativeness may be determined by the evaluative tone of events as well as by probability namely that positive events are assumed to underlie positive outcomes and negative events, negative outcomes. Both normality and value were independently manipulated in order to test the relative effects of each of these factors. In contrast to Gavanski and Wells our data indicate that preference was given to the similarity of value between events and outcome for undoing both positive and negative and normal and exceptional outcomes. Some implications of these findings for counterfactual processing are discussed.
613	22	4	1992	A substantial amount of research exploring the theoretical parameters of social identity theory has utilized artificially created ingroups and outgroups. This study aimed to examine the propositions of social identity theory between naturally existing groups (French and English Canadians) where the dependent measure was more consequential than typical ratings within this experimental paradigm. Subjects read a transcript of a rape trial which varied the ethnicity of the defendant and victim and were asked to rate the victim and defendant on 18 adjectives and then determine the defendant §s guilt on a 7 point scale. While the results are not entirely consistent with the predictions emanating from social identity theory, we did find that French Canadian subjects rated the outgroup (English) defendant more guilty when the victim was from the ingroup (French) than when she was from the outgroup (English) as was anticipated.
614	22	4	1992	An experiment (n = 36) was conducted to test the hypothesis that attribute typicality moderates intragroup differentiation. The predicted reversal from perceived relative ingroup homogeneity on typical ingroup attributes to perceived relative outgroup homogeneity on typical outgroup attributes was confirmed for both homogeneity measures (standard deviation and probability of differentiation). But the ingroup homogeneity effects were more reliable than the outgroup homogeneity effects. Relative ingroup size (minority versus majority) was included in the experimental design as a between subjects factor but did not qualify the reversal of perceived relative homogeneity.
615	22	4	1992	Utilizing a group product evaluation paradigm, a study was conducted to investigate anticipated outgroup evaluations. Specifically, it was proposed that ingroup members view outgroups in a way that leads them to anticipate discrimination. Results indicated, as predicted, that while subjects expected outgroup members to favour their own (outgroup) product, they expected impartial judges to agree with their own more favourable rating of the (ingroup) product. It is thus suggested that while subjects saw outgroup members as biased in their anticipated evaluations, they saw their own evaluations as relatively impartial. The results are discussed as an expression of ethnocentric attribution.
616	22	5	1992	"Research and theory emphasizing the role of cue diagnosticity in judgment (e.g. Skowronski and Carlston, 1987, 1989) suggests that under the proper conditions: (a) negativity effects should be observed in judgments of honesty/dishonesty; (b) positivity effects should be observed in judgments of intelligence/unintelligence, and (c) intelligence implicative and dishonesty implicative cues should be increasingly difficult to contradict as those cues become more extreme. Two experiments yielded data consistent with these predictions. In addition, two other important findings emerged from these studies. The results of Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that subjects do not respond as if highly diagnostic cues are sufficient for category membership, suggesting that the representational format of trait categories does not correspond to the format suggested by the classical model of categorization. The results of Experiment 2 also indicated that negativity and positivity effects are not substantially altered by a role playing manipulation designed to increase subjects §s involvement in the judgment task."
617	22	5	1992	The present paper deals with negativity and positivity effects in trait inferences and impression formation. In the first experiment we tested the suggestion of Skowronski and Carlston (1987) that in the domain of morality negative information is more diagnostic, will therefore receive more weight and result in a negativity effect whereas in the domain of abilities, positive information is more diagnostic resulting in positivity effects. Results of our first experiment support these predictions: negative behavioural information leads to more certain inferences concerning morality and positive behavioural information leads to more certain inferences concerning ability. In a second experiment, we investigated the relative weight of positive versus negative ability and morality related traits in an impression formation task. We counterposed traits from both morality and ability domains to see which was the most dominant in determining evaluative impressions. Findings of this second experiment showed strong negativity effects but also revealed that information related to morality is more influential in forming an evaluative impression than equally extreme information related to ability. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
618	22	5	1992	This paper analyses the logical structure of personal construct systems in terms of relations of partial entailment between constructs and the relative frequencies of positive and negative judgments concerning both self and others. It is argued that conditional hypotheses (anticipations) which incorporate the positive poles of constructs (e.g. happy) as antecedent terms will have wider ranges of relevance, on average, if self is assigned to the positive poles of those constructs. Conversely, hypotheses with antecedents based on the negative poles of constructs (e.g. sad) will tend to have wider ranges of relevance when self is assigned to their negative poles. Some theoretical implications of these relationships for the adaptability of personal construct systems are elaborated.
619	22	5	1992	Three samples, consisting of 200 traits, 200 nouns and 200 verbs taken from the Toglia et al. (1978) verbal norms, were analysed for evidence of positive negative asymmetry. Within each sample the items were ordered on a general positive negative index, and a systematic series of dichotomizations was carried out, ranging from 5 per cent negative to 95 per cent negative. It was found that the partial correlation of pleasingness with the positive negative dichotomization increased as a linear function of the informational complexity of the negative class of words, for all three word types. The partial correlation of familiarity increased as a similar function of the positive class of words, but only for traits. The results are discussed in terms of Peeters and Czapinski §s (1990) positive negative asymmetry model, and Scherer §s (1984) component model of emotion.
620	22	5	1992	Subjects in a positive, neutral, or negative mood were presented with behaviour descriptions exemplifying different categories to investigate mood effects on the organization of person information. Subjects were instructed either to form an impression about the person performing the behaviours (impression set) or to memorize the behaviours (memory set). Neutral mood subjects showed higher recall and more clustering under impression instructions than under memory instructions, replicating previous findings. Regardless of instructions, subjects in both positive and negative mood showed recall as high as that shown by those in a neutral mood under impression set. Subjects in a positive mood showed considerable clustering regardless of instruction set, whereas subjects in a negative mood showed little clustering regardless of instructional set. Thus, recall appeared to be mediated by different processes in the positive and negative mood conditions. Results are consistent with the interpretation that different affective states influence processing styles which in turn mediate recall.
621	22	6	1992	Two experiments are reported examining the impact of recipients §s mood on the processing of simple, everyday persuasive communications and on subsequent behaviour. Consistent with the general assumption that affective states may inform an individual about the state of its current environment, it was found that positive (as compared to neutral or negative) mood reduced subjects §s motivation to systematically process both content information and contextual cues. Specifically, Experiment 1 demonstrated that, in a field setting, the behaviour of subjects who had been put in a good mood was less likely to reflect differences in message content than the behaviour of neutral mood subjects. Experiment 2 replicated and extended these findings, showing that good mood subjects §s behaviour was uninfluenced by content as well as context information, whereas bad mood subjects did make use of both types of information. Subjects §s cognitive responses and evaluations paralleled the behavioural data. The results are discussed in terms of their compatibility with contemporary models of persuasion, and their implications for future research on mood and persuasion and on the interplay of affect and cognition in general are considered
622	22	6	1992	Does good and bad mood have a different influence on our perceptions of typical and atypical people? In this experiment, people in happy, sad or neutral moods recalled, and formed impressions of high or low prototypical characters. We expected an asymmetric mood effect on memory, with better recall of typical targets that require simplified, schematic processing in positive mood, but greater negative mood effects on atypical targets that require more detailed and inferential processing. Subjects (N = 66) received an audio visual mood induction in an allegedly separate experiment, before recalling, and forming impressions about people who were consistent or inconsistent with familiar prototypes within their social milieu. We found the predicted mood congruent bias in judgments, that was significantly greater for non typical than for typical people. We also found evidence for positive negative mood asymmetry in memory, with better recall of typical people in positive mood, and atypical people in negative mood The findings are discussed in terms of contemporary multi process models of affect and cognition (Forgas, 1992), and the implications for everyday affective influences on social judgments and stereotyping are considered.
623	22	6	1992	Investigates an old controversy in ethnic identification from the Perspective of information gathering strategies. It was hypothesized that people would request a lot of positive information before deciding that someone is a member of the ingroup. First, a questionnaire measuring the typical features of likeable and unlikeable targets issuing from two linguistic groups (Flemish and Walloon) revealed the existence of four distinguishable sets. These sets corresponded to the orthogonal combination of valence and group membership, i.e. they were organized in terms of two independent dimensions, an evaluative one and descriptive one. The dimensional complexity and evaluative extremity of the positive ingroup and negative outgroup sets were not different. Second, characteristics in each set served to create personality profiles presumably describing real targets. Subjects read these profiles, one feature at a time up to 10 features, and were asked to decide whether the target was a member of their group. They also learned that they could make their decision as soon as they felt confident. In line with Yzerbyt and Leyens §s (1991) results, data indicate that subjects requested more information when the evidence was positive or consistent with their ingroup membership than when it was negative or inconsistent. These findings shed new light on earlier work concerning ethnic identification. In the context of the more general question of intergroup relations and their role in person perception, the present results may be interpreted in terms of an ingroup overexclusion effect rather than a vigilance effect or response bias. Thus is added a new effect to the well known phenomena of ingroup favouritism and outgroup homogeneity.
624	22	6	1992	Positive negative asymmetry in thought can involve both cognitive asymmetry, (thinking about characteristics that a stimulus has versus does not have), which we predict will be large and preponderantly a positivity bias, and affective asymmetry (thinking about desirable versus undesirable characteristics that the stimulus has or has not), predicted to be small and to fluctuate predictably in direction. The first four of the 10 studies reported here investigate asymmetries in thinking ability, measured by giving people directed thinking tasks specifically asking them to generate positive versus negative thoughts. We predicted and found no affective asymmetry and a moderate sized cognitive positivity bias that declines with practice. The second four of the 10 studies investigate asymmetries in proclivity (or preference beyond ability) that appear when people free associate on a variety of stimuli. As regards proclivity, we predicted and found a large, uniformly positive cognitive bias (that declines somewhat as children mature), but only a slight affective bias that is positive when autistic needs are dominant and negative when realistic needs dominate. A final pair of studies show that the cognitive and affective variables interact as regards how directed positive versus negative thinking about a stimulus affects evaluation of that stimulus.
625	23	1	1993	The present study investigates the effects of evaluative processing of hostile and friendly words on impression formation. Two experiments were conducted. Subjects were first asked to complete sentences using hostile (Experiment 1) or friendly (Experiment 2) words. Then they participated in an ostensibly unrelated impression task, where they rated a stimulus person on a series of trait scales based on a paragraph of behavioural descriptions that was ambiguous regarding hostility (Experiment 1) or friendliness (Experiment 2). It was found that the hostile sentence completion tasks increased the likelihood that subsequent behavioural information would be assimilated into the primed hostile constructs, whereas the friendly sentence completion tasks increased the likelihood that behavioural information would be contrasted to the primed friendly constructs. The underlying mechanism of the positive negative asymmetry of priming effects was discussed in terms of the socio cultural expectancy for normality of friendliness being evoked by priming manipulations. In addition, a supplementary experiment was conducted to assess the feeling states following the hostile or friendly priming tasks. It was found that the hostile priming elicited negative affects, whereas friendly priming had no effects on the feeling states of subjects. This asymmetric effect of priming on the feeling states was also considered as a result of the influences of the socio cultural expectancy.
626	23	1	1993	Social and cognitive psychologists have reconceptualised judgemental confidence (how strongly a person holds the belief that some judgement is correct) as being proportional to the amount of evidence in favour of a response. Festinger (1950) argued that there are two separate processes by which uncertainty (the inverse of confidence) can be reduced These two processes are physical reality testing (the perceptual processing of stimulus information) and social reality testing (reliance on other people to resolve particularly ambiguous situations). However, there is surprisingly little direct evidence that uncertainty is either reduced or increased by the responses of other people. In two experimental tests (N = 74 and N = 83) it was found that disagreement increased uncertainty and agreement tended to reduce uncertainty. In a third experiment (N = 63) it was found that disagreement only increased uncertainty when stimulus information was limited, but that agreement generally reduced uncertainty. The results challenge Festinger §s model of uncertainty reduction and support a self categorization theory account.
627	23	1	1993	A review of the literature concerning the relationship between religiosity and premarital sexual attitudes and behaviour revealed in consistencies in research findings and problems with methodology and operationalizations of variables. A postal questionnaire to 527 16 to 18 year olds examined the associations between six models of religiosity (religious upbringing, denominational affiliation, ritual/behavioural, self attitude/self schema and salience of religious identity) and personal sexual standards, attitudes towards sexually active others, virginal status, anticipation of sexual intercourse and frequency of both coitus and non coital sexual experiences over the previous year. A negative relationship between religiosity and a number of sexual attitudes and behaviours was observed though non significant relationships in the case of sexual experiences without intercourse suggested the maintenance of a technical virginity to accord with religious precepts. There was also some evidence that Catholic adolescents were more likely to be sexually active than non Catholics when current religiosity was controlled for. The results lent strongest support to models which implicated self conception either in terms of self attitudes/self schemas or the salience of religious identity. Implications of the study and suggestions for future research are outlined.
628	23	1	1993	In the present study, subjects had to generate an evaluative judgment about a target person on the basis of his behaviour that had both positive and negative implications. In a previous phase of the study that was ostensibly unrelated to the judgment task, the relevant trait categories were primed. Subsequently, half of the subjects were reminded of the priming episode. Consistent with earlier research (e.g. Lombardi, Higgins and Bargh, 1987, Newman and Uleman, 1990) that used memory of the priming events as a correlational measure, a contrast effect was found under the reminding condition and assimilation resulted when subjects were not reminded of the priming episode. This pattern of results is interpreted as the consequence of corrective influences.
629	23	1	1993	The proposition that individuals engage in intergroup discrimination to increase or maintain positive social identity and a high level of self esteem has received some empirical support. An attempt was made to extend prior findings by evaluating whether inter group allocation behaviour consistent with subjects §s social values would lead to higher self esteem than inconsistent allocation behaviour. More specifically, it was predicted that competitive subjects self esteem will be higher following discriminatory choices than fair choices and prosocial subjects §s self esteem will be higher following fair choices than discriminatory choices. It was also predicted that after subjects were constrained to make discriminatory choices, competitors §s self esteem would be higher than prosocials §s self esteem and after subjects were constrained to make fair choices, prosocials §s self esteem would be higher than competitors §s self esteem. Experiment 1 supported the first of these predictions when a measure of personal self esteem was used as a dependent variable. Experiment 2 attempted to extend the generality of the findings of Experiment 1 by defining and measuring self esteem in collective terms. The expected prior pattern of results did not occur again. Constraining subjects to make discriminatory choices increased their collective self esteem regardless of their social values.
630	23	1	1993	The Present research considered the effects of stereotypes on judgmental and memorial processes. In particular, we investigated the heuristic utility of stereotype application in difficult or demanding information processing contexts. Our results supported the prediction that stereotypical effects on memory are contingent upon the characteristics of the task environment. Whereas perceivers displayed preferential recall for stereotype inconsistent information under low processing loads, this switched to a preference for consistent information as task demands increased. Likewise, target based judgments were most stereotypic under high processing loads. Judgment recall correlations supported the contention that, under high loads, these inferences are related to the relative memorability of stereotypic information. We consider these findings in the wider context of stereotype based effects on social cognition
631	23	1	1993	To what extent are the more common emotion words in Western European languages equivalent? Some information on this question, which is relevant for cross cultural emotions research, is collected in the present study. Students from six Western European countries were asked to list all emotion words they could think of in 5 minutes. The most frequently mentioned categories were highly similar across samples. However, considerable differences in relative frequency of presumably equivalent words (close, common translations) in the different languages were also found.
632	23	1	1993	This research explores the role of perspective taking in self serving biases. Assisted by a confederate, 80 subjects performed an impression formation task and were given either success or failure bogus feedback. One week later, half of the subjects watched their performance on videotape and provided causal attributions ( observers ). The other half simply gave causal attributions (actors). Thus, the experiment employed a modified version of the actor/observer paradigm with one group of subjects taking the perspective of observers (observers) and one group of subjects keeping their original perspective (actors). The aim of this study was to test whether the change of perspective would increase dispositional causal attributions both in success and failure conditions. Results showed that subjects gave greater causal weight to internal factors (ability, effort) and less causal weight to external factors (task characteristics, collaboration with the partner) in the success than in the failure condition. Moreover, in a direct comparison task, subjects attributed a greater percentage of responsibility to themselves than to their partner in the success than in the failure condition. However, the type of perspective produced no significant effects, but showed an attenuation of self serving biases for observers as compared to actors. A motivational explanation of the results is proposed.
633	23	1	1993	In a free choice forced compliance situation, subjects had to perform a tedious task. Then, just before having to evaluate the task §s interest, certain subjects were provided an arbitrary positive feedback regarding their performance, others a negative feedback and others no information at all concerning their performance. Afterwards, all subjects were administered a questionnaire concerning their theories of causal explanations, which enabled us to compute an externalization score. Evaluation of the task was affected by the feedback §s nature: Subjects who received the negative feedback found the task more interesting. Causal theories, however, were only affected by actual performance: the most efficient subjects were those who presented the more external orientation of causal theories. These results are in agreement with the radical conception of dissonance theory.
634	23	2	1993	Starting from the assumption that people direct more attention to the objective, non evaluative, aspects of undesirable behaviours than of equally evaluatively intense desirable ones and attach more weight to the defining descriptive features of undesirable traits than of desirable ones, we predicted and demonstrated, with samples of Dutch adjectives, that, on the average, undesirable trait adjectives, as compared to desirable ones, had a lower category breadth and a higher discriminative value (Study 1). Undesirable able trait adjectives were also estimated as less similar in meaning and as less likely to co occur in the same person, and were less strongly intercorrelated when used for memory based self ratings (Study 2). These positive negative asymmetries tended to hold for all traits whether they belonged to the self profitability dimension or to the other profitability dimension, and did not depend on the evaluative intensity of the traits. Alternative interpretations of these asymmetries and the implications of these asymmetries for personality assessment and for research on implicit personality theory and on the factorial structure of rating correlations are discussed.
635	23	2	1993	A model of egocentric social categorization (ESC model) is presented It predicts an asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroups and outgroups which is traced back to an egocentrism in the cognitive differentiation of the social world. The more specific assumptions are: (1) At the most basic level of cognitive differentiation, the perceiver distinguishes between the categories ME and NOT ME. (2) This basic level categorization predicates an asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroup and outgroup as social categories: The ingroup is construed as a heterogeneous aggregate of separate entities and the outgroup as a homogeneous social category. (3) Egocentric social categorization thus facilitates self definition in terms of personal identity relative to self definition in terms of social identity. The ESC model is highly relevant to research on perceived ingroup and outgroup homogeneity. Moreover, it alerts researchers to the possibility of quasi intergroup situations in which the outgroup, but not the ingroup, is a salient entity. This article also discusses the relationship between the ESC model and self categorization theory and points out some prospects for future research.
636	23	2	1993	Conversational rules of everyday communication are applied to the interaction between experimenters and subjects. According to these rules, contributions to a communication should be informative, relevant, true, and unambiguous. It is assumed that subjects determine the pragmatic meaning of instructions and questions on the basis of these rules and the provided context. In contrast to most natural settings, standardized experimental procedures rarely allow for an interactive determination of pragmatic meaning and often preclude feedback as a corrective device. As a consequence, subjects are required to rely heavily on general rules, and even subtle cues may become informationally loaded. The information extracted from context cues may often not be intended by the experimenter. Thus subjects may infer more than they are supposed to, resulting in discrepancies between the experimenter §s intended and subjects §s inferred meaning of the instructions. If researchers are not sensitive to the information provided by verbal and non verbal context cues, their interpretation of research results may be based on biased data. Evidence from different research domains is reported to support the presented assumptions and their implications for bias avoiding strategies are discussed.
637	23	2	1993	Various studies in the health area consistently rejected the multiplicative combination between severity and probability of threat which is predicted by expectancy value (EV) theories. It is hypothesized here, that this negative evidence may be due to an overly demanding assumption underlying the multiplicative combination, namely, the assumption that people are able to performs trade offs between expectancies and valences. This hypothesis is tested in two studies in which subjects judged hypothetical health threats. Results from a nonparametric analysis (conjoint measurement) of individual data (Study 1) and an experimental study of trade off judgments (Study 2) are mostly consistent with the prediction. Unexpectedly, however, an ANOVA of the aggregate data of Study 1 yielded a small, but significant effect consistent with the multiplicative assumption. Whereas this latter result can be interpreted as evidencing an attempt to perform trade offs, the overall results show as predicted that trade off judgments are associated with a systematic error component due to the inherent difficulty of this type of judgment.
638	23	2	1993	"The research examined whether subjects with hearing impairment would differ from normal hearing subjects in their ability to decode emotions from video stimuli (48 video takes in which two actors portrayed six different emotions). Studies in tactile and visual perception lead one to expect deficits, while there is also some evidence for compensation. Twenty six subjects with hearing impairment and 26 matched normal hearing subjects participated (average age = 25.5 years; nine female, 17 male subjects in each group). Results indicate that in general subjects with hearing impairment were slightly less successful in decoding emotions from the visual stimuli than the normal hearing subjects. A comparison between highly (loss > 60 90 dBA) and moderately (loss about 30 60 dBA) impaired subjects on the other hand indicated poorer emotion decoding only for the moderately impaired group. Post hoc analyses indicated that these effects were specific to males. Results are discussed with respect to compensation versus deficit, and with respect to issues of training."
639	23	2	1993	Ekman, Friesen and Ellsworth §s (1982b) influential review on emotional expression and context prescribed the current standard criteria for selecting clear and comparable faces and contexts. These recommendations might not pay enough attention to the peculiarities of contextual information. Criteria of clarity for contextual stimuli should be grounded in the process of categorization of social situations (e.g. prototypicality and salience). A set of criteria of contextual clarity were designed according to this line of argument. The resulting contextual stimuli were employed in a replication of Wallbott §s (1988) experiment on recognition of emotions through discrepant sources of information. In contrast with previous studies, subjects §s judgments were equally predictable from expression and context.
640	23	2	1993	This paper critically examines the mathematical model, the confluence model , proposed by Zajonc, Markus and Markus (1979) as part of their analysis of birth order effects on intellectual differences. Five observations are made. The first concerns lack of precision in the indices contained in the model. The second deals with the coherence of the mathematical formulation. The third identifies presumably unanticipated and remarkable universal laws of mental development which can be derived from the model. The fourth identifies a further universal law which arises from inappropriate use of terms to qualify parameters in the formulae. Finally, it is concluded that the confluence model lacks the features required of a credible and useful mathematical model.
641	23	3	1993	Attribution theorists typically have conceived the attribution process in terms of universal laws of cognitive functioning, independent of social interaction. In this paper we argue for the notion, grounded in recent ordinary language philosophy, that any consideration of the form of everyday explanation must take into account its function as an answer to a why question within a conversational framework. Experiment 1 provides support for the idea that speakers should identify as causally relevant that necessary condition for the occurrence of an event about which the enquirer is ignorant. Experiment 2 replicates this basic finding and further demonstrates that speakers will change their explanations to enquirers believed to be sharing different knowledge about the same target event. Experiment 2 also assessed the role of individual differences in conversational rule following, and found in apparent contrast some previous predictions that high self monitoring individuals were no more likely than lows to tailor their explanations to suit the enquirer §s knowledge state. If anything, the reverse occurred. Taken together, these experiments support the central contention of the abnormal conditions focus model (Hilton and Slugoski, 1986), that the common sense criterion of causality is that of an abnormal condition rather than constant conjunction as instantiated in the ANOVA model of causal attribution (Kelley, 1967, 1973).
642	23	3	1993	"Two contrasting notions concerning upward power tendencies within hierarchically structured groups are investigated. Power Distance Theory assumes that people have a desire for power that results in a tendency to reduce the power distance towards a more powerful other, and this tendency is assumed to be stronger the smaller the power distance. The bureaucratic rule implies that a vacant position may only be taken over by someone from the level immediately below the vacant position. In Experiment 1, power distance from the top position of a hierarchy was manipulated by assigning 120 subjects to a higher or a lower position in a power hierarchy. Results showed that only the motivation derived from the bureaucratic rule (i.e. entitlement) mediated the relationship between power distance and upward tendencies. In Experiment 2, a more pertinent test of the two theoretical notions was performed by assigning 139 subjects to one of three positions. The main results were consistent with the bureaucratic rule: (1) subjects immediately below the top position showed a stronger upward tendency towards this position than subjects in the two lower positions, whereas no differences were found between subjects in these two lower positions; (2) again only entitlement mediated the relationship between power distance and upward tendencies."
643	23	3	1993	In Study 1, 60 item sets of behavioural acts exemplifying a personality trait were elicited for each of 40 traits. Each set of behaviours was then rated by 66 students for their inferential meaning (prototypicality) and evaluative meaning (valence). As predicted, the traits differed in the degree of congruence between the two meanings of their exemplifications. In Study 2, 80 subjects were presented with behaviour descriptions varying in their prototypicality for congruent or incongruent traits, and were asked for trait inferences and evaluations. The higher prototypicality, the more the inferred traits were similar to the original criterion traits and the more extreme were the ascriptions of those freely inferred traits. As predicted on the basis of accentuation theory, behaviours exemplifying congruent traits led to more extreme trait inferences and evaluations than behaviours exemplifying incongruent traits. We conclude that trait inferences and evaluations are based both on prototypicality of behavioural acts and on structural properties of the traits exemplified by these acts.
644	23	3	1993	While much research concerning decision making in interdependency situations concentrates on the influence of social values or different preferences for certain distributions of outcomes for self and other (McClintock, 1978), little attention has been paid to the cognitive processes underlying the expression of these different social values. The present research focuses on the cognitive processes by examining the influence of the dominant social values on decision makers §s response latencies (RLs) in interdependency situations. Using the Ring Measure of social Values (Liebrand 1984), three experiments were conducted to assess these RLs. Experiment 1 examines the reliability of the social value construct and the RL effect. Experiments 2 and 3 investigate the generality of the RL effect across presentation of combinations of own and other §s outcomes (all positive versus all negative). As predicted, RLs were shorter for individualists than for cooperators and competitors. Further, regardless of values, shorter RLs occurred across experiments when own outcomes are positive rather than negative. More important, the predicted interaction between social value and outcome distribution was observed, reflecting increasing RLs for cooperators as their joint outcomes decreased, longer RLs for individualists when own outcomes were negative rather than positive, and longer RLs for competitors when they were outcome disadvantaged rather than advantaged relative to other. These findings are consistent with the expectation that (1) the transformations associated with different social values require different cognitive processes, and (2) subsequent to the value transformations of outcomes, RLs increase when the utility of the transformed outcome distributions decreases.
645	23	3	1993	The reactive effects of concurrent verbalization (CV) on task performance in impression formation research have not been investigated, despite increasing use of this process tracing method. Since many person perception tasks involve multiple trials, assessment of reactivity should focus on carry over and reactive practice effects, as well as changes in task performance concurrent with thinking aloud. An experimental method for assessing these three forms of reactivity was demonstrated in an information request impression formation task. Concurrent reactive effects were found for both continuous and intermittent CV. For the former, task processing was mildly slowed but altered in a manner suggestive of more efficient learning of and memory for cues requested early in task performance. The substantial slowing of task processing during trial 1 intermittent CV largely disappeared by trial 2, indicating that subjects may require more practice for this method to be used effectively. The results for continuous CV are in line with recent findings which are inconsistent with certain predictions from the predominant theory of verbal protocol generation (Ericsson and Simon, 1984). Investigators using CV are urged to incorporate empirical checks for reactivity into their experimental designs.
646	23	3	1993	"We argue that people §s self esteem is affected by the fairness of procedures to which they are subjected; unfair treatment will lower self esteem. Moreover, since this influence on self esteem is presumably due to the implicit evaluation expressed by the choice of procedure and hence by the evaluation expressed by the person implementing the procedure, people §s concern with the fairness of treatment will be focused on the interactional aspects of the procedure. In two experiments designed to test these hypotheses subjects received either a high or a low grade on an ability test on the basis of either fair or unfair grading procedures. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that subjects §s self esteem was lower after unfair treatment, and this influence was only apparent when subjects received high test feedback. Additionally, ratings of the fairness of the interaction were lower following unfair grading procedures. Experiment 2 also manipulated level of involvement with the test. Self esteem was affected by procedural fairness and procedural fairness influenced perceived fairness of the interaction only in the high involvement condition."
647	23	3	1993	"Various researchers on feminist issues have argued that rape against women is supported by beliefs encouraging socioeconomic domination of women and that acceptance of rape myths foster those beliefs. If this is true, acceptance of such myths should be correlated with restrictive beliefs about women §s social roles. Two previous studies, carried out in England, Israel, United States and West Germany, confirmed that hypothesis (Costin, 1985; Costin and Schwarz, 1987). The replication of those investigations in Turkey adds further support for the hypothesis."
648	23	4	1993	A number of investigators demonstrated that processing verbal stimuli by encoding them in reference to the self facilitates recall for these stimuli, compared with other kinds of semantic processing. On the basis of a critical discussion of the relevant research, it is hypothesized that the superiority of self reference is due to some specific features of semantic orienting tasks that serve as control groups for self referent encoding. This hypothesis is tested in three experiments demonstrating that, when changing certain features of these semantic orienting tasks, the self reference effect (SRE) is no longer obtained In Experiment 3, the statistical difficulties are addressed that arise when not rejecting the null hypothesis. Furthermore, several implications of schema oriented explanations of the SRE are tested Several dependent measures provide evidence in support of the motion that a self schema is activated during encoding and retrieval of self relevant material. However, results show that self referent processing  in contrast to the most general claim of the relevant literature does not lead to superior recollection.
649	23	4	1993	Past research on social marking and pragmatic reasoning schemas suggests that cognitive processing modes are first elaborated by children when they are carrying out regulating social routines in the course of which they learn to produce the responses that satisfy the demand of their environment. The data of the two experimental studies reported here with 4 5 year old children, for object distribution tasks, show that the social routines evoked by the objects to be processed have a dual effect, influencing both the representation of the partition to be made, as well as the procedures used to make them. It can be hypothesised that the utilization of routine evoking tasks, which children are capable at a very young age, of accomplishing by activating efficient social goal oriented procedures, promote the attribution of an operative meaning to the linguistic expressions used to characterize the states to be attained, and the transformations to be applied in order to attain them.
650	23	4	1993	Three studies address the question of how observers react to rebuttal statements and which variables are crucial in determining observers §s evaluations of the initiator of the rebuttal. The first study showed that devaluation of the initiator of the rebuttal was higher when observers were confronted with the isolated rebuttal than when observers first learned about an existing accusation and then about the corresponding rebuttal. The second study qualified this finding by revealing that the devaluating effect of an isolated rebuttal was especially pronounced if the event in question was of high impact for observers. The third study included an additional variable, namely, the credibility of the source of the accusation. The drop in devaluation from rebuttal only to accusation + rebuttal conditions was obtained only for high impact observers when the accusation came from a noncredible source. The findings are explained within a framework of attributional and belief perseverance notions. Implications are discussed.
651	23	4	1993	Distinctiveness based illusory correlation effects (ICEs) have been implicated in the formation of negative stereotypes of minorities. In standard experiments subjects are presented with information about a large and small group in which the ratio of desirable to undesirable members is the same. These conditions normally lead to a negative representation of the smaller group. Explanations of this effect suggest it is a product of (a) over representing highly distinctive stimuli, (b) sampling from memory, or (c) regression to the mean following information loss. The present research investigated the possibility that the ICE would occur even where no stimulus information linking behaviours to groups was presented an outcome inconsistent with the first two explanations. Two experiments (Ns = 83, 112) produced ICEs in the absence of this standard stimulus information in a range of conditions. Results in these and previous studies are shown to be consistent with an explanation in terms of the principle of meta contrast derived from self categorization theory.
652	23	4	1993	The present research focused on power processes in a simulated organizational structure consisting of three hierarchical levels occupied by different numbers of males and females. Subjects were presented with a chart showing the organizational hierarchy of which they were a member placed at the lowest level, and asked to nominate any person for the leader position vacated by the current incumbent. The results of Experiment 1 (n = 88 Dutch male and female university students) showed that male subjects strongly overnominated themselves, whereas a majority of the female subjects nominated either self or another female. Of the others that were nominated by both males and females, almost all were occupants of positions immediately below the leader position, indicating the normative influence of a bureaucratic rule of leader succession. Experiment 2 was a replicational study carried out in a different culture (n = 101 Polish male and female university students). Polish subjects adhered to the bureaucratic rule more strongly than their Dutch counterparts, and both females and males nominated mostly males. Results are discussed with reference to gender self stereotypes and cultural differences.
653	23	4	1993	"To date little evidence is available as to how emotional facial expression is decoded, specifically whether a bottom up (data driven) or a top down (schema driven) approach is more appropriate in explaining the decoding of emotions from facial expression. A study is reported (conducted with N = 20 subjects each in Germany and Italy), in which decoders judged emotions from photographs of facial expressions. Stimuli represented a selection of photographs depicting both single muscular movements (action units) in an otherwise neutral face, and combinations of such action units. Results indicate that the meaning of action units changes often with context; only a few single action units transmit specific emotional meaning, which they retain when presented in context. The results are replicated to a large degree across decoder samples in both nations, implying fundamental mechanisms of emotion decoding."
654	23	5	1993	In this paper we argue that people §s explanations of a wide range of social outcomes occur within a framework of expectations derived from beliefs about the pervasive influence of social class on individuals §s life chances. This claim is tested by examining the effect of varying the social class origins of vignette characters on judgments and explanations concerning their outcomes. Four domains of social activity are examined: occupational attainment, educational achievement, relationship success, and unemployment. In all of these areas, the class background of the characters was found to be associated with different outcome expectations, future expectations, judgments of responsibility and differences in the ways in which outcomes were explained. The results are consistent with the claim that people have cognitive models in which social class background is associated with particular social outcomes across a range of activities, and that these models are reasonably accurate representations of the relationships between social class and life chances. This suggests that contrary to theories which have stressed the individualistic nature of belief systems in western societies, social class forms an important part of the popular representation of the influences on occupational, educational and relationship success.
655	23	5	1993	The aim of the study was to examine whether positive negative asymmetry can be found in the strength of political attitudes. Two hundred and eleven subjects participated in the study. Attitudes toward political parties were examined by means of a questionnaire with three strength measures. As was expected, attitude intensity, centrality and behaviour were found to be linked together in positive attitudes but not in negative attitudes.
656	23	5	1993	Social identity theory predicts that ingroup members should see their group as more homogeneous when confronted by a large and presumably dominant outgroup. This prediction has been supported in a series of recent studies, all of which purport to show that the usual ingroup outgroup difference in perceived variability, i.e. outgroup homogeneity, is reversed when the ingroup is in a minority position. In all of these studies, however, the ingroup outgroup distinction has been confounded with the size of the target group judged The present study was conducted to overcome this confound Subjects judged both the ingroup and outgroup, under one of two different orders, and the first group judged varied in size across subjects while the size of the second group was held constant. This permitted comparisons of the perceived variability of the second judged group (be it the ingroup or outgroup) when it followed the judgment of either a larger or equal size first group. Consistent with social identity theory, ingroups were judged as less variable when judged after a large outgroup than after a small one. This was true, however, only on measures of perceived dispersion and not on measures of perceived stereotypicality. On both sorts of measures, however, overall outgroup homogeneity was found, over and above the difference due to the comparison of the ingroup with a large or small outgroup.
657	23	5	1993	After reading a vignette about a hypothetical rape incident, 240 undergraduate students of the University of Bombay recommended imprisonment for the rapist and attributed fault to the rape victim. The experiment had a 2 (subject §s sex) 2 (schoolteacher versus callgirl victim) x 2 (acquainted versus stranger rapist) x 2 (victim §s physical resistance versus no physical resistance) factorial design with 15 subjects per cell. As predicted, attributed victim §s fault was greater and recommended rapist §s imprisonment was shorter with male rather than female subjects, with the callgirl rather than schoolteacher victim, and with no physical resistance rather than with physical resistance. Greater fault was also attributed to the acquainted rather than unacquainted victim. These main effects and the interaction effects were discussed primarily in light of the proposition that acquaintance rape is viewed less seriously than stranger rape because of ambiguity regarding the acquainted victim §s consent.
658	23	5	1993	It is proposed that perceptions of powerlessness influence attitudes towards political policies and ideologies, and that these attitudes influence levels of support for political parties. A cross sectional survey analysis of the relations between social class, powerlessness, ideology, and party preference supports this contention. However, the role of powerlessness in influencing the appeal of political attitudes is found to be conditional on respondents §s social class. For middle class respondents, powerlessness is associated with opposition to economic redistribution, whereas for the working class it is associated with pro redistributive attitudes. For respondents in all classes, powerlessness is associated with authoritarian beliefs, but these are only of relevance for the partisanship of respondents in the middle class. As a consequence of this pattern of relationships, powerlessness is associated with political polarization between social classes, which takes the form of increased support for the Conservative party in the middle class and increased support for the Labour party in the working class. Apart from their substantive implications these findings illustrate the importance of social structural characteristics in conditioning the relationships between social psychological variables.
659	23	5	1993	A study is reported that tests the hypothesis that group members exhibit intergroup bias in response to the belief that outsiders will discriminate against them. To this end, two experimental conditions are included in which subjects anticipate either biased evaluations or fair evaluations respectively. In a control condition, subjects do not expect to be evaluated from an external source. Results indicated, as expected, that those who anticipated biased evaluations from an outgroup exhibited bias themselves, while those who anticipated fair evaluations exhibited outgroup favouritism. The fact that control subjects exhibited the same degree of bias as those who anticipated biased evaluations from the outgroup poses some difficulties for the hypothesized connection between anticipated discrimination and intergoup bias. Thus, it appears that intergroup bias is the rule and not the exception in an intergroup context. Nevertheless, it is clear that anticipated evaluations of outgroup members can effect intergroup bias.
660	23	5	1993	Salient self identities and their impact upon feelings of relative deprivation (RD) and subsequent action intentions were examined Eight experimental conditions (Personal/Group Salience x Large/Small Intragroup Inequalities x Large/Small Intergroup Inequalities) were created utilizing a role play design. Significant main effects for both salience and social inequalities were found to influence both RD and action intentions. In accordance with self categorization theory, when group compared to personal identities were made salient, stronger feelings of group RD and greater likelihood of collective action intentions were reported Alternatively, when personal compared to group identities were made salient, greater likelihood of individual actions were reported In accordance with relative deprivation theory, when intergroup inequalities were large compared to small, stronger feelings of group RD and less likelihood of collective action were reported. Alternatively, when intragroup inequalities were large compared to small, stronger feelings of personal RD were reported.
661	23	5	1993	An experiment was conducted to examine the influence of the perceived extremity of a message and motivation to elaborate upon the process of persuasion. The first goal was to test a model of attitude change relating Social Judgment Theory to the Elaboration Likelihood Model. The second objective was to develop an instrument to measure attitude structure (latitudes of acceptance, non commitment, and rejection) that allowed for a more refined assessment of the discrepancy between the position advocated in a message and the recipient §s initial attitude. The main dependent variable was the attitude towards the use of automobiles in relation to environmental issues. Subjects were confronted with a message located in their own latitude of acceptance, rejection or non commitment. Shortly after, a second measurement of attitude took place. The results showed that messages within the latitudes of non commitment gave rise to the greatest attitude change. The data support the susceptibility hypothesis that subjects elaborate messages mainly in the latitude of non commitment.
662	23	5	1993	A method is presented for locating the central core of social representations which is based on the study of associative relations. The procedure proposed allows estimation of the quantity of the various relations which an inductive item has with induced items produced by subjects during an association task. The procedure shows that when the inductive item is a part of the central core of social representations, the number of relations is significantly greater.
663	23	6	1993	"In two experiments, conducted in Germany and the U.S.A., it was found that exposure to a rape report lowered self esteem and positive affect in women who do not accept rape myths (stereotypical beliefs which blame the victim and exonerate the rapist; Burt, 1980). Men high in rape myth acceptance (RMA) showed an increase in positive affect and self esteem as a function of exposure to rape; men low in RMA and women high in RMA were largely unaffected. Both experiments demonstrated that these effects were specific to rape, as opposed to violence in general. These results support the feminist hypothesis that the threat of rape serves the function to exert social control over women and to sustain men §s dominance. Potential cognitive mechanisms mediating the observed effects are discussed."
664	23	6	1993	We examined the impact of intergroup similarity on two aspects of intergroup relations. Drawing on social identity and belief congruence theory, we hypothesized that  at high levels of intergroup similarity  increasing similarity has dual, seemingly opposed effects: It increases ingroup favouritism in evaluations but also increases readiness for social contact with the outgroup. We further hypothesized that both effects are moderated by the strength of individuals §s identification with their ingroup. Finally, we hypothesized that there is ingroup favouritism on dimensions relevant for defining the group, but outgroup favouritism on dimensions irrelevant for this purpose. One hundred and forty nine students from two prestigious high schools, who were assigned to one of three levels of manipulated similarity between their schools, evaluated both schools on dimensions relevant and irrelevant to the school context and expressed their readiness for social contact with the other school. Ingroup favouritism appeared on relevant dimensions and outgroup favouritism on irrelevant dimensions. As predicted, for those highly identified with their ingroup, intergroup similarity led to greater ingroup favouritism in evaluations on relevant dimensions but to increased readiness for outgroup social contact. Implications for interpreting inconsistent results of past research and for specifying conditions for intergroup bias are discussed
665	23	6	1993	Two experiments investigate the impact of the evaluative connotation of risk terms on the judgment of risk behaviour and on risk preference. In the first experiment we focus on (1) the evaluation congruence of the risk terms with a general risk norm and (2) with subjects §s individual risk preference, and its effects on the extremity of judgments of risk behaviour. In the second experiment we address (3) the effects of evaluative connotation of risk terms on risk preference. In the first experiment subjects were presented with four decision problems, each with a risky and a cautious decision option, and were required to judge options. Results showed that the judged discrepancy between the risky and cautious option was larger on scales which were evaluatively congruent with the general risk norm for that specific decision problem or with subjects §s individual preference. More specificly, in decision problems for which there was considerable consensus about the risk norm judgments were more extreme on scales which were congruent with the risk norm, in those problems lacking a clear cut risk norm judgments were more extreme on scales congruent with subjects §s individual risk preference. In the second experiment we studied the reverse relation between the evaluative connotation of risk terms and risk preference. This experiment demonstrates that using evaluatively biased risk terms can affect risk preference. Using terms which imply a positive evaluation of risk taking and a negative evaluation of risk avoidance led to increased risk preference, and vice versa. Results are discussed in the context of accentuation theory.
666	23	6	1993	An experimental study assessed the impact of positive versus negative mood inductions on health related judgments with respect to both self appraisal of health (present health status, future health risks, unrealistic optimism), and appraisal of unhealthy behaviours §s noxiousness compared to an untreated control condition. With respect to self appraisal of health it was hypothesized that there should be stronger effects of negative mood than of positive mood, but that there should also be a mood by specific judgment task interaction. With respect to unhealthy behaviours §s noxiousness ratings it was assumed that positive mood leads to higher noxiousness ratings than negative mood. The findings show that 23 per cent of the rating variances can be explained by the mood factor. In accord with the predictions self appraisal of health was more negative under negative mood, but with one exception not more positive under positive mood than in the respective control condition. The exception relates to a measure of unrealistic optimism. Also in accord with the prediction positive mood led to higher noxiousness ratings of unhealthy behaviours than negative mood All mood effects were independent of the respondents §s sex, health locus of control and of the number of illness days during the previous year. Under an applied perspective it is discussed how negative mood may exert a double detrimental influence on health care, whereas positive mood does not lead to a happy go lucky attitude.
667	23	6	1993	This study examined the effects of feedback on a task on information seeking and partner preferences as forms of social comparison. It was predicted that subjects who experienced failure and perceived control over future performance would, for reasons of self improvement, choose more strongly upward a comparison other than subjects who experienced success or perceived no control. In the experiment, 121 college students were given either failure, average, or success feedback on a bogus test for either a stable or a controllable ability. Next, the subjects choose a comparison other whose test material they would examine, and a comparison other as a partner for writing an evaluation of the test. As predicted, the preferences for information seeking and affiliation were more strongly upward when subjects experienced failure than when subjects experienced success. Perceived control partly resulted in more strongly upward choices in information seeking for subjects experiencing failure.
668	23	6	1993	"In two experiments we studied the prediction that majority support induces stronger convergent processing than minority support for a persuasive message, the more so when recipients are explicitly forced to pay attention to the source §s point of view; this in turn affects the amount of attitude change on related issues. Convergent processing is the systematic elaboration on the sources position, but with a stronger focus on verification and justification rather than falsification. In Experiment 1, it was found that numerical support is related to information processing as predicted The greater the support, the more convergent the processing. Experiment 2 replicated this result, and furthermore confirmed our expectations regarding attitude change: The more convergent processing occurs, the less subjects change their attitude on related issues."
669	24	1	1994	This paper presents an overview of current evidence for the role of affect in social judgments, and the work represented in this Special Issue in particular. A new integrative theory, the Affect Infusion Model (AIM) is outlined as a comprehensive and parsimonious explanation of these effects. The model assumes that the degree of affect infusion into judgments varies along a processing continuum, and identifies four alternative processing strategies: (a) direct access, (b) motivated, (c) heuristic, and (d) substantive processing. Consistent with the empirical material reviewed here, the AIM predicts that judgments requiring constructive, generative processing (heuristic and substantive strategies) are more likely to be infused by affect than are simple, reconstructive judgements (direct access and motivated processing). The role of target, judge and situational features in recruiting different processing strategies is considered, and evidence supporting the model is reviewed
670	24	1	1994	Two experiments examined the processes by which positive and negative mood states produce attitude change under high elaboration conditions. We hypothesized that under high elaboration conditions, mood would influence attitudes by affecting the perceived likelihood of occurrence for consequences presented in message arguments. In Experiment 1, arguments were framed positively, and positive mood led to greater perceived likelihood of the consequences and more favourable attitudes than negative mood for subjects high in need for cognition (NC). In Experiment 2, arguments were framed either positively or negatively, and a mood X frame interaction was obtained on attitude and likelihood judgments for high NC subjects. That is, positive mood led to marginally greater perceived likelihood of positive consequences but to lower likelihood of negative consequences as compared to negative mood As a result, positive mood tended to lead to more persuasion than negative mood when the message was framed positively, but to less persuasion when the message was framed negatively. In both experiments, path analyses supported the prediction that likelihood judgments mediated the impact of mood on attitudes for high NC individuals.
671	24	1	1994	The overwhelming majority of research on affect and social information processing has focused on the judgments and memories of people in good or bad moods rather than examining more specific kinds of emotional experience within the broad categories of positive and negative affect. Are all varieties of negative affect alike in their impact on social perception? Three experiments were conducted to examine the possibility that different kinds of negative affect (in this case, anger and sadness) can have very different kinds of effects on social information processing. Experiment 1 showed that angry subjects rendered more stereotypic judgments in a social perception task than did sad subjects, who did not differ from neutral mood subjects. Experiments 2 and 3 similarly revealed a greater reliance upon heuristic cues in a persuasion situation among angry subjects. Specifically, their level of agreement with unpopular positions was guided more by the credibility of the person advocating the position. These findings are discussed in terms of the impact of emotional experience on social information processing strategies.
672	24	1	1994	Subjects recalled an affect eliciting event that had occurred to them in either an achievement situation or an interpersonal situation. Recalling a positive or negative achievement experience (for which subjects appeared to take personal responsibility) influenced judgments of their competence in achievement situations, whereas thinking about a positive or negative interpersonal experience (for which subjects appeared to deny responsibility) did not influence judgments of their competence in social situations. On the other hand, both types of affect eliciting experiences influenced subjects §s judgments of their competence in the domain to which these experiences had no direct implications, and also judgments of their general self esteem. Implications of these results for a more general conceptualization of self esteem and its stability are discussed
673	24	1	1994	"Two studies explored mood incongruent recall and the self regulation of moods. In Study 1, subjects were put into sad or happy moods before recalling a mood incongruent event. Subjects engaged in one of three types of recall. effortless, effortful, or no recall. Results showed that the greatest change in mood occurred for effortful recall. In Study 2 subjects were again put into a particular mood and were asked to recall anything they wanted  either at the beginning or the end of a class session. In general, subjects chose to remember mood congruent events; however, subjects in negative moods recalled more positive events when they performed the task at the beginning of class. Implications of the results for issues of mood regulation and mood congruent judgment are discussed"
674	24	1	1994	A dynamic complexity model is used to explain some effects of emotional arousal on retrieval of social information. Two hypotheses are presented: (1) emotional arousal reduces the cognitive complexity of social perception, and (2) these reductions in complexity result in polarized evaluations of social targets. In Study 1, where arousal was operationalized as exam apprehension, evaluations of famous target figures were polarized wider arousal. In Study 2, where arousal was induced with loud white noise, arousal reduced cognitive complexity and polarized evaluations. The polarization of evaluative judgments seems to hinge on the fact that evaluation is the primary dimension in person perception: wider arousal, evaluation becomes relatively stronger as secondary dimensions are discarded Hence, evaluative judgments become more extreme. Other supportive evidence is summarized and the model is compared with other competing frameworks.
675	24	1	1994	"In two studies, subjects read and rated how well they understood a poem. Beforehand, however, they had participated under hypnosis in an exercise designed to induce feelings of being uncertain about something. For half of the subjects hypnosis was made salient as a cause for the feelings; for the other half the feelings remained unexplained The results showed that when left unexplained, the feelings of uncertainty were interpreted by subjects as indications that they did not understand the poem. When attributed to the hypnosis, however, the feelings had no effect on ratings of comprehension. In one experiment, subjects were also studied who were not susceptible to hypnosis, and who, therefore, did not feel uncertain in the first place. The results suggest that just as positive and negative affective feelings serve as information for making evaluative judgments, feelings of certainty and uncertainty serve as information for making cognitive judgements (i.e. judgments of knowing)."
676	24	1	1994	This study examined the role of informational social comparison motives in depressed and nondepressed individuals §s opinion comparison activities. In particular, we examined the impact of agreement and disagreement from sources similar or dissimilar to depressed and nondepressed subjects on an attribute related to the focal judgment. As predicted, depressed compared to nondepressed subjects indicated a greater preference for the similar disagreer, whereas nondepressed preferred as a partner the dissimilar agreer to a greater extent than did depressed subjects. Furthermore, measures of validation and construction motives were found to be associated with different partner preferences. Results are discussed in terms of the multiple motivations underlying and distinguishing depressed and nondepressed social comparison activities.
677	24	1	1994	An experiment is reported that examines the effects of emotional mood and evaluative priming on cooperation in a social dilemma game. Unlike an associative network account or an equity account of mood dependent prosocial behaviour, the present approach assumes that the primary effect of elated mood is to increase behavioural variability rather than altruism or cooperation per se. Accordingly, a positively emotional state serves the function of freeing the individual from the need to optimize local profits and increasing the range of behavioural judgments and decisions. As a consequence, positive mood may sometimes produce a secondary increase of prosocial behaviour (especially when the normal behaviour is rigidly competitive) but positive mood may al other times lead to antisocial tendencies and transgression. The empirical findings are consistent with such an interpretation. Cooperation in a four person dilemma game increases when positive connotations of cooperation and negative connotations of competition are primed in a preceding verbal learning task. However, the mood manipulation does not directly affect the decision to cooperate but only indirectly via increased variability. In fact, subjects in good mood make more cooperative as well as more competitive choices than people in bad mood The notable priming effect does not support the pessimistic view that the cooperation is largely determined by crystallized personality factors.
678	24	1	1994	Social prediction was used to examine the causal role of physiological arousal in self evaluation maintenance (SEM) processes. Subjects §s level of arousal was manipulated by having half of the subjects engage in physical exercise and half of the subjects relax prior to receiving performance feedback on high and low relevance tasks. On each task, subjects were given an opportunity to predict the performance of a friend or a stranger. The SEM model predicts that the more relevant the task the less charitable one §s perception of another §s performance, particularly a close other. Subjects in the high arousal condition showed a pattern of behaviour which was significantly closer to that predicted by the SEM model than subjects in the low arousal condition. Thus, arousal appears to play a causal role in the unfolding of SEM behaviours.
679	24	1	1994	"A new hypothesis is proposed to account for the relation between sad mood and self conception valence, the first, congruency; then, incongruency hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, sad mood initially influences the valence of open ended self descriptions in a mood congruent fashion, but after a short period of time self descriptions become mood incongruent. Subjects were placed into a sad, neutral, or happy mood state, and were subsequently asked to freely describe themselves in writing. The results were consistent with the hypothesis. Sad mood affected the valence of the first half of self descriptions in a congruent manner, but affected the valence of the second half of self descriptions in an incongruent manner. That is, with the passage of time sad mood led to increasingly positive self descriptions (i.e. equally positive as neutral mood did). Implications of the findings are discussed."
680	24	1	1994	The present study is concerned with the processes mediating the impact of mood on impression formation. Four assumptions are distinguished: (1) mood as a prime for the generation and/or association of additional information, (2) mood as a cue for the change of meaning of incoming stimuli, (3) mood as a direct source of information, and (4) mood as a cue for selective weighing of incoming stimuli. These mediating processes assumptions are specified in terms of information integration theory. A pattern of hypotheses is derived which allows to examine what mechanisms underlie the impact of mood in an impression formation task. The results confirm the mood congruency effect and show that mood congruent judgments are mediated neither by change of meaning nor by selective weighing of incoming information. Also the explanation by additionally activated information primed by mood was not supported However, the findings indicate that mood serves as a direct source of information to be incorporated into the judgment together with the presented information: (1) parameter estimations show that the global impression depends on the person §s current mood, whereas the scale values and the weights of the traits presented are independent of the mood state, (2) judgments of single traits are more influenced by mood than judgments of pairs, (3) medium traits are more affected than extreme traits and (4) the negativity effect is more pronounced in a good mood than in a bad mood The final judgment is an averaging process of a mood dependent global impression and of mood independent stimulus information. Implications of these findings for current mood and social judgment models are discussed.
681	24	1	1994	"This study investigated the effect of mood on the favourability of intergroup attitudes, and on two important components of intergroup attitudes, namely stereotypes and feelings (i. e. emotional associates) toward social groups. In addition, the individual difference variable of affect intensity (AIM; Larsen and Diener, 1987) was considered as a potential moderating variable, with high AIMs expected to demonstrate more pronounced mood judgment effects. After a musical mood induction, subjects completed measures assessing attitudes, stereotypes, and feelings toward French Canadians and Pakistanis. The results revealed that mood influenced attitudes, stereotypes, and feelings toward the groups, but only for high AIMs. The implications of the findings for future research are discussed."
682	24	1	1994	The mechanisms by which mood states influence attitude judgments in persuasion settings are delineated in terms of current dual process theorizing, with an emphasis on mechanisms that may operate when the evaluative implications of message content are ambiguous. In a preliminary test of hypotheses concerning such circumstances, college aged subjects were put into a happy or sad mood and then read a message containing unambiguous strong, unambiguous weak, or ambiguous arguments, which was attributed to a highly credible source (heuristic cue). When message content was ambiguous, sad (as compared to happy) subjects §s attitudes were more influenced by heuristic processing, and their message related thoughts were biased by the heuristic cue. These and other results are discussed within a dual processing framework, and compared to other social cognition theorizing on the impact of affect on social judgment.
683	24	2	1994	The antecedents of political disaffection and political activism have been extensively studied in adult populations, producing two models of political protest, the dissatisfaction model , suggesting that protest action is rooted in political disaffection, and the resource model which bases interest in politics in a sense of political self efficacy. There has been a dearth of research extending this theorizing to young people of prevoting age. The present study presents the results of regression analysis applied to longitudinal data collected in a U. K. programme of research and economic and political socialization, the ESRC 16 19 Initiative. The analysis relates lack of interest in politics §s , intention not to vote and political activity, to attitudes, personality characteristics, experience and circumstances measured earlier. It is concluded that political disaffection, including lack of interest and intention not to vote, is strongly associated with a growing cynicism about politics rooted in poor educational performance and a working class family background The connections with activism are negative but much weaker, suggesting the potential for protest activity across a wider spectrum of youth. This lends support to Marsh §s (1990) view that given the right circumstances, protest action under both the resource model , and the dissatisfaction model , can apply.
684	24	2	1994	Three experiments investigating the effects of cognitive and motivational factors on stereotype change are reported Trait ratings in all three experiments showed there to be greater stereotype change when stereotype inconsistent information was dispersed across many group members than when it was concentrated in only a few. A sorting task (Experiment 1) indicated that, in the concentrated conditions the stereotype disconfirmers were more strongly isolated from the rest of the group than in the dispersed conditions. Free recall protocols (Experiment 2) showed greater memory for the target exemplars when subjects anticipated interaction with a group member than when no interaction was anticipated The questions subject chose to ask target group exemplars were also influenced by anticipated future interaction. Subjects chose more stereotype inconsistent questions when interaction was anticipated than when no interaction was anticipated Experiment 3 showed the impact of stereotype inconsistent information to be greater when expectancies for the stereotyped group are weaker. A cued recall task yielded evidence of spontaneous subtyping. All these studies support the subtyping model, even in the presence of cognitive and motivational factors that might be expected to impede stereotype change.
685	24	2	1994	We expected that, when group members cannot control their group membership, majority members show ingroup favouritism on task relevant dimension, whereas minority members were expected to show ingroup favouritism on task irrelevant dimension (hypothesis 1). In addition, it was expected that intergroup comparisons will change when group membership changes from uncontrollable to controllable. Based on Social Identity Theory, two alternative hypotheses were explore& Compared with uncontrollable settings, ingroup bias will decrease (2a) or increase (2b) in controllable settings. Ninetytwo subjects were divided into four groups (minority versus majority, controllable versus uncontrollable group membership), allegedly on the basis of their essay writing style. The results supported the first hypothesis. Hypothesis 2a received support among the majority members and hypothesis 2b among the minority members. The findings are discussed in terms of Social Identity Theory and the effect the perceived control of group membership and the dimension may have on intergroup comparisons.
686	24	2	1994	Most psychological research on the social effects of facial appearance has compared normal with attractive faces whereas little work has been concerned with the possible differences in reactions to disfigured and normal faces. Yet many cranio facial surgeons wish to know whether their disfigured patients are reporting reality when they complain that members of the public avoid or react negatively to them. This study finds that people travelling on a suburban railway significantly avoided sitting next to someone who appeared to have a facial port wine stain. It is concluded that facially disfigured people §s accounts of avoidant behaviour towards them are probably the results of correct perceptions.
687	24	2	1994	The influence of private self consciousness on the components of Ajzen and Fishbein §s attitude model (attitude and subjective norm) is analysed The impact of past behaviour on both current behaviour and behavioural intention is also studied. This model was applied to the prediction of voting intention and reported behaviour in the Spanish Parliamentary elections held in 1989. Attitude showed stronger influence than subjective norm on behavioural intention for subjects with a higher private self consciousness. The opposite was true for subjects having a lower private self consciousness. Past behaviour had a significant influence on both behavioural intention and behaviour.
688	24	2	1994	Two studies examined differences in excuse making and blaming by subjects with internal or external locus of control. In Study 1, 39 internals and 30 externals judged acceptability of various excuses in three situations and also assigned blame for cheating and lying in other situations. Externals were uniformly more prone to use excuses than internals, both for other actors and for themselves. Also, externals tended to assign less blame for cheating and lying. In Study II, 24 internals and 32 externals divided blame among themselves, another person, and no one to blame in 10 joint responsible situations. Externals assigned more blame to the other person and less to themselves, but approximately the same blame to no one . Externals also had higher tendencies to blame others and were more sensitive to being blamed. These results point to a missing dimension of interpersonal relations in studies of excuse making and blame.
689	24	2	1994	The present research considers how mothers explain the development of characteristics in different targets, namely their own children, children in general and pupils. This study also examines the role played by mothers §s occupation in shaping their expressed views. A questionnaire was completed by 415 mothers in different occupations, housewives, office workers and teachers, and with children between four and eight years of age. The questionnaire presented six types of explanation (from intra individual to societal) regarding the development of four characteristics, autonomy, intelligence, order and obedience. Results indicate that when talking about development mothers use different kinds of explanation depending on the target child. Moreover, mothers §s professional role is relevant in shaping explanations of children §s development.
690	24	2	1994	Reactions to self discrepant feedback were theoretically and experimentally investigated The conceptual frame was provided by the theory of symbolic self completion. Starting from the assumption that attitudes can function as central aspects of self definition, 81 female subjects were either presented with feedback that their attitudes were unfeminist (treatment, i. e. incompleteness condition) or they received no feedback (control condition). Then they were given the opportunity for self symbolizing by subscribing to a feminist journal. Subjects with strongly pro feminist attitudes who were made incomplete with respect to their feminist self definition subscribed more often and more intensively to the feminist journal than others. The results illustrate that attitudes can take on the character of self definitions. Furthermore, reactions to self discrepant feedback concerning a central attitude were as predicted by the theory of symbolic self completion.
691	24	3	1994	This study was conducted to determine the impact of censoring a minority who had argued persuasively against the majority. While there was no significant increase in minority influence when one third of the minority §s message was censored, the minority was more effective when two thirds of its message was censored The minority was most effective when two thirds of its message was censored and when the minority was prevented from continuing to espouse its position. The results were explained by the theory of psychological reactance.
692	24	3	1994	"We studied the influence of explicitating a social conflict between smokers and nonsmokers on the social representations held about tobacco. Two representations were found: a psychological representation which was defined by psychological explanations of the causes of beginning to smoke, a characterization of smokers as psychologically disturbed, and negative feelings towards smokers; a second defensive representation which attributes smoking to social factors, and hold both a positive stereotype of smokers and positive feelings towards smokers. The percentage of smokers who adhere to the defensive representation increased significantly when the conflict was made salient. Non smokers were not influenced by the explicitation of the social conflict. The structure of each representation was analysed. It was found that in the psychological representation the structuring element was the negative stereotype of smokers. By contrast, the structuring element in the defensive representation was identification with smokers. The implications of this data for theories of both intergroup relations and social representations are discussed."
693	24	3	1994	According to Optimal Distinctiveness Theory and Self Categorization Theory, possible self definition as a member of contextually moderately distinctive social categories should be more central to identity than association with very general or with highly unique social categories. Data from a large scale cohort survey of 4156 18 21 year olds were analysed to test this hypothesis. Respondents §s self reported political affiliations were classified according to the social popularity (size and support) accorded each party. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that minority political parties should provide more central and important bases of social identity. Supporters of minority parties showed greatest commitment, perceived their parties to be more representative of themselves, and were less likely to simply conform to parental political views. Minority supporters were also significantly more likely to discuss politics with their friends. Additional data from Scotland confirmed that identification with Scotland was more strongly associated with support for the Scottish Nationalist Party than with support for other minority or majority parties. These data provide convergent evidence that minority parties may attract members through their capacity to provide a meaningful social identity.
694	24	3	1994	Dynamic facial expressions, either posed or elicited by affectively evocative materials, were objectively scored to determine the movement cues and temporal parameters associated with the two types of expression. Subjects viewed these expressive episodes and rated each of them on a number of scales intended to assess perceived spontaneousness and deliberateness. Subsequent to viewing all stimuli, subjects reported the specific cues that they felt they had used to discriminate spontaneous from deliberate expressions. The results reveal that (a) subjects were able to accurately report the cues they employed in the rating task and that (b) these cues were not always valid discriminators of posed and spontaneous expressions. Subjects were in fact relatively poor at identifying expressions of the two types and this low discrimination accuracy was found to be a function of the consistent use of these invalid cues. A measure of the level of perceived honest demeanour of the stimulus persons based on their neutral expressions was found to relate to perceivers §s accuracy in discriminating posed and spontaneous expressions.
695	24	3	1994	In two experiments subjects inferred perceivers §s attitudes toward target girls of varied physical attractiveness. Subjects could select traits from a provided list and ask whether the perceiver ascribed to the target each of those traits. After each question they received feedback about the perceiver §s trait ascriptions. The nature of the traits being asked for was analysed It was predicted and found that subjects searched for information on ascriptions of extremely rather than mildly evaluative traits (the diagnosing strategy), and for ascriptions of traits highly probable under implicit hypotheses based on the target §s attractiveness (desirable traits when the target was attractive but undesirable ones when she was unattractive  the positive test strategy). Experiment 2 also showed that attractiveness based hypotheses governed information gathering only in an initial phase of this process and were later replaced by newly developed hypotheses based on the feedback information. Implications of these findings for information gathering in general, and for inferring interpersonal attitudes in particular, were discussed
696	24	3	1994	Although implicit framing differences have been advanced as an explanation of the buyers §s advantage, two necessary preconditions must be met to sustain this model: a demonstration that negatively framed negotiators are advantaged in negotiations and that buyer role labels invoke a negative frame. A modification of Neale, Northcraft, Magliozzi and Bazerman §s (1986) simulation created a role neutral setting in which positively framed negotiators bargained against negatively framed negotiators, thus testing the first of these preconditions. Experiment 1 found no differences in the outcomes of positively and negatively framed negotiators, a finding that could be attributed to relatively low market competitiveness. A second experiment, by creating power imbalanced negotiation markets, sought to increase market distributiveness and strengthen framing effects. Results showed that both high power and negatively framed negotiators were significantly advantaged, providing conditional support for the implicit framing model. However, unlike role, frame interacted with power suggesting that the two variables are not functionally equivalent. These findings are interpreted to suggest that factors other than implicit framing differences account for the buyers §s advantage. More generally, these results suggest that frame is responsive to situational variables and that such variables, by influencing negotiation processes, mediate the relationship between negotiator frames and negotiation outcomes.
697	24	3	1994	Subjects classified as more or less xenophobic allocated resources to Swiss nationals (ingroup) and foreign residents (outgroup) in three intergroup judgement modes: negative interdependence, independence and positive interdependence. When both groups were assessed together as a single beneficiary (positive interdependence), they were allocated more resources than those provided to the outgroup under negative interdependence or independence. More xenophobic subjects, however, gave less resources to both groups together under positive interdependence than to the ingroup under independence. In contrast, less xenophobic subjects allocated to both groups together a similar amount as to the ingroup under independence. These results suggest that, depending on their initial attitudes towards the outgroup, individuals will categorize a superordinate entity either more as an ingroup or more as an outgroup.
698	24	4	1994	What is the relation between the smoothness of performance within a specific realm and interest in person descriptors pertinent to that realm? Although it would be reasonable to think that competent people are also actively interested in the personalities of their competence realms, the present pair of studies shows just the opposite. Study 1, examining people from a broad range of occupations and hobbies, shows a strong relationship between competence in an area and the rejection of the utility of person descriptor language (personality traits, external person qualities)for that area. Complementing this phenomenon, an emphasis on area specific person descriptors is found to the extent that subjects are inexperienced in the performance area. The second study involves an experimentally induced threat to competence among business majors and assesses their subsequent orientation toward business relevant person descriptors (traits and external, i. e. physical characteristics). The results show that threat to competence increases subjects §s orientation toward such person descriptors, and in addition, the competence threatened group also evidences more subjectively perceived consistency among those person descriptors. The studies were carried out on the basis of a notion of static/dynamic orientation (Wicklund, 1986a, b), which provides a starting point for the thesis that incompetence is associated with concern with the personality traits and external characteristics of competent people.
699	24	4	1994	"To what extent is a competently functioning person also interested in the person descriptors associated with that competence? A thesis by Wicklund (1986a, b) charges that a dwelling on static person qualities (overt appearance; superficial traits) is often to be found among individuals who are themselves incompetent in the performance area in question: several studies in recent years have supported this thesis, and one of these provides the basis of the present work: Wicklund, Braun and Waibel (1993) found that athletes, scientists, farmers and other groups were disinclined to characterize their performance areas in terms of the static traits of the expert. In sharp contrast, respondents who were relatively non skilled in a performance area ( distant area) were inclined to depict the area in terms of static elements, such as overt appearance and traits. Each of the present subjects received two protocols from one of these previous subjects (above). In one protocol the earlier subject had depicted his own area (and thereby mentioned, on the average, relatively few static person descriptors); in the other protocol he depicted a distant performance area (and usually made reference to one or more person descriptors). The present subjects §s task was to infer the original subjects §s competence in those two areas, and given that our subjects were inactive in both areas, they came systematically to the incorrect conclusion: they reacted to protocols laden with person descriptors as signalling the author §s actual competence, a phenomenon consistent with the descriptions of technical societies in Sennett (1977). Subjects who evidenced some degree of competence in the pertinent areas did not commit this error."
700	24	4	1994	Three studies were conducted in order to investigate antecedents of individuals §s preoccupation with person descriptors, such as personality traits, physical ethnic characteristics, or external characteristics. In Studies 1 and 2 subjects had to rate, for a given list of traits, how important each of the traits was as a prerequisite for performance within an academic context. Subjects who were relatively inexperienced in writing term papers (Study 1) or in taking major exams (Study 2) showed a higher mean in rated importance of the traits than did those who were relatively experienced. However, no differences between experienced and inexperienced subjects occurred if they had to rate the same trait list with respect to each trait §s general desirability, i.e. where the traits were simply rated as such, without any reference to a performance realm. This finding clarifies an important aspect of the theory underlying this work. In the third study subjects were encouraged to make use of overt, visible aspects in describing how to recognize a foreign language speaker. The number of physical ethnic and material characteristics mentioned in subjects §s descriptions was positively correlated with the number of mistakes subjects made in a foreign language translation task, particularly when subjectively felt press with respect to translating was high and subjects §s performance in translating was salient. Implications of these findings are discussed within a conceptual framework dwelling on the societal origins of the use of person descriptor terms (Wicklund, 1986a,b).
701	24	4	1994	Children §s understanding of public ownership was examined in two studies. In the first, descriptive study, children in three age groups (5 6, 8 9, and 11 12 years) were interviewed about ownership of their school and the city §s buses. The hypothesis, that with increasing age the children §s understanding of public ownership would change from being based on physical to abstract concepts, was supported. In the second, experimental study, a different sample of children (mean age = 7.5 years) from those in Study 1 were interviewed about bus ownership. Children who thought that the bus driver owned the buses were selected and formed into friendship dyads. Prior to interaction one member of each dyad was shown a video depicting a bus driver receiving instructions from another person whereas their partner viewed a neutral video unrelated to the bus driver. Half of the dyads then discussed bus ownership, the remaining dyads discussed a neutral topic. The bus driver video alone was insufficient to enable children to infer that drivers did not own the buses. Peer discussion about bus ownership had a far greater positive effect. This effect was strongly related to the making of rejection and transaction statements that were indicative of an active reappraisal of the initial concept of bus ownership.
702	24	4	1994	A new theory of power is presented using the concept of symmetry breakdown in small and large groups. Power appears to result from the building up of conflicts within the group. Introduction and support of these conflicts requires an internal organization of the group. The organization associated complexity is a decreasing function of group size. Thus small groups have more difficulties in generating internal conflicts than large ones. This group dynamic is characterized by two states which are different in their nature. The group is first built within the paradigmatic state aimed to determine and reproduce group conformity. The group challenge is then to reach the transitional state which enriches the group possibilities through the inclusion and stabilization of internal conflicts.
703	24	4	1994	This research concerned satisfaction with outcome differences (advantageous inequity, equity, or disadvantageous inequity) as a function of the individual §s gain or loss frame, other §s gain or loss frame, the cooperative or noncooperative nature of the relationship, and their interactions. After reading a scenario, subjects rated on a satisfaction dissatisfaction soak a series of outcome pairs providing themselves and another party with outcomes. Consistent with Equity Theory, results showed that gain framed individuals found equity more pleasing than advantageous inequity, which in turn was preferred over disadvantageous inequity, but only when the decision making context was cooperative rather than noncooperative. In a noncooperative context, gain framed individuals were as pleased with equity as with advantageous inequity. Contrary to Equity Theory, but consistent with Prospect Theory, loss framed individuals were relatively insensitive to outcome differences and the nature of the relationship. Results finally suggested that advantageous inequity was preferred less when the other party had a loss rather than gain frame, albeit only under cooperative circumstances.
704	24	4	1994	According to traditional models of deindividuation, lowered personal identifiability leads to a loss of identity and a loss of internalized control over behaviour. This account has been challenged by arguing that manipulations of identifiability affect the relative salience of personal or social identity and hence the choice of standards to control behaviour. The present study contributes to an extension of this argument according to which identifiability manipulations do not only affect the salience of social identity but also the strategic communication of social identity. Reicher and Levine (1993) have shown that subjects who are more identifiable to a powerful outgroup will moderate the expression of those aspects of ingroup identity which differ from the outgroup position and which would be punished by the outgroup. Here we seek to show that, in addition, subjects who are more identifiable to a powerful outgroup will accentuate the expression of those aspects of ingroup identity which differ from the outgroup position but which would not be punished by the outgroup. This is because, when identifiable, subjects may use such responses as a means of publicly presenting their adherence to group norms and hence as a means of establishing their right to group membership. A study is reported in which 102 physical education students are either identifiable (I) or not identifiable (NI) to their academic tutors. They are asked to respond on a number of dimensions where pilot interviews show the ingroup stereotype to differ from outgroup norms. Expressions of difference from the outgroup position would lead to punishment on some of these dimensions (P items) but would not lead to punishment for others (NP items). The predicted interaction between identifiability and item type is highly significant. As expected, for NP items identifiability accentuates responses which differentiate the ingroup stereotype from outgroup norms. All these results occur independently of shifts in the salience of social identity. The one unexpected finding is that, for P items, identifiability does lead to decreased expression of the ingroup stereotype, but the difference does not reach significance. Nonetheless, overall the results do provide further evidence for the complex effects of identifiability on strategic considerations underlying the expression of social identity in intergroup contexts.
705	24	5	1994	In three questionnaire studies, we asked subjects how much compensation should be provided, by a third party, to an accident victim. We tested the hypothesis, derived from norm theory, that compensation would be greater when the injury was less to be expected, e.g. when the injury was caused by failure as opposed to success of a safety routine. To rule out the possibility that such expectation effects depended on subjects §s anticipations of the reactions of the parties involved in the accident, the parties were said to be ignorant of factors that could affect these reactions. Effects of expectation were still found, even when subjects themselves judged the accident to be equally serious in all conditions. Information about what would have happened in the absence of the cause (e.g. if the routine had succeeded instead of failed) affected compensation, as predicted by norm theory, but expectation effects were found even when this information about counterfactuals was held constant, so norm theory cannot account for all the results. We suggest that subjects are applying simple heuristics unreflectively. Subjects may also have attempted to fulfil an implicit social contract through their awards. The results cannot be explained through the hypothesis that compensation was optimal: the accident was the same, and it had no deterrent effect, so optimal compensation should be the same in all cases.
706	24	5	1994	This paper presents two empirical studies of adolescents §s peer groups and inter group processes. It is argued that the assumption according to which ingroup judgments tend to be more favourable than those about outgroups is too general. Social comparisons are hypothesized to depend largely on relative status of ingroup and outgroups. While members of superior groups are expected to favour their own group and to discriminate the outgroup, members of inferior or equal status groups are hypothesized to distinguish between ingroup and outgroup but not to discriminate the outgroup. In the first study it was predicted that members of superior groups would feel close to their group and distant from the outgroup, whereas members of equal status groups would feel close to their group but also relatively close to the outgroup. These predictions were confirmed. The closer highly identified members of equal status groups felt to be to their group the less distant they also perceived themselves to be to the outgroup. In the second study a distinction was made between evaluative and descriptive aspects of judgments and polarization of judgments. Social categorization processes were observed in evaluative components of judgments and in polarization of judgments. Descriptive components were not used to discriminate between ingroup and outgroups but just to illustrate differences between their respective activities and programmes.
707	24	5	1994	The influence of an individual §s own social value orientation on the orientation expected from others and on the learning of others §s social orientations was examined. The subjects (N = 148) were classified according to their own social value orientation. The orientations they generally expected from others were assessed as well. Each subject learned the choices of five other persons, representing the orientations altruism, cooperation, equality, individualism, and competition. With respect to subjects §s expectations of others §s orientations the triangle hypothesis was not fully supported: only individualists expected their orientation in high frequencies. The false consensus hypothesis received more support. Generally an orientation was expected more frequently by subjects who themselves had that particular orientation than by subjects with other orientations. With regard to the learning of others §s orientations support was found for the predictions derived from the triangle and the false consensus hypothesis. Cooperators and individualists were the best overall learners, followed by egalitarian and maximin subjects, and at the lowest level competitors. In addition, nearly every orientation was learned better by subjects who had that orientation than by subjects with a different orientation.
708	24	5	1994	Previous research has shown that stereotype based judgements can be attenuated through the attribution of disconfirming information to individual group members. Typically, in these studies, subjects are forced to process all the available information, including disconfirming information, before providing their impressions of the group. In the reported research, in contrast, we attempted to create a more naturalistic paradigm by allowing subjects to control the amount and nature of information they received about individual group members. Under these conditions, we expected subjects to instigate a biased information seeking strategy and display a preference for stereotype matching rather than stereotype mismatching information. Our results supported this prediction. When subjects could control the nature and amount of information they received about a target group they showed: (i) a preference for stereotype matching information and (ii) no change in their stereotypic impressions of the group. When, however, subjects were forced to process all the available information, their stereotypic evaluation of the group diminished These findings demonstrate the general resistance of stereotypes to change in naturalistic, information seeking settings.
709	24	5	1994	A variety of theorists have proposed that individuals desire to be confident in their inferences and predictions. One way this can be accomplished is by overestimating the extent to which available information provides a logic basis for such conclusions. Thus, when one §s goal is to make an accurate prediction, if information about a prior known instance has potential implications for the prediction, one may overestimate the similarity of the prior known instance to the current instance. In this way, the perceived utility of the information as a basis for prediction can be inflated To test this idea, three studies were conducted In each study, subjects were asked to judge the similarity of past instances to an upcoming instance for which an outcome prediction was required. Judging a past instance as similar to the upcoming instance should only provide a firm basis for outcome prediction if outcome information regarding the past instance is known. Therefore, it was expected that when subjects are asked to make an outcome prediction, they would judge a past instance more similar to the upcoming instance if outcome information about the past instance is known than if it is not. Support for this hypothesis was obtained along with evidence concerning the conditions under which the effect does and does not occur.
710	24	5	1994	The illusory correlation effect (ICE) refers to a tendency for people to over represent rare behaviours performed by members of an infrequently encountered (minority) group. On the basis of an empirical study (N = 245) this paper examines three procedural features that are common to studies in this field: (a) excluding subjects who assign too many behaviours to the minority group, (b) asking subjects to estimate the incidence of distinctive behaviours, and (c) submitting phi coefficients to Z transformation. Results show that the ICE is significantly lower amongst subjects who (a) are excluded and (b) estimate non distinctive behaviours and (c) that Z transformation applied to phi coefficients renders the distribution of responses non normal and does not provide a more linear index of effect strength. Implications for future research are discussed
711	24	6	1994	Recent experimental findings of subtle forms of prejudice prompted this search for a similar phenomenon outside the laboratory. In Study 1, with a sample of more than 12 000 citations by North American social scientists, names of both citing and cited authors were classified as Jewish, nonJewish, or other. Author §s name category was associated with 41 per cent greater odds of citing an author from the same name category. Study 2 included over 17 000 citations from a much narrower research domain (prejudice research), and found a similar (40 per cent) surplus in odds of citing an author of the author §s own ethnic name category. Further analyses failed to support two hypotheses differential assortment of researchers by ethnicity to research topics, and selective citation of acquaintances §s works that were plausible alternatives to the hypothesis that the observed citation discrimination revealed implicit (unconsciously operating) prejudicial attitudes. Given the sociopolitically liberal reputation of social scientists (and of prejudice researchers especially), it seems unlikely that the observed bias in citations reflected conscious prejudicial attitudes.
712	24	6	1994	"A structural equation model tested the role of degree of identification with a group (Americans) and level of collective self esteem as determinations of outgroup derogation under identify threatening and non threatening conditions. High identification and reductions in collective self esteem following a threat to that identify lead to outgroup derogation, but level of collective self esteem did not predict outgroup derogation in the no threat condition. The consequences of derogating both threat relevant (Russians) and threat irrelevant nationalities for subsequent self esteem were assessed. As predicted by social identify theory, higher amounts of derogation of the threat relevant outgroup in the identity threatened condition elevated subsequent collective self esteem. Derogation of threat irrelevant outgroups did not have this positive esteem consequence; in fact, increased derogation of irrelevant outgroups reduced subsequent self esteem. In the no threat condition, amount of derogation directed towards either type of outgroup did not significantly influence subsequent self esteem, with the overall pattern being opposite to what was observed in the threat condition. Implications for theories concerning self processes as instigators of outgroup derogation and the consequences of intergroup comparisons for collective self esteem are discussed."
713	24	6	1994	In an attempt to understand and integrate various meanings of the stereotype concept, we conducted a longitudinal study in which we measured subjects §s stereotypes of various target groups using multiple measurement techniques: trait ascription (Likert scales), group differentiation (diagnostic ratio), and deviation from group consensus. The measures were compared with regard to (1) their sensitivity to variations over time and to expected differences between social groups, and (2) their associations with degree of group contact and liking. The data suggested that trait ratings were the best performing measures, in that they were quite effective in capturing cross sectional effects of group contact and liking and were reliable over time. The diagnostic ratio was less reliable and provided a weaker replication of these effects, and the deviation from consensus measure was most effective in establishing an important longitudinal effect movement toward consensus with time. Suggestions for researchers concerning appropriate use of measures and conceptions of stereotyping are provided.
714	24	6	1994	"An experiment investigated the effects of source status (high versus low) and source §s attitude towards the target (inclusive versus exclusive) on minority influence. It was predicted that an inclusive minority in the high status source condition would primarily have a direct impact (compliance), while in the low status source condition it would have little direct or indirect influence but would stimulate autonomous cognitive work (divergence). Moreover, exclusive minorities, irrespective of status, would have a mainly indirect impact (conversion). Results appear to confirm the hypotheses with two significant qualifications: first, minority status interacts with subjects §s initial attitude, furthering or hindering indirect influence; second, an exclusive minority encourages the production of externally generated thoughts, albeit only in low status source condition. The study also provided some information on the relationship between indirect influence and divergence, and between the quantity and the quality of cognitive production."
715	24	6	1994	"Thirty two photographs of male faces, four for each combination of the presence and absence of glasses, hair, and beard, were rated by 75 judges on 23 scales, assessing the typically for 15 occupations as well as eight personal qualities. The effects of facial attributes on ratings formed characteristic profiles for the different scales. The pattern of correlations between facial attributes and factor scores from a factor analysis of the ratings indicates that the judges associated wearing glasses with intellectualism and goodness, being bald with idealism, and wearing a beard with unconventionality and goodness. In two further experiments, judges were to identify each of three faces with one of three or four occupations; the results confirmed the operativeness of the profiles from the rating experiment."
716	24	6	1994	The present article deals with the effects of the use of evaluatively biased language on attitudes, and with the role of cognitive effort. We tested whether active information processing  formulating arguments on the basis of evaluatively biased language  was a necessary condition for attitude change. Results of the present study support the prediction that using evaluative language can influence attitudes, but that these effects depend on the amount of cognitive effort.
717	24	6	1994	The roles of group cohesiveness and intergroup categorization of the source in minority influence were studied in a 2 (high versus low cohesiveness) x 2 (ingroup versus outgroup source) x 3 (phases) factorial design. Six subjects forming a group were confronted with a conferderate defending a minority position in a perceptual task. The results indicated a manifest influence effect (slide colour), accompanied by a latent polarization (afterimage) in the high cohesiveness/outgroup source condition, and a latent influence effect in the low cohesiveness/ingroup source condition.
718	25	1	1995	There are circumstances in which one is reluctant to express a judgment on the basis of the available information. This is for instance the case when the decision may jeopardize the integrity of the group one is a member of. In particular, ingroup members are considered less judgeable than outgroup members. This phenomenon corresponds to the ingroup overexclusion effect (Leyens and Yzerbyt, 1992). An experimental situation was designed in order to rule out an explanation of this phenomenon in terms of confirmation of hypothesis. French or Dutch speaking subjects heard recordings of 40 sentences and, depending on the specific wording of the question, decided whether the speakers belonged to the group of French speaking (i.e. Walloon) versus Dutch speaking (i.e. Flemish) Belgians or not. The 40 sentences enabled to cross three factors with five sentences in each cell: Walloon versus Flemish speakers, French versus Dutch sentences, and short versus long sentences. As predicted, subjects made most errors when ingroup members read short outgroup sentences. Most importantly, the specific wording of the question did not lead to a reversal of the pattern of errors of group identification. Subjects also took longer to make a decision about an ingroup member reading an outgroup sentence than about an outgroup member reading an ingroup sentence. Such a pattern clearly supports a motivational explanation and undermines a confirmation of hypothesis explanation of the ingroup overexclusion effect. Older accounts of ethnic identification phenomena are addressed and it is suggested that identity concerns greatly affect impression formation processes.
719	25	1	1995	"It is argued that the standard manipulation of free choice in a forced compliance situation has fostered confusion between the two different types of choices offered to subjects, namely commitment or non commitment to compliance with the experimenter and choice of counter attitudinal activity per se. From a theoretical viewpoint, the two choices have very different implications. The former is a prerequisite to dissonance arousal; the latter may bring about consonant cognitions which reduce the dissonance ratio. Two experiments which separated these two choices confirmed the above predictions, derived from a radical conception of the dissonance theory (Beauvois and Joule, 1981, 1994). The results are inconsistent with the reinterpretation of dissonance effects in self perception terms."
720	25	1	1995	This paper reports a series of four experiments conducted to gain insight into students §s social representations of the firm. The results suggested a possible revision of the central core theory. They showed that the central elements of the representation were treated differently by the subjects. More specifically, the notion of Profit and Hierarchy, both central, did not play the same role in the representation. The subjects were found to grant evaluative power to the notion of Profit but not to the notion of Hierarchy. This differentiation by evaluative potential was also found for two peripheral elements. These differences suggest that independently of their central or peripheral nature, the various elements of a representation can be placed along an evaluative continuum. By combining the evaluative dimension and the central or peripheral dimension of the elements, we obtain a two dimensional model of representations which divides discourse and cognition into four fields.
721	25	1	1995	"This paper examines three issues concerning the frequently documented negative correlation between formal education and ethnic prejudice, namely its reliability, its validity and the manner in which it is mediated. Reliability is demonstrated across three indices of ethnic attitudes in seven representative samples drawn from four European countries (West Germany, Netherlands, France, Great Britain; total N = 3788). The hypothesis that this correlation reflects only the tendency of more highly educated respondents to give more socially desirable answers and not true attitude differences was inconsistent with the finding from the survey data that educational level also correlated negatively with responses to an index of subtle prejudice. Results from an experiment employing the bogus pipeline procedure similarly refute this hypothesis, indicating that significant education related differences in expressed prejudice remain under conditions in which the tendency to give socially desirable responses is reduced. Finally, path analysis based on the survey data show that part but not all of the association between low education and ethnic prejudice is mediated by social psychological variables, particularly group relative deprivation, perceived belief incongruency, political conservatism, and acceptance of inter ethnic contact."
722	25	1	1995	"This paper develops, measures, and tests two types of intergroup prejudice blatant and subtle. Blatant prejudice is the traditional, often studied form; it is hot, close and direct. Subtle prejudice is the modern form; it is cool, distant and indirect. Using data from seven independent national samples from western Europe, we constructed 10 item scales in four languages to measure each of these varieties of prejudice. We report the properties, structure and correlates of both scales across the seven samples, and make initial checks on their validity. The cross nationally consistent results support the value of the blatant subtle distinction as two varieties of prejudice. While they share many correlates, their distinctive differences suggest better specification of these correlates of prejudice. And the blatant subtle distinction also aids in more precise specification of the effects of prejudice on attitudes toward immigrants. The paper closes with a normative interpretation of Subtle Prejudice."
723	25	1	1995	Communication scholars describe a pervasive third person effect wherein people see mass media as more likely to affect other people than themselves. Two experiments are reported demonstrating that this effect is not a universal response to the issue of social influence, but occurs in specific social comparative contexts. In Experiment 1 respondents judged the impact on self and other of three types of media content negative content, positive content, and public service campaigns. Comparison others varied on two dimensions, vagueness and closeness. A third person effect was found for both negative and positive content, but was more pronounced for negative content. The effect was also more pronounced in comparisons with vague and distant others. In contrast, respondents saw themselves as relatively vulnerable to influence from public service campaigns. Moreover, the direction of perceived self other differences varied with respondents §s perceptions of the desirability of the intended influence. In Experiment 2 respondents judged the impact on self and other of media violence and drink driving campaigns. Results confirmed a perception of relative invulnerability to negative content and indicated that comparisons with vague others, and particularly with vague distant others like the average person , facilitate such perceptions. Perceived self other differences on the issue of drink driving were less evident and varied with the perceived desirability of the intended influence. Results are discussed in terms of the ego defensive and self enhancing functions of social comparisons.
724	25	1	1995	"Heterosexual dating partner preferences were examined in a multi ethnic context. Four groups at UCLA were studied: Asian Americans, African Americans, Latino Americans, and Euro Americans. Participants completed surveys asking them to rate a typical/hypothetical opposite sex member for each of the four ethnic groups on physical attractiveness, similarity, social network approval, status, and desirability as a dating/marriage partner; social identification with the ethnic ingroup was also assessed. Members of all four ethnic groups demonstrated some degree of ethnocentrism on most measures (especially partner preferences) by rating opposite sex members of their own group higher than outgroup members rated them; however, Asians and Latinos rated opposite sex Whites as more physically attractive than typical members of their own group, and Latinos and Blacks rated Whites and Asians as higher status. Overall, Whites received more favourable ratings than any of the three minority groups. Regression analyses indicated that social network approval (by far), similarity, and physical attractiveness were (in that order) the most powerful predictors of ethnocentrism in partner preferences. Avenues of integration and interpretation between theories of interpersonal attraction and intergroup relations were considered, including the dimensionality of ingroup favouritism, and the need for stronger consideration of social influence in theories of intergroup relations."
725	25	1	1995	In a 2 x 2 x 2 design, eighty smokers were exposed to an anti smoking appeal attributed either to an expert source (superior status) or a minority source (inferior status). Subjects were either allowed or not to smoke during the experiment. In addition subjects had to memorize part of the appeal and a recall task either followed after reading the appeal (completed task) or not (uncompleted task). The results show that the expert source produces more attitude change than the minority when the tension induced by the source is weakened (either by the opportunity to smoke or task completion). In contrast the minority has more impact when subjects are not able to smoke or when the task is not completed, which is to say when the conflict has been internalized. An explanation of these effects is offered in terms of the more defensive forms of resistance involved with respect to sources of superior status compared to more assertive forms with respect to minorities.
726	25	2	1995	It is argued that social representations and similar constructs can only be conceived of as mental structures containing meta information about the group, within which the representation was formed and where it is part of social identify. The most important information will be to know the limits of its validity, that is, to know to which social group a representation pertains. Experiments on social projection have shown that people tend to project their opinions onto others, if they are perceived as being similar in background values. Such projection cannot be expected with idiosyncratic attitudes and beliefs. Consequently it is hypothesized that idiosyncratic and private attitudes, opinions, etc., are not attributed to specific social groups, whereas knowledge pertaining to social representations the subject subscribes to is projected onto the ingroup and less on the outgroup. This effect is expected to be independent of the relative number of people holding this opinion. This is what was found in a quasi experimental questionnaire study. Implications of the findings are discussed with regard to the definition and criteria of social representations and to the structure of the theory.
727	25	2	1995	Three studies explored how the influence of the availability heuristic on frequency judgement is mediated and moderated by the perceived meaning of the task, the perceived relevance of information for the task, and the salience of differential memorability of information. All studies adapted the famous names §s paradigm (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973) in which subjects are required to listen to a list of names of known personalities of both sexes and then judge the frequency of men and women. The availability heuristic (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973) posits that classes whose instances are easy to imagine or recall will be perceived as relatively frequent, so that when names of one sex are more famous and thus memorable this category will be rated as more numerous even when it occurs less frequently. Consistent with the notion that the use of availability is sensitive to task interpretation, we showed that the availability effect is eliminated over successive trials (Study 1) and moderated when task instructions render different categories salient (Study 2). In the third study if is shown that conditions which facilitate awareness of the biasing relationship between gender and frame (memorability), decrease the use of the availability heuristic by moderating frequency estimates of the more famous category. Results of these studies emphasize the context bound and strategic aspects of judgement.
728	25	2	1995	In contrast to traditional approaches that widely equate group cohesiveness with interpersonal attraction, self categorization theory argues that self categorization depersonalizes perception in terms of the group prototype, and transforms the basis of interindividual attitude (liking) from idiosyncracy into prototypicality. An implication is that while attraction in interpersonal relationships relates to overall similarity, attraction among group members is based on prototypical similarity. To test this idea, subjects (N = 219) participated in an experiment in which they reported their attitude towards an individual who would be their partner, or a fellow group member (of either group Visual or group Tactile ) for a subsequent task. Subject target similarity varied on each of two dimensions: dimension A  was more prototypical of group Visual: and dimension F of group Tactile . The independent variables of social orientation (interpersonal, group Visual: group Tactile ), similarity on dimension A (A+/ ), and dimension F(F+/ ) were manipulated in a 3 x 2 x 2 design. The three hypotheses tested in this experiment were generally supported. Subjects preferred prototypically similar group members to interpersonal partners, and downgraded prototypically dissimilar group members (H1). Identification, was positively related to target evaluation (H2), more strongly for prototypically similar than dissimilar targets (H3), and the identification attraction relationship was mediated by perceived prototypical similarity. Group based effects were independent of perceptions of overall similarity.
729	25	2	1995	The minimal group paradigm (Taifel, Billig, Bundy and Flament, 1971) has been influential in the study of intergroup relations. Thus far, most minimal group experiments have divided the subjects either into two groups, or have categorized them on two separate dichotomous dimensions in cross categorization experiments. This study examines the minimal group paradigm using three distinct and independent groups. Comparison of the results with three minimal groups with those of a baseline two group experiment shows that with a three group structure there is no significant ingroup bias. It is suggested that the two group minimal group experiment shows ingroup bias because subjects access a dichotomous categorization, and that this dichotomous categorization primes a competitive orientation. A two group context may be particularly effective in evoking an us versus them contrast. Self categorization as a group member is more likely to occur in the presence of two groups whereas three minimal groups renders an us them contrastive orientation less salient. The absence of intergroup discrimination found in the present minimal group study may be limited to the behaviour of minimal or artificially created groups. In the real world of intergroup relations discrimination towards multiple outgroups is a well known phenomenon. While this study should be regarded as only preliminary research, further elaboration and specification of the conditions under which multiple group contexts may hinder intergroup discrimination is required.
730	25	2	1995	Three days prior to the 1993 Australian federal election 54 Australian university students who identified with one of the two major political parties were surveyed regarding their perceptions of media campaign impact on self and others. Results provided evidence of a third person effect (Davison, 1983) wherein respondents judged others as more influenced by the election campaign than themselves. Consistent with predictions derived from social identity theory and self categorization theory (e.g. Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher and Wetherell, 1987), political ingroup members were also judged as less influenced by campaign content than political outgroup members. Respondents who identified strongly with their preferred party judged self and ingroup members as less influenced by campaign content than did other respondents, and showed more evidence of positive intergroup differentiation. At the same time, however, these respondents exaggerated self ingroup differences, challenging the theoretical assumption that inter group differentiation is associated with ingroup assimilation. Judgements of media impact on self and other also depended on the direction of the campaign message. Respondents believed voters in general were persuaded in line with the intent of campaign content, while outgroup members were seen to be persuaded by material favouring their own side but to be uninfluenced by counter attitudinal content. Election propaganda, irrespective of direction, was seen to amplify existing party preferences in self and ingroup members. Hence the relative invulnerability of self to media impact was pronounced when respondents judged the impact of pro outgroup messages. Results suggest that perceptions of self other differences in media vulnerability are influenced by the subjectively salient social relationship between self and other, and are governed by motivational needs, such as self esteem, social identity, and differentiation from others (cf. Brewer, 1991, Hogg and Abrams, 1993).
731	25	2	1995	This paper further develops a new theory of power advanced by the authors in two previous papers (Galam and Moscovici, 1991, 1994). According to this theory power results from the build up of conflicts within a group, these conflicts requiring a degree of organizational complexity which is itself a decreasing function of group size. Within this approach, power appears to be a composite of three qualitatively different powers, institutional, generative and ecological. Levels and relationships among these for ms of power are considered as a function of the diversity of the group. There exist also three states of organization associated with power evolution. At the group initial stage is the paradigmatic state. Creation and inclusion of conflicts ave accomplished in the transitional state through the building of complexity. At a critical value of diversity, the group moves into the agonal state in which institutional power vanishes simultaneously with the fusion of generative and ecological powers.
732	25	2	1995	The positive negative asymmetry in social discrimination proposes a threshold for ingroup favouritism within the negative domain: in contrast to comparable studies dealing with in and outgroup evaluations on positive attributes, ingroup favouritism does not occur when negative attributes are used. The present study focuses on two aspects of this threshold: it investigates processes, which may influence the absence of ingroup favouritism in the negative domain, and it tests aggravating variables, which seem to be sufficient to elicit ingroup favouritism even in the negative domain. Results show that ingroup favouritism occurred within the negative domain when several aggravating conditions were included, namely high salience of size and status similarity between groups and high ingroup identification. Furthermore, subjects under minimal conditions tended to overestimate relative size as well as relative status of their ingroup. The perception of group members to belong to a high status majority is interpreted as a sufficient condition counteracting tendencies towards ingroup favouritism within the negative domain.
733	25	3	1995	"The main concern of the present study was the question whether behavioural information and traits could be accessed independently. In a modified recognition experiment person descriptions were presented; later, a behaviour or a trait was presented as test item and subjects had to decide whether the behaviour was included in the description or the trait could be inferred. The decision time for behaviours as test items turned out to be independent of the number of traits inferrable. This finding supports two memory conceptions of person memory according to which of two kinds of representations are available. One representation is trait based and in the other one behavioural information is available. This conclusion was confirmed by the result that the decision time for traits as test items is partially invariant with respect to the number of behaviours included in the person description. Distinct individual differences in the relation between decision time for traits as test items and the number of behaviours appeared which imply individual decision strategies in recognizing persons."
734	25	3	1995	One hundred and one middle managers (66 men, 35 women) evaluated themselves, ingroup (same sex) members and outgroup (opposite sex) members on both stereotypical and on contextual masculine and feminine dimensions. The results showed that men favoured ingroup members on the masculine dimensions and women favoured ingroup members on the feminine dimensions. In addition, both sexes favoured themselves over ingroup and outgroup. The results are discussed in terms of social identity theory, self categorization theory and egocentric social categorization model.
735	25	3	1995	Spontaneous references to luck (e.g. in the mass media) frequently occur in connection with narrow escapes from accidents. The hypothesis that lucky events are not always positive, to the same degree as unlucky events are negative, was tested by asking Norwegian and Polish students to describe incidents of good and bad luck from their own lives. These stories were subsequently evaluated by the narrators and by a group of judges. Ratings showed unlucky events to be uniformly negative whereas lucky events varied widely in attractiveness. Both were characterized by the idea that the outcome could easily have been a dramatically different one. In a parallel set of studies, pleasant and unpleasant experiences from students §s everyday life were collected (without specific reference to luck) and evaluated along the same dimensions. The results confirm that unlucky and unpleasant events have move in common than lucky and pleasant ones. Pleasant and unpleasant events can be imagined to have opposite alternative outcomes, but these are felt with less immediacy than in the case of luck. It is concluded that luck attributions typically occur in situations that could easily have taken a worse turn. How lucky depends upon how easily and how much worse.
736	25	3	1995	This paper describes research which provide the context for a discussion of how social representations can circumscribe identity possibilities and render feasible certaingroups evaluations. Specifically, a research approach is advocated in which Social Identity and Social Representation Theory are integrated within single complementary paradigm, (Breakwell, 1993). A brief but critical examination of both theoretical traditions is offered as the backdrop to this. A case study is described as a means of illustrating the unique potential of the integrated paradigm to predict and explain the meaning of social identity and the evaluations it affords. An investigation is then described involving 178 nurses ranging from Trainee to Charge Nurse status. Nurses were invited to use efforts to describe the meaning of their group membership. As predicted from having identified the types of social representation of nurses available, two different identity orientations emerged: a communal intelpersonal (Patient Centred) and instrumental intergroup (Professional Distinctiveness). The communal interpersonal identity orientation was most typical of the lower status trainee nurses and also female nurses. In turn, higher status nurses and also male nurses, articulated a primarily instrumental intergroup identity orientation. The evaluations signalled by group membership were also predictable from the identity orientations exhibited.
737	25	3	1995	This article reports the results of a questionnaire study that examined the relationship between regional identification and perceptual accentuation of ingroup distinctiveness in a natural field setting. Respondents were male inhabitants of the Saarland which is a small German state. Half the respondents were members of the leading political party of the Saarland, while the other respondents were members of the major opposition party. As expected, the former showed more pronounced regional identification than the latter. Our main prediction was that a higher level of regional identification would be accompanied by stronger accentuation of positive distinctiveness of the regional ingroup relative to the national ingroup. The prediction was confirmed both in terms of intergroup differentiation and perceived group homogeneity. Additional results suggest that, depending on the level of social identification, perceived group homogeneity may be either positively or negatively related to familiarity with the ingroup. Finally, we discuss the applicability of social identity theory to social contexts comprising differentially inclusive ingroups instead of mutually exclusive ingroups and outgroups.
738	25	3	1995	A large body of research suggests that extremists make more accentuated ( black and white ) judgements than moderates. This phenomenon has been explained in terms of individual differences associated with extremism or as the product of general processes of social judgement. Self categorization theory suggests that extremists represent the world in relatively polarized terms only because, and to the extent that, similar others are more similar to them and different others are more different from them than is the case for moderates. This analysis is tested and supported in three experiments (Ns = 61, 1O1, 69) which (a) manipulate subjects §s extremity and reproduce standard accentuation effects, and (b) change the configuration of the comparative features comprising the judgmental context and reverse these effects. These findings are inconsistent with individual difference explanations of accentuation and extend previous social judgemental theorizing. Implications for the conceptualization of extremism are also discussed.
739	25	4	1995	This study re examines the afterimage paradigm which claims to show that a minority produces a conversion in a task involving afterimage judgements (more private influence than public influence) as opposed to mere compliance produced by a majority. Subsequent failures to replicate this finding have suggested that the changes in the afterimages could be attributed to increased attention due to an ambiguous stimulus coupled with subject suspiciousness. This study attempted to replicate the original experiment but with an unambiguous stimulus in order to remove potential biases. The results showed shifts in afterimages consistent with the increased attention hypothesis for a minority and majority and these were unaffected by the level of suspiciousness reported by the subjects. Additional data shows that no shifts were found in a no influence control condition showing that shifts were related to exposure to a deviant source and not to response repetition.
740	25	4	1995	In the present experiment, recognition of consistent and inconsistent information was measured as a function of time of schema activation. A schema was either activated before or after encoding, or not at all. Schema activation after encoding reduced recognition of inconsistent information while schema activation before encoding enhanced it (in comparison to the no schema control condition). Recognition of consistent information appeared to be unaffected by time of schema activation. It is argued that an a posteriori activated schema inhibits access to inconsistent information. In the Discussion a tentative theoretical explanation is provided.
741	25	4	1995	In the present study a daily event recording method, the DIRO (Daily Interaction Record in Organizations), was employed for assessing social interactions, stressful events and negative affect at work. Forty one secretaries filled out the records during the course of a week. This made it possible to consider both between and within subject effects of social interactions The results showed that the social interactions of secretaries were characterized by three dimensions. intimate support, instrumental support and rewarding companionship. These three dimensions appeared to have different relationships with occupational stress. Instrumental support seemed to play the most important role in the work of secretaries, whereas rewarding companionship played no role at all in alleviating occupational stress. In the discussion some explanations are offered for this unexpected result.
742	25	4	1995	This paper reports a prospective study which applied the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to the prediction of exercise behaviour over a six month period The study addressed a number of issues which have been identified in the literature on the TPB, these being the role of prior behaviour in the TPB, the distinction between desires and self predictions, and the question of attitude variability. The findings showed prior behaviour to be the strongest predictor of exercise behaviour at six months. Contrary to expectations, the self prediction measure was not found to be a better predictor of behaviour than the desire measure. Attitude variability was found to be related to perceptions of control. However, attitude variability was not found to moderate relationships between components of the TPB. The implications of the results for the development of the TPB are discussed.
743	25	4	1995	"Previous research has shown that reminding subjects of their mortality encourages negative reactions to others whose behaviour or attitudes deviate from the cultural worldview (e.g. Greenberg, Pyszczynski, Solomon, Rosenblatt, Veeder, Kirkland and Lyon 1990; Greenberg, Simon, Pyszczynski, Solomon and Chatel 1992; Rosenblatt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski and Lyon 1989). According to terror management theory, these findings result from a heightened need for faith in the cultural worldview that is activated by reminders of one §s mortality. Study I assessed the plausibility of an alternative explanation which posits that mortality salience simply primes individuals §s values. Whereas mortality salience led to harsher bond recommendations for a prostitute, a procedure that directly focused subjects on their values did not. Studios 2 and 3 assessed the possibility that reminding subjects of any worrisome future concern would produce the same effect as a reminder of mortality. In both studies, mortality salience led to negative reactions to a deviant and had no effect on self reported affect, whereas other worrisome thoughts had no effect on reactions to a deviant but did create negative affect. Thus, consistent with terror management theory, mortality salience effects seem to result exclusively from thoughts of death."
744	25	4	1995	This paper examines the proposition that covariation information guides judgments about the dimensionality of attributions on the basis of causal principles of contrast and invariance, which are derived from Mill §s methods of difference and agreement respectively. It is argued that the standard attribution categories specified in earlier research (e.g. person, occasion and stimulus) represent just one extreme of the attributional dimensions and require the principle of contrast, whereas additional attributional categories reflecting the opposite extreme of the dimensions (e.g. external, stable, general) require the principle of invariance. In three studies, subjects were given covariation information, and were asked to rate the properties of the likely cause along the dimensions of locus, stability, globality and control. In line with the predictions, consensus with others, consistency in time, distinctiveness between stimuli and contingency of one §s actions showed the strongest effects on judgments of locus, stability, globality and control respectively. Similar results were obtained in a fourth study, where subjects had to judge the influence of eight causes with varying dimensional properties. Moreover these judgments were rated somewhat higher given causes requiring the principle of invariance rather than the principle of contrast.
745	25	4	1995	In a 2 4 6 like reasoning task, 69 subjects tested hypotheses following exposure to a low expertise source proposing an alternative hypothesis. Subjects compared self and source §s competence either independently or interdependently Results show that interdependence leads subjects to assert self validity and the source §s invalidity, and to test hypotheses through confirmation. Independence produces a conflict between incompetences, i.e. doubt concerning self and source §s validity, leading to disconfirmatory testing.
746	25	4	1995	In this reply, I criticize Bartsch and Judd §s (1993) article on several grounds. First, they under utilize the efforts undertaken in prior work to rule out the possibility of an inverse relation between group size and perceived group homogeneity as an alternative explanation of the observed ingroup homogeneity effect. Secondly, Bartsch and Judd §s design doubles and thus aggravates the confounding problem. By trying to avoid the target group size confound, they end up with two other confounds involving level of abstractness and frame of reference. Finally, I criticize Bartsch and Judd §s methodological advice to avoid within subjects comparisons of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity in minority majority contexts. Quite on the contrary, I highlight the social psychological significance of these comparisons.
747	25	4	1995	Bartsch and Judd (1993) argue that outgroup homogeneity effects occur independently of any tendency for members of minority groups to see their ingroup as more homogeneous than the majority outgroup. This argument is based on evidence of an underlying outgroup homogeneity effect in a study which purports to unconfound the roles of judged group size and ingroup outgroup judgement by presenting subjects first with a small or large ingroup (or outgroup) and then a small comparison outgroup (or ingroup). However, from the perspective of self categorization theory (SCT), such a procedure actually introduces a confound as SCT predicts that when an ingroup is judged first it should be perceived as relatively heterogeneous due to the intragroup nature of this judgemental context. Close examination of Bartsch and Judd §s data bears this point out: the tendency to see the ingroup as less homogeneous than the outgroup when the ingroup was judged first was extinguished when the ingroup was judged second even when the judged groups were of equal size. Consistent with SCT, this re analysis suggests that manifestations of outgroup homogeneity are not independent of contextual factors which determine the relative appropriateness of category based perception of ingroup and outgroup.
748	25	5	1995	What sorts of features define people §s implicit cognitive representations about the political domain in a newly emerging democracy, with no previous experience of multi party politics? This study used a multidimensional scaling (MDS) approach to investigate the dimensional structure of and individual differences in, cognitive representations of the party political space before the recent first free elections were held in Hungary. It was found that three cognitive dimensions explained subjects §s intuitive view of political parties, evaluation, conservatism, and an urban rural dimension. Significant individual differences in the use of these dimensions linked to gender, education, and city versus country background were also found. The relationship between implicit cognitive representations about parties and political attitudes and behaviour are discussed, and the implications of the findings for our understanding recent political developments in Eastern Europe are considered.
749	25	5	1995	The present research examined the influence of subjects §s own social value orientation, private or public circumstances and whether the target population was specific or general on the frequency that subjects expected their own orientation among other people. In this way, the generality of the triangle hypothesis was evaluated by varying subjects §s identifiability and the target populations §s specificity. In accordance with the triangle hypothesis, pro self people expected their orientation more frequently than pro social people. As predicted by the three tiered theory of opinion formation, subjects expected their orientation more often in public than in private circumstances. Furthermore, the triangle hypothesis was supported for the general population, but not for the specific population. In addition, support was found for the false consensus hypothesis, as subjects of each social orientation expected the occurrence of their orientation more frequently than others did. The results make new interpretations possible of previous research into the triangle hypothesis.
750	25	5	1995	Previous social categorization research has tended to treat prototypicality (the degree to which a stimulus is representative of a category) as as fixed stimulus property. In contrast, self categorization theory sees prototypicality as an aspect of the categorization process that is dependent on features of the social context within which categorization takes place. To test this view two experiments (Ns = 256, 73) examined the perceived representativeness of extreme and moderate members of the same target outgroup in conditions which manipulated the salience of intergroup division. As predicted, the extremist was seen to be relatively more representative of the outgroup than the moderate to the extent that intergroup differences were salient. In Experiment I the extremist §s message was also seen to be less important in low salience conditions and in Experiment 2 shifts in prototypicality were associated with changes in the evaluation of individual targets. Implications for the analysis of social categorization and stereotyping are discussed.
751	25	5	1995	This study focuses on the strength of the relationship between behavioural intentions and actual behaviour in a multi alternative choice context. Two separate moderating processes of intention behaviour consistency were hypothesized, i.e. the amount of reasoning during intention formation, and the degree of confidence in the intention. Involvement (as an issue specific factor), and need for cognition (as an individual difference factor) were investigated as antecedents of amount of reasoning. Confidence in the intention was predicted from the size of the consideration set (i.e. the number of alternatives that one considers for choice), and involvement. The study comprised a longitudinal two wave survey conducted before and after national elections in The Netherlands, in which pre election voting intentions were compared with actual voting behaviour. A high degree of intention behaviour consistency was found, which was significantly related to both amount of reasoning and confidence. The expected relations were found. The results extend current process models of attitude behaviour relations. Furthermore, the results indicate that processes related to the consideration set size and content account for variance in intention behaviour consistency in choice contexts that cannot be accounted for by traditional attitude behaviour perspectives.
752	25	5	1995	Abramson, Metalsky and Alloy §s (1989) revision of the reformulated model of helplessness and depression to hopelessness theory introduced the possibility of additional diatheses for depression. The present paper describes a laboratory based test of the hopelessness model which provides an opportunity to explore the role of efficacy in relation to the new model and to extend its application to anxiety. Under graduate students were asked to complete a general ability test and received false feedback which led them to believe that they had performed less well than they had anticipated. Attributional style was found to be predictive of increase in anxiety following failure feedback. The interaction Between attributional style and efficacy was found to predict depression. Among subjects who were low in efficacy attributional style was significantly related to depression. While the study provided partial support for hopelessness theory it indicates a role for the assessment of efficacy as a moderator variable within the model.
753	25	5	1995	Experimental evidence is presented supporting Nuttin §s (1985, 1987) conclusion that the name letter effect (i.e. a preference for letters occurring in the own name above not own name letters) is an affective consequence of mere ownership. We argue that evaluative conditioning (e.g. Martin & Levey, 1987) was not fully eradicated by Hoorens (1990) as an alternative explanation for the name letter effect. In the present experiment, we tried to separate evaluative conditioning from ownership induction. An essential requirement for mere ownership postulated by Nuttin (1987) is that the preferences for owned versus not owned objects are measured or obtained in absence of subjects §s awareness of their belongingness to self: This criterion was perhaps not fully satisfied. However, our results are more in agreement with the mere ownership view than with an account solely based on evaluative conditioning. The mere ownership effect (i.e. a preference for any object belonging to the self above any similar object belonging to another) is described as disclosing a purely affective self bias.
754	25	5	1995	Bouts, Spears and van der Pligt (1992) recently proposed an hierarchical correspondence model of counterfactual processing. They argue that counterfactual processing is governed by the correspondence between events and outcomes along three dimensions: the causal relationship of events and outcomes, their evaluative tone and their normality. Causal relationship, valence and normality of events and outcomes were varied in a factorial design within two story contexts. As in previous studies, subjects §s mental simulations are found to be guided by the causal relationships and by correspondence in terms of normality. rn contrast to Bouts et al. the data indicate that the evaluative tone does not have a strong impact. The findings are discussed in relation to the story used by Bouts et al. and in relation to the hierarchical correspondence model.
755	25	5	1995	Two studies were conducted to determine the conditions under which the third person effect (Davison, 1983) operates. It was hypothesized that the effect would be accentuated as target groups of others became more remote from the self A second objective was to determine whether the effect operates in the absence of overtly persuasive intent in the media. Television programmes concerned with moral themes were employed as stimuli. The results further support Davison §s claim that overestimation of media effects is greater when people imagine the responses of others whom they do not know than those of familar individuals. The results also indicate that the third person effect does operate in the absence of perceived persuasive intent, but is accentuated when bias is perceived by viewers.
756	25	6	1995	In an effort to explore the meaning of action relevant constructs and to uncover phenomenological similarities and differences among commonly hypothesized antecedents of people §s actions, 222 subjects in two studies categorized a variety of statements expressing motivations for doing things (e.g. I d like to do it, I will do it, I ll try to do it). Cluster and principal components analyses yielded an interpretable structural representation consisting of seven different behavioural antecedents. attitudinal determinants of behaviour, social normative pressures, self efficacy considerations weak motivational incentives to act, behavioural attempts to reach a goal, intentional influences on behaviour, and volitional considerations reflective of a determination to act. The results are related to previous attempts at specifying distinct antecedents of action, and implications are drawn for future research on the aetiology of human behaviour.
757	25	6	1995	Through the use of the notion of rebelliousness, the argument is raised and developed that conventional social psychological research tends to downplay investigation of intangible, fuzzy issues in favour of the study of more clearly operationalizable constructs. The thesis is developed that slippery social categories should concern us both for their own sake (because social knowing is fuzzy) and because they require of investigation analytics that have a sensitivity to the social and historical circumstances which impinge upon psychological processes. A Q methodological study into construals of rebelliousness is reported which reveals eight interpretable factors explicated as the ambivalent rebel , the anti rebel , rejecting rebelliousness: the free thinker , rebellion as social change , shockable and anti confrontational , positive support for the rebel , rebel with a cause and strong willed confrontational rebel .
758	25	6	1995	In this study the pervasiveness of racial categorization is investigated among children (10 12 years of age) in multi racial schools. Subjects were asked to sort photographs of unknown contemporaries and to indicate preferences. Skin colour, sex and facial expression were used as three characteristics which varied systematically in the pictures. The results show, first, that children preferred to use different features simultaneously instead Of a single feature only. Second, in a dichotomous classification task skin colour and sex were the most obvious visible features used for categorization. Gender was also used for explaining socially undesirable behaviour, and for indicating preferences, while race was not used in these tasks. in indicating preferences facial expression and not skin colour was used as a subordinate category. There were very few differences between ethnic Dutch, coloured and ethnic minority children in the use of skin colour or other features.
759	25	6	1995	The paper highlights the relation between positive distinctiveness and social discrimination as key concepts in Social Identity Theory. The often replicated finding of mere categorization leading to ingroup favouritism and outgroup discrimination plays a major role in supporting the view that discrimination is functional for a positive social identity. The paper confronts the mere categorization effect with recent findings which throw severe doubts on its robustness. Particularly the failure to extrapolate categorization effects to intergroup behaviour involving aversive stimuli (the positive negative asymmetry of social discrimination) leads to the plea for further specifications of SIT and its validity.
760	25	6	1995	This investigation is about the use of metaphors in the everyday understanding of conception. It is argued that the analysis of the relationship between source and target domain in a metaphor used as an objectification device can help explain how social representations are acquired collectively and individually. We expect that in popular knowledge of conception the central metaphors and images relate to the subjects §s everyday experience as social actors and sexual beings because social and sexual experience is pervasive and well understood. In an experimental questionnaire study involving 169 subjects, it is shown as hypothesized that subjects prefer to compare the process of fertilization, i.e. the role and behaviour of sperms and ovum, with sexual and sex role behaviour where the role of men is projected upon sperms and the role of women upon the ovum. This implies that sperms are seen not only as more active, but also as harder, stronger and more dominant than the ovum. These effects are stronger, the more subjects personally subscribe to a more conservative sex role orientation. In the discussion it is suggested that it is necessary to analyse the two intricately linked levels of objectification, the cognitive process of selecting specific images and the social process of the diffusion of popular knowledge, if we want to understand how common sense works.
761	25	6	1995	Additional evidence is obtained for the notion that stereotypes guide information processing and judgment inference under high processing demands. Subjects were provided with behavioural information about members of a social group. When presentation pace was high, subjects recalled more stereotype consistent information than stereotype inconsistent information, while this pattern was reversed under conditions of low presentation pace. Furthermore, judgments were more stereotypic when presentation pace was high.
762	25	6	1995	The present study investigates the effect of priming on the use of social categorizations. Using sex and race as stimulus categorizations, previous studies failed to confirm the hypothesis that priming one of the two available categorizations would enhance the use of the primed categorization relation to the not primed categorization. As suggested by Stangor, Lynch, Duan and Glass (1992), a momentary increase in accessibility may be insufficient to further enhance the use of highly accessible categorizations like race and sex, but it may be expected that priming will increase the use of categorizations which are less habitually used in daily life. The results of the present experiment support the hypothesis that, when the stimulus categorizations are weakly accessible (university major, university town), the relative use of the previously primed categorizations does indeed increase, compared to the alternative, not primed, categorization.
763	25	6	1995	Does the mood of the time (Zeitgeist) facilitate the influence minorities are able to exercise, or is it itself a direct product of minority influence? It is argued, from a social psychological definition of the minority majority relation, that the former interpretation fails to explain many of the observed effects and in particular the conversion effect. A model is offered that is consistent with the second interpretation.
764	25	6	1995	I agree with Perez et al. §s (in press) assessment of the literature on minority influence. While there are crucial differences between majority and minority influence research, I think the time has come for a reconsideration of the necessity and fruitfulness of the extreme dichotomy between majority and minority influence. The Clark (1990) study is only a step in that direction.
765	26	1	1996	In this article we show, by means of a practical example of a path model to explain opinions or attitudes and using a dataset well known in The Netherlands, that the intercorrelations of the variables may be highly dependent on the number of variables and the corresponding number of missing data involved. As a consequence, differences could arise in the results of multiple regressions and path analyses. (The role of a suppressant variable in a path model will be touched on in passing.) Subsequently, the way that the character of the sample can change when a more rigid listwise selection of cases is applied is demonstrated Since a practical example is involved, substantive arguments may be used for choosing a strategy of handling of the missing values. In our view, with reference to path models of opinions or attitudes, these arguments lead not to the use of one of the current imputation techniques or sophisticated methods to estimate the population values of the model parameters, but to what may be called a differentiated listwise selection.
766	26	1	1996	Evaluative conditioning refers to the observation that the mere paired presentation of a neutral stimulus (CS) with a liked or disliked stimulus (US) may result in the neutral stimulus itself acquiring positive or negative valence. In most studies, the CS is an autonomous, invariant stimulus, and the subject directly experiences both CS and US. In this experiment, we investigated whether evaluative conditioning can be extended to a situation wherein the CS is no more than an invariant element of a complex, variable stimulus configuration, and wherein the subject experiences the CS US co occurrences indirectly, i.e. by observing a socius who is exposed to the CS US pairings and facially expresses either liking or disliking the US. During acquisition, subjects watched video taped sequences of an actor drinking a glass containing a liquid and facially expressing either liking or disliking the drink. The stimulus element which was systematically paired with the actor §s facial expression of liking or disliking, was whether the glass contained a foot or no foot (CS), while other characteristics of the scenes were systematically varied and paired equally often with an expression of like and dislike. Next, valence ratings were obtained for pictures in which the CS element (foot/no foot) was embedded A clear observational evaluative learning effect could be demonstrated when the feature CS was embedded in objects identical to those presented during learning, but not when it was embedded in new objects. These data demonstrate the possibility of vicarious evaluative conditioning of an embedded stimulus element, but probably at a lower level of abstraction than intended.
767	26	1	1996	"It is argued here that there is not necessarily a contradiction between the general linear and equal ratio approaches to equity, and the two may be integrated to make more precise predictions. It was hypothesized that, (a) equity is best represented by a limited equal ratio rule; (b) the more a linear distribution systematically deviates from equal input/outcome ratios, the more unfair it will be judged, but (c) subjects will prefer a distribution that accords with a general linear formula in certain cases where an equal ratio distribution of available outcomes would actually infringe a preeminent or established equal ratio distribution. Four studies are presented, the results of which seem broadly to support these ideas. However, the results also suggest that equity judgments can be strongly influenced by framing effects."
768	26	1	1996	Research in several countries shows that people hold norms of emotion perception, so that socially desirable emotions are perceived as positive and moderate. Subjects also believe that positive and moderate emotions are dominant in their lives. Other research shows that increased familiarity with a social group allows a better differentiation among the members and the attributes of this group (e.g. wider variability of emotions). In the present study, we compare the relative impact of familiarity with pleasant and unpleasant groups and social norms on emotion perception. Subjects (N = 150) were to rate imagined family groups, families that they did not know well, and families that they knew very well, on perceived differentiation and variability of emotional episodes, extremity of emotional events, and global family evaluations. Results indicated that familiarity is weakly associated with perceived emotional variability in target families, and that, regardless of their familiarity with the family, subjects viewed unpleasant families as more negative, as less familiar, and as having a larger range of emotions than pleasant families. Results are discussed in terms of the idea that perception of emotions ingroups depends more strongly on social norms than either on positive negative asymmetry or on direct experience with their members.
769	26	1	1996	This paper reports an experiment in which the influence of time pressure, the social category of the target person, and emotional responses on impression formation and recognition memory was studied. It was hypothesized that under time pressure, subjects using their stereotype would process information about an outgroup target more easily than information about an ingroup target, would judge these targets more differentially, and would base their judgments of the outgroup target more on their attitudes than in a condition without time pressure. These hypotheses were to a large extent sustained. Results are discussed in terms of current models of impression formation and attitude functioning.
770	26	1	1996	The present study attempted to determine whether the impact of overlapping categorizations upon intergroup differentiation should be attributed to cognitive category differentiation processes or whether motivational social identity processes do also intervene. Experimentally created groups were placed in one of four overlapping categorization conditions: the overlapping category was either absent or it was affectively positive, negative, or neutral. These groups were also differentially evaluated by providing them with positive, negative, or no feedback. Subjects estimated then the performance of the two groups in an experimental task. Thereupon, their self esteem and their liking of the groups were also measured The presence of an overlapping category had no impact upon the performance evaluations of positively evaluated groups. Negatively evaluated groups favoured the outgroup but the presence of an overlapping category led also to a reduction of this perceived ingroup inferiority. The groups of the no feedback condition exhibited ingroup favouritism. The presence of a positive and of a neutral overlapping category reduced this bins but the presence of a negatively evaluated overlapping category strongly enhanced it. The impact of overlapping categories upon the liking measure was less pronounced. Group members §s self esteem was influenced by the experimentally manipulated factors, but these effects did not really support social identity theory. The theoretical implications of the data are discussed.
771	26	1	1996	This paper investigates two theoretical statements that are central to Social Identity Theory and Self Categorization Theory: (1) when people identify as members of a social group, they are motivated to distinguish this group in a positive sense from relevant comparison groups, and. (2) in an hierarchically organized system of possible social identities, people may define their identity at various levels, but two levels cannot be salient in the same situation. Four studies investigate whether these hypothesized processes can be traced in natural social categories. Study 1 (N = 150) found that Polish subjects had a more negative national stereotype than Dutch subjects. Study 2 (N = 160) investigated whether these national stereotypes were related to the perceived distinctiveness of national traits, and to differential levels of national and European identification for Polish and Dutch subjects. Contrary to the expectations, it was found that Polish subjects identified more strongly with their national group than Dutch subjects. Both positive and negative national traits were considered more distinctive by Polish subjects than by Dutch subjects. Moreover, Polish subjects expressed a stronger European identity than Dutch subjects. Study 3 (N = 161) replicated the findings of Study 2 under more controlled conditions. The Polish national stereotype was found to be largely based on negatively evaluated traits, and Polish subjects were more motivated to accentuate the distinctiveness of their national traits than Dutch subjects. Again, Polish subjects displayed stronger national and European identities. Furthermore, no support was found for the expectation that Polish subjects would employ some self protective strategy when such an opportunity was offered in this study. Similarly, in Study 4 (N = 40) we found no evidence that Polish subjects utilized an alternative self protective mechanism, namely group serving attributions, by means of which negative national traits could be ascribed to external circumstances. The results of these four studies are discussed in relation to Social Identity Theory, Self Categorization Theory and political/historical developments in Europe.
772	26	1	1996	This paper aims to extend the social identity approach to crowd behaviour (Reicher, 1984, 1987) in order to understand how crowd events, and crowd conflict in particular, develop over time. The analysis derives from a detailed account of a violent confrontation between students and police during a demonstration held in November 1988 the so called Battle of Westminster . It focuses on how students came to be involved in the conflict, how the conflict spread and upon the psychological consequences of involvement. This analysis is used to develop general hypotheses concerning the initiation and development of collective conflict. It is concluded that, while the social identity model is of use in understanding these phenomena, it is necessary to recognize how social categories are constructed and reconstructed in the dynamics of intergroup interaction.
773	26	1	1996	Controversy over Moscovici §s concept of social representations has focused upon the extent to which they can be viewed as enduring cognitive structures characterizing social groups and whether individual members are prisoners of their social representations, unable to duplicate the social representations of other social groups. Previous research has established a consistent gender difference in orientation toward aggression with men viewing it as an instrumental act of coercion and women as a temporary loss of self control. These two social representations, originally recovered from spontaneous conversation, have been measured with a psychometric instrument called Expagg. To examine the mutability of these representations, men and women in the present study were asked to complete the questionnaire either spontaneously or as they believed a member of the opposite sex might respond. Under conditions of same sex responding the usual significant sex difference appeared. When asked to respond as a member of the opposite sex, men accurately mirrored women §s higher expressive total score on the questionnaire but psychometric analysis revealed that there was no similarity in terms of item total correlations. Women grossly overestimated the degree of men §s instrumentality but item total total correlations revealed a considerable degree of similarity with men §s structure. The male representation whether natural or assumed showed higher internal consistency than did the female mode. The results are discussed in terms of differential modes of access to gender linked representations and the cultural dominance of a masculine and instrumental representation of aggression.
774	26	1	1996	In previous studies (e.g Bruins and Wilke, 1993) it was established that in hierarchically structured groups, power aspirations towards a high power position are stronger for the next most senior person than for lower positioned others, that, is, support was found for Ng §s (1977) bureaucratic rule. In the present study the persistence of the bureaucratic rule is demonstrated in simulated organizations with different succession rules. In addition, it appeared that when the least powerful member of the organization was assigned to a vacant high power position, members §s feelings of injustice were stronger in conditions in which the succession rule had been violated but interestingly, these feelings were not dependent on members §s own positions.
775	26	1	1996	Research by Messick et al. (1985) concerning the egocentric fairness bias was replicated using linguistic choices rather than rating scales. Subjects were asked to choose from among six frequency quantifiers to describe the estimated frequency of moral and immoral behaviours as performed by I or Other people . Results replicate the dual slope phenomenon found by previous researchers. Subjects chose quantifiers referring to higher frequencies when estimating frequencies for I moral behaviour than for Other people moral behaviour, and quantifiers referring to lower frequencies when estimating frequencies for I immoral behaviour than for Other people immoral behaviour. This I Other differentiation was greater for the immoral behaviours than the moral behaviours.
776	26	1	1996	Two theoretical positions are often used to explain the effects of negative mood on performance: the capacity view and the strategy view. The capacity position predicts a decrease of task related performance whereas the strategy view presupposes an increase if the available strategies are adequate. The assumptions of both positions are tested using the paradigm of strategic priming. A group of 22 subjects receiving a negative mood induction were compared to 26 subjects receiving a neutral mood induction. Results clearly contradict the capacity view but favour the strategy position.
777	26	2	1996	Two studies are presented which test whether justice can motivate support for government policies and authorities even when such support is not in people §s obvious personal or group interest. In the first study, White San Francisco Bay area residents §s attitudes toward Congressionally authored affirmative action policies and antidiscrimination laws were investigated. In the second study, African American San Francisco Bay area residents §s feelings of obligation to obey the law were investigated. The results from both studies show a significant relationship between evaluations of social justice and respondents §s political attitudes. More importantly, a significant relationship between relational evaluations of Congress and political attitudes is found in both studies. This relationship suggests how justice can motivate policy and government support even if such support does not yield direct personal or group benefits. Finally, the results from both studies indicate when instrumental and relational concerns will be related to political attitudes. If people identified with their particular advantaged or disadvantaged group, instrumental concerns were more strongly related to their political attitudes, but if people identified with a superordinate category that included both potential outgroup members and relevant superordinate authorities, relational concerns were more strongly related to their political attitudes.
778	26	2	1996	"Three experiments investigated how moral judgements of harmful acts and omissions are affected by information about social roles. Subjects were given vignettes in which the relationship between an actor and victim was varied along the dimensions of solidarity (e.g. friends versus strangers) and hierachy (e.g. superior versus equal; the terms are from Hamilton & Sanders, 1981). Subjects were asked to judge the morality of the actor in each case, both for a harmful omission (e.g. intentionally withholding the truth) and for an equivalent act (e.g. actively lying). Subjects judged the bahaviour worse in the act than the omission. Judgements were also affected by role relationships. The act omission difference was also greater in the low responsibility roles. Responses to the high responsibility roles seem to reflect in a consequentialist perspective, focusing on outcomes rather than prohibitions."
779	26	2	1996	"In evaluating ingroup versus outgroup members two types of information can be used. Categorizing information related to the target §s group membership and individuating information related to pieces of information specific to the target to be judged. Information integration theory (IIT, Anderson, 1981) is applied as a formal tool for predicting the judgement resulting from these different pieces of information. It is further assumed that due to a general positivity bias in evaluating own affairs judges tend to evaluate ingroup members more positively than outgroup members. By applying IIT ingroup favouritism on the level of individual targets can be predicted. More importantly, an interaction concerning an asymmetrical impact of ingroup versus outgroup membership information dependent on the individuating information §s valence can be predicted: the enhancement of ingroup members should be stronger for negative individuating information, whereas the devaluation of outgroup members should be stronger for positive individuating information. Further a negative correlation between intragroup differentiation and intergroup differentiation on the level of individual judgements is assumed. In a two (judge §s group membership. overestimator versus underestimator) by three (target §s group membership information absent; target §s group membership information present as either ingroup, or outgroup member) by three (valence of the individuating information: positive, neutral, negative) factorial minimal group design with repeated measures on the last two factors the targets §s likability had to be rated. The findings are in accord with predictions. Theoretical conclusions with respect to social judgement and to intergroup theories as well as with respect to general approaches to context effects in social judgement are discussed."
780	26	2	1996	"Potential discrepancies between felt and verbally communicated emotions elicited by two Pride events ( selected for a job among a large group and being congratulated for one §s own new partner ) were studied by means of a structured questionnaire. Italian male (n=88) and female (n=107) university students attributed felt and communicated emotions to the event protagonist P, choosing from a list of 14 emotions; the communication occurred with P §s partner or friend, or with an acquaintance. Statistical analyses of subjects §s attributions confirmed the hypothesis that felt emotions are regulated in verbal communication to others: pride, triumph, self satisfaction and excitement were de emphasized in communication; joy, satisfaction, happiness and surprise were intensified; other emotions were communicated as felt. Event type, and to a lesser extent sex of subject, significantly influenced the direction and extent of regulation. The results are interpreted as showing that the verbal communication of emotion is influenced by emotion related social norms and beliefs."
781	26	2	1996	The present studies test whether having a vested interest in a particular outcome affects perceived covariation. Vested interest was defined as a function of whether Dutch university students were in favour or against the implementation of a threatening policy (receiving lectures in English as opposed to the native Dutch). In both studies subjects were told that this policy would be tried out at either their own or another comparable university, and that the university chosen would be the one with the greatest proportion of support for the plan. In Study 1 subjects (n = 151) were presented with statements expressing pro or contra attitudes and arguments to the policy. These were ostensibly derived from students at both universities but university affiliation was not indicated. In Study 2 (n = 114) similar information was provided but the statements were attributed to students from the two universities, such that there was an equal proportion of opposition/support for the plan at both universities. We hypothesized that illusory correlations would reflect the vested interest of attitude such that students opposing the policy would overestimate the proportion of opponents to supporters at their own university compared to those in favour of the policy. The results of both studies supported our hypothesis and they also revealed attitude to be a more important predictor of illusory correlation than perceived personal consequences for themselves. The prediction that illusory correlations would be weaker in Study 2 than in Study 1, because it provides less scope for bias, was not supported. The implications of these findings are discussed.
782	26	2	1996	This study analysed the influence of social debate (group discussion) on previously held antagonistic social representations about tobacco. In the first phase of our study, we contacted 130 subjects in order to know what type of social representations they held. Two representations were found: a psychopathological representation and a critical one. After obtaining these results, and in a second phase, we randomly divided 100 subjects into 10 discussion groups, whilst another 30 subjects were assigned to the control condition (non discussion group). The group discussion (social debate) led to a convergence of previously held representations. Debate emerged as a mechanism which could reduce the distance between groups who hold previously opposing representations.
783	26	2	1996	"Studies in individualism/collectivism (Triandis, McCusker & Hui, 1990) have revealed a considerable cultural connotation of the phenomena. The aim of our investigation war; to develop a cross culturally equivalent psychometric instrument for measuring individualistic versus collectivistic orientation on the basis of the shared representation of individualism/collectivism among Bulgarians. By applying the psychosemantic methodology we extracted seven concepts which form the individualism/collectivism dimension. The proposed instrument, labelled Bulgarian individualism/collectivism (BIC) scale, consists of a preference choice between the two words in every possible pair of the seven words. Validation studies included investigation of the relationship between the BIC scale and value orientation, between the BIC scale and general views of society and political preferences, and between the BIC scale and behavioural intentions such as the intention to start a business of one §s own, the intention to emigrate, and the choice of professional vocation. Results were compared with the relationship of these variables to other measures of individualism/collectivism (scales of Triandis and Brown). The results suggest that the BIC scale reveals a more global orientation, whereas the other scales are concerned with specific everyday behaviours. A comparison between Bulgarian and American samples revealed some specificity in the Bulgarian social representation of individualism/collectivism, which can be explained by the extremely collectivistic norms of the former communist society in Bulgaria."
784	26	2	1996	"Social value orientations (SVOs) are known to influence individual behaviour in outcome interdependent settings. By extending these findings to negotiation, this research investigates the relationship between own and partners §s SVOs, negotiator strategies and outcomes. Results showed that cooperators, competitors and individualists could be distinguished in terms of initial demands and concessions. Competitors made higher initial demands and larger concessions than individualists or cooperators, suggesting that their ability to maximize outcome differences rests on whether structural features are congruent with this goal. The principal finding of this research was the demonstration that own and partners §s SVO interact to determine outcomes. Results showed that the three SVO groups differed in terms of context sensitivity: competitor outcomes were invariant across partners; individualists achieved poor outcomes in negotiations with cooperators and, reciprocally, cooperators attained high outcomes in negotiations with individualists. Additionally, individualist outcomes worsened in their last negotiation, while those of cooperators differed as a function of role and partner §s SVO. These results suggest that although the information used by individualists and cooperators differs, for both groups the cognitive representation of negotiations is a further factor influencing their outcomes."
785	26	2	1996	Research suggests that framing outcomes as gains produces stronger concern for distributive justice than framing outcomes as losses. Unfortunately, however, this prior research manipulated own and other §s outcomes only (and not own and other §s input). Hence, it remained unclear whether framing affects concern with equality everyone gets an equal share regardless whether one deserves it or not and/or equity the share one gets is a function of the proportionality of one §s own, and the other parties §s inputs. The current experiment addressed this problem. Subjects (N=94) read a scenario manipulating own and some co workers §s inputs, and subsequently rated satisfaction with pairs of outcomes providing themselves with more, equal or less outcomes than their co worker. Outcomes to oneself exceeded expectation (gain frame) or remained below it (loss frame). Corroborating and expanding prior research, results showed that people are more concerned with both equality and equity when they have a gain rather than loss frame. In addition, results revealed evidence for a self serving bias, in that people prefer equity or equality, depending on what serves best their own interests. It is concluded that frame affects the degree to which people are concerned about distributive justice.
786	26	2	1996	Issues studied by Peabody (1985) in a study of national stereotypes were investigated again in a secondary analysis of public opinion data from the general public in a number of European countries. A convergence in stereotyping among perceiver groups was shown. In contrast with Peabody §s results, strong ingroup favouritism was found.
787	26	2	1996	Outgroups are usually viewed with suspicion and expected to discriminate against the ingroup. The present study demonstrated that ingroup members attributed past discriminatory behaviour committed by individuals of unknown group membership more to outgroup members than to either ingroup members or members of a neutral group. In contrast, past egalitarian behaviour was attributed less to outgroup members than to members of a neutral group. Ingroup members also expected more discrimination from a future outgroup allocator than from a future neutral group allocator. Finally, the study showed that ingroup members §s own behaviour in allocating money became more biased in favour of ingroup members vis a vis outgroup members when the future allocator was from an outgroup rather than from a neutral group and when they had witnessed the discriminatory behaviour of an allocator in the past.
788	26	3	1996	An experimental questionnaire study was carried out in order to test partly contradictory hypotheses associated with respectively a threat discourse and a delegitimization discourse. The dependent variable was the images of the immigrant. The central independent variable was the permeability (subjects anticipated a European policy of open frontiers) versus impermeability (subjects anticipated a European policy of closed frontiers) of intergroup boundaries. The immigrants §s status (operationalized by specifying the target group either as immigrants from the Third World or from other European Union countries) was the second independent variable. Consistent with the threat discourse, the anticipation of open borders led to more negative descriptions of immigrants from Third World countries and those descriptions could be interpreted as negative reactions due to threatening insecurity. However, consistent with the delegitimization hypothesis, the anticipation of closed borders detracted considerably from the positive images of the immigrants from European countries and even involved main effects indicating that also the image of the Third World immigrants was negatively affected (in different dimensions than those associated with the negative reactions triggered by the open border policy).
789	26	3	1996	"This paper examines the way in which different speakers may construe both the context and the categories involved in a single event. This is achieved through an analysis of Margaret Thatcher §s and Neil Kinnock §s leadership speeches to their respective party conferences during the British miners §s strike of 1984 5. The analysis shows that both speakers construe the nature of the event such that their party is representative of an ingroup which encompasses almost the entire population and such that their policies are consonant with the definition of the ingroup identity. Thus their category constructions mirror the ways in which the respective leaders seek to mobilize the electorate during the strike. This analysis is used for two purposes: firstly, to argue for an integration of self categorization theory with rhetorical/discursive psychologies and hence for further research into the ways in which self categories may be contested in argument rather than determined by cognitive computations; secondly, to argue for further research into how political rhetoric may affect mass action through the ways in which collectivities are defined."
790	26	3	1996	The current paper analyses judgements regarding the decision to commute by car versus public transportation in terms of a conflict between immediate self interest and long term collective interest (i.e. social dilemma). Extending traditional formulations of rational choice theory, the present study revealed that preferences for public transportation (i.e. the presumed cooperative option) in a standard commuting situation were enhanced not only by the belief that public transportation provided a shorter average travel rime than car (i.e. the presumed noncooperative option), but also by the belief that public transportation was at least as reliable (i.e. an equal or lower variability in travel time compared to car). Moreover, paralleling prior research on experimental social dilemmas, preferences were found to be affected by a pro social concern  the belief regarding the impact of cars on the level of environmental pollution. Our findings indicated that any combination of two such considerations (i.e. travel time, variability, and impact of cars on pollution) was more effective in promoting public transportation preferences than the sum of their separate effects. Finally, we obtained evidence that commuter preferences were also shaped by individual differences in social value orientations (i.e. preferences for patterns of outcomes for self and others) in that, relative to pro self commuters, pro social commuters exhibited greater preference for public transportation.
791	26	3	1996	Although there has been progress in the definition, antecedents, and consequences of individualism and collectivism, there are some fundamental issues that need to be resolved. This study examined two such issues: the dimensionality of individualism and collectivism, and the relationship of these constructs to authoritarianism. Thirty eight American undergraduates judged the similarity among 15 concepts that have previously been shown to be reflective of elements of individualism, collectivism, and authoritarianism. Multidimensional scaling revealed two dimensions: individualism versus authoritarianism and active collectivism versus withdrawal from group involvement. Unlike the conception by Hofstede (1980) that individualism and collectivism are opposites, these results strongly suggest they are orthogonal. Furthermore, authoritarianism was construed as the opposite of individualism. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed.
792	26	3	1996	In procedural justice research it has frequently been found that allowing people an opportunity to voice their opinion enhances their judgements of the fairness of a decision making procedure. The present study investigated how this voice effect is affected by the consistency over time rule, which dictates that, once people expect a certain procedure, deviation from the expected procedure will lead to a reduction in procedural fairness. Two experiments were conducted. In both experiments the independent variables manipulated were whether subjects were explicitly told to expect a voice procedure, were explicitly told to expect a no voice procedure, or were told nothing about a subsequent procedure, and whether or not subjects subsequently received an opportunity to voice their opinion. The manipulations were induced by means of scenarios in Experiment 1, and by means of the Lind, Kanfer and Early (1990) paradigm in Experiment 2. In both experiments it was found that subjects who expected a voice procedure or who expected nothing judged receiving the voice procedure as more fair than receiving the no voice procedure, but that subjects who expected a no voice procedure judged receiving the voice procedure (inconsistency) as less fair than receiving the no voice procedure (consistency), Furthermore, effects of the manipulated variables on subjects §s task performance were found in Experiment 2.
793	26	3	1996	"An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of self harvest and resource management outcome on self other attributions in a simulated commons dilemma. Ingroups of five or six, participants (n = 171) managed a limited, shared, self regenerating resource. Self attributions to ignorance, concern for others, fear, and greed were compared to the same attributions made for cooperative and noncooperative others. The attributions were made in two contexts: efficient management and rapid resource depletion. As predicted, self attributions resembled those made for similar others; heavy harvesters made similar attributions for themselves and noncooperative others, and light harvesters made similar attributions for themselves and the cooperative others. A self serving bias was evident, especially among heavy harvesters. Attributions were also influenced by the context in which they were made; stronger attributions to ignorance, fear, and greed, and weaker attributions to concern for others were made when the resource pool was rapidly depleted than when it was managed efficiently."
794	26	3	1996	"The temporal stability of attitudes toward socially relevant and irrelevant issues was examined as a function of different dimensions of attitude strength. Attitude strength was found to be a three dimensional structure consisting of Generalized Attitude Strength (defined by amount of experience with the attitude object, certainty, importance, vested interest, frequency of thinking about the attitude object, self reported and working knowledge); Internal Consistency (defined by evaluative cognitive and evaluative affective consistency); and Extremity (defined by affective and evaluative extremity). The temporal stability of an attitude was moderated by only one dimension of attitude strength. The specific dimension that moderated stability was different for different issues. Generalized Strength appeared to contribute to temporal stability of an attitude by supporting its cognitive component."
795	26	3	1996	Three experiments investigated the effects of time pressure and evaluation apprehension on the mere exposure phenomenon (Zajonc, 1968). Subjects viewed slides of abstract paintings at different frequencies of exposure and subsequently indicated their liking for the stimuli. Evaluation apprehension during the assessment phase consistently undermined mere exposure effects. Furthermore, when evaluation apprehension was high, time pressure magnified those effects. These findings were discussed in terms of the notions that (1) prior exposure may increase the sense of processing fluency associated with a stimulus (Jacoby & Kelley, 1990), (2) fluency may be interpreted as plausibility of a judgmental cue evoked by the stimulus, (3) motivational factors like time pressure and evaluation apprehension may moderate the impact of plausibility information on judgment, hence, may moderate mere exposure effects.
796	26	3	1996	A novel single attribute test between competing expectancy value models of attitude was devised using subjects §s ratings of clusters of statements located at a range of points within a three dimensional semantic space with expectancy, value and attitude as the co ordinates. The data provided strongest support for a model using bipolar scoring for evaluation and unipolar scoring for expectancy.
797	26	3	1996	Concerning national characteristics, previous work (Peabody, 1985) had generally shown agreement between student judgements and other information. The Russians were a dramatic exception. New evidence comes from ingroup judgements, where Russians were judged impulse expressive. This disagrees with earlier outgroup judgements, but agrees with other evidence about Russian national character.
798	26	4	1996	"According to McGuire §s distinctiveness theory, being a member of a numerical sex minority increases the salience of sex membership in self descriptions. The same effect is observed in descriptions of others when the target person belongs to the numerical minority. The purpose of the present experiment was to study variations in sex label salience from descriptions of male and female targets, especially as a function of the sex composition of the set of persons to which the targets belong. It was predicted that the target person §s sex would have a main effect on its salience and would interact with numerical distinctiveness on this variable. It was found (1) that the salience of the target person §s sex was greater when his/her sex was in the minority, as predicted by distinctiveness theory, and (2) that the sex of the target was more salient to female than to male subjects. There were some suggested interaction effects, such as that minority status affected the salience of male targets more than female targets; a significant distinctiveness effect on sex membership salience was observed for male targets only. These differences in the cognitive processing of the two sex categories, if confirmed, can be interpreted in terms of membership in socially hierarchized groups, in reference to research on intergroup relations."
799	26	4	1996	"The present study investigates the role of category membership, differential construal and selective exposure in consensus estimation concerning a relatively involving social categorization, namely religion. Christians, differing in their degree of religious involvement, and non believers were asked to estimate the percentage of Christians in the general population. Respondents were expected to construe the general category of Christians differentially as a function of their own (religious) behaviours. These differential construals were expected to mediate respondents §s estimates. Further, selective exposure, i.e. the religious behaviours of friends and relatives, was expected to affect the estimates. Results show a negative relationship between religious involvement and the estimated percentage of Christians, indicating a False Uniqueness Effect. As predicted, estimates were mediated by respondents §s construal of the general category; involved Christians construed this category in more narrow terms than did the other two groups and that construal was related to lower consensus estimates. Further, selective exposure was positively related to consensus estimates. Thus, construal processes and selective exposure had opposing effects on respondents §s consensus estimates."
800	26	4	1996	"The present study examined the effects of several conditions on the information flow during unstructured discussion in small groups. We build on the experimental work of Stasser and his colleagues on information sampling. The results of their research suggest that groups often fail to exchange information effectively. Three experiments with a 2 x 2 factorial design were set up to look for conditions that could facilitate the exchange of unshared information in particular. In a first study, we replicated the experiment of Stasser and Titus (1987). The main results of the original study were confirmed; additional discussion content analysis of video recorded material made further differentiation possible. Apart from the mere mentioning of items during discussion, the reactions to and the repetition of the items were analysed. In the second experiment we introduced partially shared information and we made group members aware of the unique information that they can contribute. In the third experiment the nature of the task was manipulated and an attempt was made to prevent an information bias in favour of decision supporting items. Conditions that significantly enhance the dissemination of unshared information were found. An empirical basis was gathered so that the guidelines for effective information sampling as they were laid down by Stasser (1992) could be reformulated."
801	26	4	1996	The effectiveness and validity of 11 important mood induction procedures (MIPs) were comparatively evaluated by meta analytical procedures. Two hundred and fifty effects of the experimental induction of positive, elated and negative, depressed mood in adult, non clinical samples were integrated. Effect sizes were generally larger for negative than for positive mood inductions. The presentation of a film or story turned out to be most effective in inducing both positive and negative mood states. The effects are especially large when subjects are explicitly instructed to enter the specified mood state. For elated mood, all other MIPs yielded considerably lower effectiveness scores. For the induction of negative mood states, Imagination, Velten, Music, Social Interaction and Feedback MIPs were about as effective as the Film/Story MIP without instruction. Induction effects covaried with several study characteristics. Effects tend to be smaller when demand characteristics are controlled or subjects are not informed about the purpose of the experiment. For behavioural measures, effects are smaller than for self reports but still larger than zero. Hence, the effects of MIPs can be partly, but not fully due to demand effects.
802	26	4	1996	An experiment employing a sample (N=280) of undergraduates from an urban university was designed to test the general hypothesis that the perception of justice and injustice in life events depends upon the relationship between two variables that are part of the stimulus situation: the valence of the person being observed (good or bad), and the valence of the outcome experienced by that person (positive or negative). The findings from both qualitative (analysis of spontaneous comments) and quantitative scale ratings supported the prediction that justice and injustice perceptions depend respectively on whether the signs of the person outcome valences are the same or different. Two perceptual biases were revealed by the analysis. The first was a positive outcome bias: respondents rated as more just outcomes that were positive regardless of the goodness or badness of the person in the life event. The second was a justice bias: respondents in both measures found the just life events to be more just than unjust life events to be unjust. Finally the more religious respondents perceived the life events as more just regardless of the patterns of person outcome valences than did the less religious, suggesting a third, religiosity bias. A number of theoretical implications and questions for future research were discussed, including the quantification of the hypothesis and its cross cultural generality.
803	26	4	1996	According to the third person hypothesis, people believe that the media have a greater effect on other people §s attitudes and behaviours than on their own attitudes and behaviours. A self enhancement explanation for the third person effect was tested, stating that people perceive their own responses to the media not as weaker but as more appropriate than other people §s responses. Subjects rated the relative attitudinal impact of messages that are generally considered to be desirable to be influenced by and of messages that are generally considered undesirable to be influenced by on themselves as compared to the average peer. Both attitudinal impact in the direction advocated by the message and in the opposite direction was rated. A classic third person effect was obtained in those cases in which attitudinal media impact was considered undesirable only. In cases in which attitudinal media impact was considered desirable a reversed third person effect occurred, thus supporting the self enhancement explanation and suggesting a reconceptualization of the third person effect in terms of an optimal impact phenomenon .
804	26	4	1996	Escalation situations are those in which some project or course of action has led to losses, but there is a possibility of achieving better outcomes by investing further time, money, or effort. Although this phenomenon has been studied in individuals, there has been little research which has examined it ingroups. It was hypothesized that individuals stronger in social identity would be more likely to escalate their commitment to a failing project. Groups of subjects (half whose members strongly identified and half who weakly identified with their groups) were asked to play the role of a town council whose current objective was to invest money in construction of a playground that was met with many problems. The results showed that groups that were stronger in social identity escalated their commitment to the playground. The implications of the results are discussed, along with future directions for research.
805	26	4	1996	Social identity theory predicts a link between self esteem and intergroup discrimination. Previous research has failed to find consistent support for this prediction. Much of this research has, however, been beset by a number of methodological shortcomings. These shortcomings may have hindered attempts to discern a consistent relationship between self esteem and intergroup discrimination. The current investigation sought to overcome these difficulties by utilizing, realistic groups, multidimensional measures of self esteem and testing self esteem before and after the manifestation of intergroup evaluative bias. The results demonstrate that when the members of realistic groups engage in evaluative intergroup bias, the esteem in which they hold specific self images is enhanced. Of the 13 facets of self esteem delineated by the instrument used in the present study significant increases were found in six particular domains: honesty, academic ability, verbal ability, physical appearance, religion and parental relations. Global self esteem was unaffected by the display of bias. These findings emphasize the importance of using realistic groups and domain specific self esteem when attempting to assess the role of self esteem in intergroup discrimination.
806	26	4	1996	"This study compared the effectiveness of three theoretically based conditions of intergroup cooperation in bringing about generalization of ethnic outgroup attitudes from a cooperation partner to the outgroup as a whole. Twenty seven pairs of Dutch secondary school pupils were assigned at random to work together in triads to solve two word puzzles. The triads consisted of one Turkish pupil, always a confederate, and two Dutch pupils. The three conditions varied according to whether reference was made to the ethnic background of the confederate in both an introductory conversation and in the conversation break between puzzles (High High salience); only in the later break (Low High); or not at all (Low Low). Results show no differences between conditions in attitudes towards the partner, which were quite positive. However, attitude change only generalized in the two conditions in which ethnic membership was made salient (Low High and High High, which did not differ). These findings are discussed in terms of different models of intergroup contact, and how contact may actually work."
807	26	4	1996	The present research studied changes in stereotypes, attitudes and perceived variability of national groups within a sample of U.S. college students who spent one year studying in either West Germany(1) or Great Britain. Subjects §s stereotypes and attitudes toward host country members changed significantly during their stay, whereas attitudes and stereotypes toward control nationalities did not, and neither attitudes nor stereotypes further changed during the first nine months after subjects had returned home. On the other hand, perceptions of group variability changed significantly both during the stay and after departure from the host country. Although group perceptions generally became less positive over the course of the sojourn, these changes did not seem to be due to negative intergroup contact. Rather, the more contact students reported having with best country members the more positive were their attitudes and stereotypes of the groups. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for implementing student exchange programmes.
808	26	4	1996	We tested the hypothesis, derived from terror management theory, that mortality salience would increase intergroup bias between minimal groups. After assignment to groups, participants wrote about death or a neutral topic, and rated the personality characteristics of the ingroup and outgroup. Results supported the hypothesis.
809	26	5	1996	"An experiment was carried out to examine age differences in children §s understanding of epistemic authority and its role in conversation. Two hundred and forty six children from two age groups (6 7 and 11 12 years) were asked to make an independent judgement as to the equality or inequality of two lines in an optical illusion. Experimental conditions varied; expertise in the task was given by training in a measurement algorithm and familiarity with related stimuli by being shown illusions other than the test stimulus in training. Subjects who had answered independently that the lines were equal in length were paired with a same age subject who had responded that they were unequal, and the two were then asked to arrive at agreement. Results showed that younger children rely on external features of a situation in justifying their beliefs. Gender differences in conversations suggest younger children have difficulty differentiating status and knowledge attributes of authority. Older children displayed an awareness of self as a necessarily autonomous element in the process of knowledge acquisition. Unexpected gender effects of stimulus familiarity in the process of persuasion are probably due to differences in subjects §s behavioural styles."
810	26	5	1996	"The study investigates how the characteristics of subgroups within a culture are related to the structure of parental ideas held by their members. Two subsets of social representations were suggested shared parental ideas (SPI) which are largely common to members of a group and serve the goals of individuals as group members as well as the goals of the group itself, and diffused parental ideas (DPI) which are dispersed within social groups, and are instrumental in achieving individual goals. The respondents were kibbutz and two subgroups of urban parents with high and low levels of education (N=299) which differed in the extent of exposure to mainstream compared to group specific parental ideas, the desirability of the group as indicated by its social status and the permeability of group boundaries. The findings were specific to the research task: only small differences in SPI and DPI were found among groups in a sorting task of child rearing items; but major differences were found in their responses to a similar set of items organized as a Likert style questionnaire. Only DPI and no SPI were found in the questionnaires of urban parents with low levels of education. In contrast, two similar clusters of SPI were identified in the kibbutz and among urban parents with high education. Another set of ideas was recognized as DPI in the kibbutz. The findings suggest that the Israeli urban parents with a low education did not share the parental ideas with each other, or with urban high and kibbutz parents, whereas similar parental ideas prevailed in the kibbutz and among middle class urban parents. Hypotheses were formulated regarding the group characteristics that foster the construction of SPI versus DPI by group members."
811	26	5	1996	This paper reports two experiments that examine factors influencing the detection of salary discrimination in organizations. Subjects were presented with information about the qualifications and salaries of female and male managers in 10 departments of an hypothetical company and were asked to judge the fairness of these salaries. It was hypothesized that the amount of information and the format in which it is presented influence fairness judgments. Moreover it was hypothesized that males and females differ in their fairness judgments. The two experiments corroborate these hypotheses. The results are interpreted in terms of two possible information processing biases: encoding bias and attributional bias.
812	26	5	1996	The present research investigates how a mental model derived from patterns of sentiment relations (mental clique model) interacts with social background information (membership in social categories). Testing memory for a set of sentiment relations, the data support the assumption that a strongly polarizing categorization interferes with a mental clique model derived from the learning of these sentiment relations. Such interference was claimed to occur whenever sentiment implications from the social categorization would contradict information contained in the mental clique model. In line with this reasoning, balanced triads were selectively impaired in memory as opposed to relations from unbalanced triads which did not allow construction of any clique model and which were not influenced by category interference.
813	26	5	1996	The present study examines the influence of motives in the use of stereotypical and individuating information in perceiving a target person who is an outgroup member. Subjects were given both gender stereotypical and non (or counter ) stereotypical behavioural descriptions of a target person who was always opposite sexed to the the subjects. Subjects expected either to compete or to cooperate with the target on a task described as either masculine or feminine. The findings showed that anticipated interaction (to compete or to cooperate) and the nature of task (masculine or feminine) jointly influenced whether the subjects attend to stereotypical or non stereotypical information. It is argued that this selective attention to , and consequently recall of, the target §s behavioural descriptions is influenced by the need to perceive the potential partner as competent, and the potential competitor as incompetent. Thus, self related concerns may either increase or decrease stereotyping.
814	26	5	1996	What are the social psychological processes likely to lead individuals to commit antisocial behaviour? Two experiments are presented showing that students experiencing a publicly degrading situation (a failure on a fictitious test) agreed more often than non degraded students to participate in a theft to the detriment of a fellow student or even to the detriment of a teacher. We were able to exclude an interpretation in terms of imitation or revenge and suggest that a publicly degrading situation places subjects in a kind of social dependency state which is expressed by a vulnerability to influence. These results are discussed with due regard to the criminological and social psychological literature.
815	26	5	1996	Children in majority groups hold favourable attitudes toward members of their own group, whereas those in minority groups typically hold more favourable attitudes toward majority than own group members. It was expected that when evaluating task outcomes, majority group children would display own group favouritism, and minority children would show other group favouritism or reverse ethnocentrism . In this study, white and Native Indian elementary school children saw a video of a white and native child listening to sounds and trying to identify them. One third of subjects saw white models correct more often models, and the remaining third saw both models correct on an equal number of trials. When white models were successful, children from both groups made more positive evaluations of, optimistic predictions about, and internal attributions for task outcomes. When these models did poorly, negative attributes were deemphasized and task outcomes were attributed to external factors. Success by native models was attributed to external factors and task outcomes had little influence on predictions or evaluations. When native models were unsuccessful subjects accentuated negative attributes of these models and made internal attributions for their failures. Results were discussed in terms of cognitive and motivational theories of social judgements.
816	26	5	1996	Despite recent laboratory successes in demonstrating stereotype change in response to disconfirming information, stereotypes remain resistant to change or modification. The reported research employed an information gathering methodology in which perceivers could control the amount and nature of the information they received about members of a stereotyped group prior to evaluating the group on a number of stereotype relevant characteristics. Perceivers showed a stereotype preservation bias in their information gathering (Experiments 1 and 2) and, consequently, showed no modification of existing stereotypic beliefs. Experiment 3 manipulated the salient processing goals under which perceivers gathered information and found that, under certain conditions, the stereotype preservation bias could be overcome and stereotypes moderated.
817	26	5	1996	The hypothesis was investigated that when trait inferences refer to abstract behaviour labels (i.e. conceited ) they act as a general interpretation frame and lead to assimilation in subsequent judgments of an ambiguous target, whereas when they refer to specific actor trait links (i.e. Peter is conceited ) the activated information is likely to be used as a scale anchor and contrast effects are more likely. Compared to previous studies investigated the consequences of trait inferences, this trait referent hypothesis was tested in a relatively direct way. Target judgments of participants instructed that trait implying sentences described a behaviour showed assimilation, whereas judgments of participants instructed that these sentences described a person showed contrast.
818	26	5	1996	In the present study it was predicted that men and women may differentially construe an ambiguous activity (going into town). Further, it was predicted that subjects would judge the popularity of the ambiguous activity among en and women on the basis of this differential construal and differential expectations about men and women. Results confirmed these predictions.
819	26	5	1996	This study aims to provide a picture of the present European research topics in Social Psychology, using the 339 papers presented at the 1993 General Meeting of the EAESP. The most frequent themes of research are analysed and the structure of the association of those themes are described in a two factor structure. The first factor differentiates research in terms of level analysis and the second factor contrasts types of applied research.
820	26	6	1996	This study examined the combined effects of likeability related and potency related information in an impression formation setting, using a 2 (likeability of target behaviour: high/low) x 2 (potency: high/low) design. Presumably, the behaviour of a strong, dislikeable person can produce more severe consequences than the behaviour of a weak, dislikeable or a strong, likeable person and, consequently, should be perceived as more informative. As predicted, judgements of the target person §s likeability and potency indicated that (a) dislikeable behaviour carries more weight in likeability judgements when it co occurs with strong than with weak behaviour, and that (b) strong behaviour carries more weight in potency judgements when it co occurs with dislikeable than with likeable behaviour. These results suggest that the informativeness of behaviour is not only a function of its perceived causes (i.e. underlying dispositions) but also of its potential consequences for others.
821	26	6	1996	In two studies, attributes of target groups were manipulated and then stereotypes of those groups were assessed using multiple measurement techniques. A variety of trait ascription (e.g. Likert type scales) and perceived variability (probability of differentiation, standard deviation) indexes were used. The measures were compared with regard to their sensitivity to experimentally created differences between the social groups. The data suggested that all of the mean level assessment techniques were fairly sensitive to actual differences between groups, but Likert style trait ratings were the best performing measures, in that they most consistently produced the proper ordering of means, and were most sensitive to our manipulations. The variability measures were generally unresponsive to marked differences ingroup variability across experimental conditions. Suggestions for researchers concerning appropriate use of measures and conceptions of stereotyping are provided.
822	26	6	1996	The present study (n = 154) examines the effects of expectations and stimulus information on the perception of illusory correlation. There have been few studies attempting to integrate expectation based and data (distinctiveness ) based processes. These studies suggest that data based illusory correlation can be overruled by prior expectations, but it is nor clear whether this is a consequence of a confirmation bias. In the present study, where participants were not exposed to the specific stimulus information, expectation was manipulated by stating that group B behaved more negatively than group A. Moreover, participants were provided with information contained in a statement rating task that allowed for the confirmation and disconfirmation of the prior expectations. Participants rated the desirability of these behaviours and also performed the standard illusory correlation tasks. Based on self categorization theory and Alloy and Tabachnik (1984), we predicted that in the absence of prior expectations, completing the rating task before the illusory correlation tasks would produce stronger illusory correlation than the reverse order. However, in the presence of prior expectations we expected the rating task to undermine illusory correlation, because the information obtained in this task tends to disconfirm prior expectations. Results support the predicted interaction between task order and expectation. We discuss some implications for research on confirmation bias.
823	26	6	1996	This study explored competing normative interpretations of the dilution effect: the tendency for people to underutilize diagnostic evidence in prediction tasks when that evidence is accompanied by irrelevant information. From the normative vantage point of the intuitive statistician, the dilution effect is a judgmental bias that arises from the representativeness heuristic (similarity matching of causes and effects). From the normative prospective of the intuitive politician, however, the dilution effect is a rational response to evidence presented in a setting in which Gricean norms of conversation are assumed to hold. The current experiment factorially manipulated conversational norms, the degree to which diagnostic evidence was diluted by irrelevant evidence, and the accountability of subjects for their judgments. Accountable subjects demonstrated a robust dilution effect when conversational norms were explicitly primed as well as in the no priming control condition, but no dilution when conversational norms were explicitly deactivated. Non accountable subjects demonstrated the dilution effect across norm activation conditions, with the strongest effect under the activation of conversational norms. Although the results generally support the conversational norm interpretation of dilution, the significant dilution effect among non accountable subjects in the norm deactivated condition is more consistent with the judgmental bias interpretation.
824	26	6	1996	We investigated how individuals in different mood states are influenced by category membership information, by individuating information, and by the relation of the two in an impression formation task. Subjects in different mood states received positive or negative individuating information and positive or negative category information about a target person. Experiment 1 indicates that sad subjects were influenced by individuating but not by category membership information. In contrast, happy subjects §s judgments reflected the implications of the category information as long as the individuating information was not inconsistent with the category, replicating previous research. This pattern was eliminated, however, when category inconsistent information was provided, suggesting that happy subjects related the individuating information to the category membership information. Additional experiments show that instructing neutral mood subjects to relate category and individuating information or to focus on the individuating information result in patterns that parallel the judgments of happy and sad subjects, respectively, and that these effects are only obtained when the category information precedes (rather than follows) the individuating information. Extending previous theorizing, we conclude that being in a happy mood increases the likelihood that information is processed in the light of pre existing general knowledge structures.
825	26	6	1996	A stereotype of a group can be expressed by the estimated percentage of members that possess certain personality attributes (Brigham, 1971). In a multi group design, the properties of the percentage measure were examined, and three common assumptions about stereotypes were supported. First, there was high consensus among American and Italian raters regarding the attributes of Americans, Italians, English, and Germans. Second, the perceived typicality of a trait depended largely on contrasts with other traits attributed to the same target group. Contrasts between attributions of the same trait to different groups were largely irrelevant. Third, most stereotype judgments revealed consistency biases. Compared with a Bayesian model of probability estimation, raters exaggerated the similarities between trait attributions (the percentage measure), social categorizations (percentage of people that belong to a group given they possess the trait), and Likert sealed typicality ratings. Raters underestimated the effects of the traits §s global base rates on the typicality ratings.
826	26	6	1996	In addition to proposing a new method for testing the variability of social comparison strategies, this study looks at whether and how the social value of the comparison dimensions affect those strategies. After being attributed a superior, neutral, or inferior position on a dimension with a high or low social value, subjects were told they had to select 10 persons in order to choose a working partner among 30 comparison targets. Two pieces of information (a performance and a personality trait) presented in a table on a computer screen were given as a basis for the choice. The results showed that the social value of the dimension was an important determinant of the social comparison strategies, and that variability of these strategies appeared only when inferiority was experienced on a socially valued dimension. While pointing out the relevance of the method employed, the results suggest the merits of taking the social value of comparison dimensions into account, and of studying social comparison process from a dynamic rather than static point of view.
827	26	6	1996	Studies conducted in Poland replicated a not very well known effect discovered by B. W. Johnson (1937). In his study students estimated their mood on several successive days each time comparing it to the mood they usually have. The results revealed a peculiar positive bias in that the students usually defined their mood as better than usual . Johnson §s study was replicated in Poland, where demonstration of optimism is not a cultural norm. The results suggest that Polish subjects usually define their mood as worse than usual . The generalization and limitation of this negative bias is discussed in the light of the Pollyanna Principle and related empirical studies involving Polish subjects.
828	26	6	1996	Subjects colour named sets of threat content words and neutral control words, under conditions of high or low self awareness. Threat words were colour named more slowly than neutral words, under conditions of high self awareness. This does not support the hypothesis that self referential material is preferentially processed.
829	27	1	1997	Research suggests that individuals do not respond to survey questions on the basis of a single, fixed set of psychological considerations. To the contrary, they, respond on the basis of whatever material happens to come to mind at the moment of answering. Furthermore, the particular material that comes to mind often depends upon the nature of the question and the manner in which it is posed. This has important implications when attempting to assess the independence of beliefs and emotions as predictors of global attitude judgments. When addressing this question, it is important to consider the extent to which any given measurement procedure specifically, targets emotionally relevant beliefs in memory. Past research has failed to target this specific subset of beliefs. As a consequence, beliefs have failed to fully account for the relation between emotions and global attitude judgments. Completely different findings emerge when the researcher employs decomposition and emotionally cued recall to enable respondents to generate emotionally relevant beliefs . Under these conditions, beliefs fully account for the relation between emotions and global attitude judgments. However, this only occurs when one defines and operationalizes emotionally relevant beliefs at the individual level. The theoretical and methodological implications of these results are discussed.
830	27	1	1997	An experimental study addresses the propositions that nonmaterial beliefs, including supernatural powers and transcendental moral laws, function to enhance comprehension of life events, and perform this function selectively. Informal surveys of newspaper articles and two pilot experiments consistently indicated that the beliefs in fate, God, luck, chance, just reward, and just punishment are elicited to explain life events that ale difficult to explain in material terms, and are more or less specialized in the life events they explain. In a final experiment, a sample of U.S. university, students (N=103) was presented with 12 life event cases designed to match the belief specializations and asked to interpret freely. Analysis of the reliably coded spontaneous comments confirmed both predictions. In addition, subjects who personally held a given nonmaterial belief used if mole selectively than those who did not. Finally, employing the same design and measures, a sample from North India replicated the major U.S. findings.
831	27	1	1997	In line with evidence showing that emotion involves a social sharing process ill which the subject communicates about emotional experience, this article examines the impact of being exposed to such communications. First, it was predicted that being exposed to the social sharing of an emotion is emotion inducing. Second, it was reasoned that if this holds true, then the listener should later engage in socially sharing with other persons the emotional narrative heard. Thus, a process of secondary social sharing was predicted. In two independent studies subjects recalled a situation irt which someone had shared an emotional experience with them. They then rated emotions felt while exposed to the narrative, responses adopted toward the sharing person, and extent of secondary social sharing. The predictions were supported. Exposure to a social sharing situation was confirmed as itself emotion inducing. Secondary, social sharing was recorded in 66 per cent of the cases in Study 1 and in 78 per cent in Study 2. Both studies also showed that exposure to the sharing of highly intense emotional episodes elicited more repetitive secondary social sharing and a superior number of target persons than exposure to episodes of low or of moderate emotional intensity.
832	27	1	1997	A doss sectional study within Portuguese adolescents, young adults and adults is presented in an attempt to explore the process of value meaning construction. A model of values psychological structure developed by Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) is evaluated within a sample of 600 subjects. Such a model presupposes the existence of a universal organization of values on 10 content domains or motivational types. Schwartz §s value survey was used to measure subjects §s value priorities. Results reveal the validity of the predefined motivational types on the three samples although there are some structural variations between the samples. Such variations mall be attributed to the development characteristics of each group. Cognitive developmental theory emerges as an adequate framework for the analysis of results, assuming the active role of the subject on the process of constructing personal meaning theories out of reality.
833	27	1	1997	Deviation from personal ideals and group standards has maladaptive consequences. Using insights from self categorization and social identity theories, an ordered discrepancy model of maladjustment was proposed in which simultaneously, deviating from both types of standards is associated with increased maladjustment for members of high status groups, except when such dual discrepancies imply that one is closer to one §s ideals than is one §s group. In the latter case, decreased maladjustment cart be expected. For members of low status groups, discrepancies from ideals, but not from one §s group, were expected to predict maladjustment. Patterns of deviations on dimensions of masculinity and femininity predicted maladjustment among men, a high status group, and women, a low status group, as hypothesized Implications for social identity and self categorization theories, and for gender role research, are discussed.
834	27	1	1997	Using questionnaire data concerning perceptions of the European Community (EC) in Scotland and Andalucia we explored how the EC is perceived, and a European identification adopted as a function of the salience of these regional identities. Drawing on the work concerning the concept of comparative identity (Res, Cano & Huici, 1987) it is argued that disidentification with the nation state (i.e. Britain and Spain respectively) is a usefull way of measuring the salience of such regional identities in the self/concept. We predicted that such identities would be more salient in Scotland than in Andalucia and that in Scotland the salience of subjects §s regional identities would be associated with beliefs concerning the need for strategies of regional empowerment in its relation to the nation (Britain). We further predicted that the EC would be judged as a function of this comparative identity so that in Scotland (but not in Andalucia), a European identification would be associated with what may be called social change beliefs (e.g, beliefs concerning the need for changing aspects of the region §s relationship with the nation). Supportive evidence is found for all these predictions. However, no support was found for our prediction of a correlation between the Scots §s regional identification and their European identification. The paper concludes with a discussion of the utility of the concept of comparative identity.
835	27	1	1997	According to Crocker et al. (1993) people with high collective self esteem would be primarily concerned with enhancing the self leading to positive ingroup evaluation rather than derogation of outgroups. In contrast, people with low collective self esteem would be primarily concerned with protecting the self making outgroup derogation more likely than positive ingroup evaluation. These predictions were confirmed among Dutch youth evaluating ethnic minorities.
836	27	2	1997	"Perceivers individuate cognitively the ingroup more than the outgroup; that is, perceivers use person categories to process information about the ingroup, but use stereotypic attribute categories to process information about the outgroup. This phenomenon is labelled the differential processing effect (DPE). Is the DPE moderated by relative group status? In two experiments, either high or low status members of permeable boundary groups (i.e. groups that encourage upward mobility) read through information about unfamiliar ingroup and outgroup members. Relative group status moderated the DPE. Clustering indices in recall and confusions in a name matching task indicated that high status members individuated the ingroup more than the outgroup, thus replicating the DPE. However, low status members individuated the outgroup more than the ingroup, thus reversing the DPE. A third experiment suggested that these findings are predicated on the ingroup information being stereotype consistent."
837	27	2	1997	A theoretical model for analysing persuasive attempts in discussions with special emphasis on exchanges of political opinions where alleged facts play a salient role, is outlined. It is suggested that alleged facts put forward in a discussion can be categorized according to the degree of correspondence between the participants §s judgments. A discussion which revolves around the validity of facts is characterized as an interactive sequence of mutual attempts to either transfer facts or obstruct the transfer of facts, to a category consisting of commonly accepted, reliable and relevant information. The model is applied to the politically delicate controversy over the causes for the stranding of a Soviet submarine near a Swedish naval base in 1981. The contending sides were shown to be extremely unwilling to accept facts introduced in the debate by each other, as both reliable and relevant. Results are discussed by reference to the role of preexisting beliefs in considerations of factual information.
838	27	2	1997	Data from several recent studies consistently show a positive negative asymmetry in social discrimination: within a minimal social situation tendencies cowards ingroup favouritism which usually appear in allocations of positively valenced resources are absent in the domain of negatively valenced stimuli. The present study investigates whether this valence asymmetry has any correspondence to variations in normative evaluations of positive versus negative outcome allocations. For this purpose perceptions of normative appropriateness as well as frequency expectations of outside observers regarding outcome allocations made by categorized group members were investigated. Results show that parity choices were perceived as more normatively appropriate than out or ingroup favouritism. While outgroup favouritism was judged as inappropriate as ingroup favouritism for positive resources, ingroup favouring decisions for negative resources were perceived as the least appropriate response within the minimal social situation. In addition, in contrast to results of St. Claire and Turner (1982) non categorized subjects expected ingroup favouring decisions by group members more frequently than parity or outgroup favouring choices with respect to positively valanced resources. When, however, negative resources were to be allocated outgroup favouritism was predominantly expected. Results are discussed in terms of justice considerations and are linked to a normative account of the positive negative asymmetry in social discrimination.
839	27	2	1997	The question of how political ideology influences the perception of others is central for an understanding of relations between political groups. To characterize how political positions shape social perception, 106 students were selected according to political affinity and asked to describe political groups using either psychological or sociological qualifiers. Right wing subjects were more likely to use psychological terms to describe political groups, whereas left wing ones preferred sociological descriptors. Students with a right wing position reported greatest satisfaction with psychological descriptors, while those with a left wing position were more concerned with the relevance of qualifiers for constructing an objective perception of reality. These observations confirm the existence of differing inclinations in the perception of social facts and social groups. Such perceptive/cognitive processes, linked to ideological patterns, seem to be inseparable from the contents to which they apply, and express the social positioning and the ideological orientations of their authors.
840	27	2	1997	Two studies explored the arrangements and rules which are used in the division of household tasks and their frequencies of use with different kinds of tasks. In addition, the studies analysed justice evaluations of the arrangements and rules and the covariation of justice ratings with different kinds of tasks, gender, and relative size of raters §s own contributions to the household labour. Data were obtained from two different types of household systems: households of students sharing flats and family households with adolescent children. Eight different arrangements and rules were distinguished. The frequencies of use differed significantly and were influenced by considerations of practicability, usefulness and efficiency. The Justice ratings were guided by the ideal of an equal allocation of labour and additionally shaped by functional considerations of applicability and usefulness, and self serving tendencies.
841	27	2	1997	The outgroup homogeneity phenomenon was examined by having majority group members (White Americans) judge the variability in attitudes about intergroup relations in their own group and one outgroup (African Americans). A preliminary study found the threat of the attitude statements to the group doing the judging seemed to affect whether or not participants showed outgroup or ingroup homogeneity. For the present study, statements about ethnic group relations were prerated to obtain two sets of items that aroused either high or low threat to White Americans. White students judged the homogeneity of these items for their own group and for African Americans. Outgroup homogeneity was found for the low threat items and ingroup homogeneity was found for the high threat items. This study demonstrates that the homogeneity effect depends on the threat of the attitude content to the group doing the judging.
842	27	2	1997	The joint model integrates Mill §s methods of difference and agreement for making causal attributions, and introduces a novel type of context attributions which reflect the opposite categories of the standard attribution responses provided in previous covariation research (external versus the person, general versus the stimulus, and stable versus the occasion). The joint model predicts that attributions to standard causes require Mill §s method of difference and that attributions to context causes require Mill §s method of agreement. Two empirical studies demonstrated that the joint model fitted adequately with all of subject §s standard and context attribution responses, in contrast to earlier theorizing and data involving only the method of difference (cf. Cheng & Novick, 1990) or only the method of agreement (cf. Hilton, Smith & Kim, 1995) which received less empirical support.
843	27	2	1997	Female high and low self monitors were interviewed by a female experimenter who adopted either an androgynous or a feminine guise. An analysis of responses scored for femininity yielded a significant interaction between self monitoring and interviewer guise which, when subjected to further analysis, revealed a significant simple effect for high self monitors but not for low self monitors. High self monitors scored significantly higher on femininity when with the feminine guise interviewer, but lower when with the androgynous guise interviewer.
844	27	3	1997	The distinction between individualistic (IV) and collectivistic (CV) instrumental values was compared to the distinction between competence related and moral personality traits. Study I (N=89 students) showed that IV referred mostly to competence and were self profitable, whereas CV referred mostly to morality and were other profitable in their nature. Therefore, IV were predicted to reach a relatively higher position in the value hierarchy formulated for the self, whereas CV were predicted to rank higher in the value hierarchy formulated for other people. Both hypotheses were confirmed in study 2 (N=118 high school students) in which subjects ordered 18 instrumental values of the Rokeach Value Survey according to their importance either for themselves, or for other people.
845	27	3	1997	Subjects wrote (free format) descriptions of themselves and of their romantic partners. Self esteem and publicness moderated these descriptions. In addition to a tendency of high self esteem subjects to avoid self derogatory statements more than low self esteem subjects, qualitative differences in favourable self presentation were observed While high self esteem subjects emphasized their abilities (self promotion), low self esteem subjects focused instead on their social qualities and described themselves as altruistic (exemplification). Both groups described their partners positively and used indirect self enhancement. However, the specific strategies of self enhancement differed between the groups, such that high self esteem subjects emphasized their superior abilities compared to their partners while low self esteem subjects enhanced their self worth by associating with a partner whom they described more positively than themselves.
846	27	3	1997	"In the Netherlands, two longitudinal fieldstudies (N = 202 and N = 46) were conducted on the relationship between severity of initiation and group attractiveness. Study I represents a severe initiation, Study 2 a more mild one. In these two different field conditions we aimed to test the dissonance interpretation of the effects of a severe initiation (Aronson & Mills, 1959) and a positive correlation between severity of treatment of the initiated novices and group attractiveness was expected (hypothesis I). Further, we expected that feelings of frustration and anger would mediate this relationship (hypothesis 2). On the other hand, our affiliation attraction hypothesis either predicted a positive correlation between companionship (Rook, 1987) and group attractiveness, irrespective of severity (hypothesis 3), or that companionship would mediate the severity attraction relationship (hypothesis 4). In both studies, LISREL path analyses only supported hypothesis 3. Contrary to hypothesis 1, severity experienced during the early stages of the initiation correlated with feelings of frustration and loneliness (Study 1), or depressive mood (Study 2). These feelings lasted throughout the initiation and lowered the liking for the group. Results ave discussed in tel ms of newcomers §s decisions to leave or to join the group, determined by (ij the exchange and fate control relationship between the leadership and the newcomers; (ii) the severe treatment of newcomers as a selection device and (iii) companionate exchanges among the initiated newcomers formation."
847	27	3	1997	Subjects made predictions about the likely cognitions or affective reactions that they, a well known other, and a prototypic other, would have to ink blot and pictorial stimuli. Their responses were categorized using Karniol §s (1986) 10 transformation rules. No differences between the targets of prediction were found on any of the measures when ink blot stimuli were used. For pictorial stimuli, a greater variety of transformation rules was used to make predictions about a well known other than about self, and a greater variety of transformation rules was used for self than for a prototypic other. Again, for pictorial stimuli, more predictions about a well known other were made using associations, transformation rules that represent personalized knowledge than about self, and more predictions using associations were made about self than about a prototypic other. Finally, the specific transformation rules used to make predictions about self and a prototypic other were move often the same than were the rules used to make predictions about self and a well known other. The implications of the findings for the way procedural and declarative knowledge are represented are discussed within the context of the transformation rule model.
848	27	3	1997	This article presents a construct validation of a love scale based upon a triangular theory of love. The article opens with a review of some of the major theories of love, and with a discussion of some of the major issues in love research. Next it briefly reviews selected elements of the triangular theory of love, according to which love can be understood as comprising three components intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment. Then the article presents two studies constituting the construct validation of the love scale. The construct validation comprises aspects of internal validation determination of whether the internal structure of the data is consistent with the theory and external validation determination of whether the scale based on the theory show §s sensible patterns of correlations with external measures. The data are generally, but not completely supportive of the utility of the triangular love scale.
849	27	3	1997	These two studies integrate self enhancement and ingroup bins and analyse the phenomena from the social identity theory and self categorization theory. In Study 1, the subjects (N = 181) evaluated supporters of two presidential candidates on a rating scale. In Study 2, the subjects (N = 302) evaluated either Finnish women §s and men §s positive characteristics (success condition) of negative characteristics (failure condition) which might play a role in achieving equality between the sexes in Finland. Self evaluations were conducted on the same scale as those of ingroup and outgroup evaluations. The results showed that ingroup was evaluated more positively than outgroup (hypothesis I) and that self was evaluated more positively than ingroup (in Study 2, however, this main effect, vas qualified bl? gender). As expected, group identification did not dilute self enhancement (hypothesis 2) in either of the studies but strengthened self enhancement in Study 1. Hypothesis 3 stated that self enhancement is inversely related to ingroup favouritism but the hypothesis was only partially confirmed in that the correlation was predictably negative in Study I but near zero in both conditions of Study 2. Finally, contrary to hypothesis 4, it turned our that high identified group members evaluated self and ingroup more independently than lows which contradicts the idea of depersonalization. Together the results would be plausible if we rejected the unidimensional conception of interpersonal intergroup behaviour and assumed instead that interpersonal and intel group behaviour constitute two bipolar continua.
850	27	3	1997	Two studies demonstrate that when priming stimuli consist of (1) trait concepts and person exemplars, (2) trait concepts and non person exemplars, (3) only Mon person exemplars, assimilation in judgments of an ambiguous person follows, However, when priming stimuli consist of (4) only person exemplars, contrast in judgments of both ambiguous and well known persons ensues.
851	27	4	1997	The purpose of this paper is to identify logically the types of choice points that people encounter in their interpersonal relationships. It is assumed that associated with each type of choice point is a special class of choice criterion or decision rule. Therefore, identifying the types of choice points provides a basis for distinguishing the various decision criteria that are required by interdependent life and that should be assessed in order to predict patter ns of inter personal interaction. This paper explains how these distinctions will serve to expand our thinking about social orientations.
852	27	4	1997	Kelley proposes to analyse social orientations in tel ms of decision making. Social orientations are defined by classes of decision rules which an individual adopts when entering and developing an inter action with another person. Contrary to the most traditional approach, outcome allocation decisions are only an element of a chain of decisions made by the individual. The new theory broadens our view of interactions, draws our attention to their complexity and their dynamics. On the other hand, Kelley §s man behaves as if he ol she processed information in a systematic way, perceived longterm outcomes and as if he or she controlled the interaction to achieve desirable outcomes. The vision of man as an internally consistent decision maker is questionable. Many choices made in interaction with others are spontaneous and emotion driven rather than a result of deliberate information processing. Kelley §s theory offers a highly sophisticated tool for a temporal analysis of social interactions even though it cannot be applied to the entire spectrum of intel dependence situations.
853	27	4	1997	This comment addresses Kelley §s target article that provides a model aimed at providing a broad theoretical model for all of our ongoing interpersonal life. We underline Kelley §s assertion to use abstract minimal representations for assessment purposes, but observe that similar principles should hold for theoretical models. Kelley §s theoretical model defies falsification because there are many possible problems for confounding. In addition the model is heavily influenced by the dominant game theoretical protocol in that it focuses on strategic behaviour to be found in control type relationships, thereby ignoring the affiliative type of interpersonal behaviour. Finally it is observed that although sequential temporal aspects of behaviour are integrated in the model, the model neglects the embeddedness of the dyad in other groups and organizations, thereby ignoring the long term effect of the externalities on the collective level.
854	27	4	1997	Kelley §s recent expansion of the analysis of social orientations is seen to be a logical extension of the interdependence concepts emanating from his extraordinary collaboration with the late John Thibaut. This expansion, extending the nomenclature of transitions lists to analysing the control of transition choices, is briefly summarized. The analysis holds much promise, which will be fully realized, however, only when valid assessments of the constituent components are available.
855	27	4	1997	"After reviewing some classic contributions to the truly social social psychological literature (Lewin, Horney, Festinger;), this commentary outlines how and why Kelley §s analysis extends and complements more traditional approaches to interdependence. Three strengths are emphasized, suggesting that Kelley §s analysis (a) offers a much needed situation based taxonomy for different social orientations and interpersonal phenomena, (b) serves the ecological validity of social orientations, and (c) potentially helps us understand why classical dimensions of person judgment include not only goodness versus badness, but also movement related orientations such as dominance versus submission, strength versus weakness, or activity versus passivity. Kelley §s analysis can be extended by developing further domain specific theory and methodology for examining the temporal and sequential aspects of social orientations, and by applying a means end analysis to differing social orientations identified in Kelley §s analysis. Finally, following Chuck McClintock (1972), it is argued that the field should reserve the concept of social value orientation to define allocational preferences relevant to valuing outcomes far self and others. This basic orientation should meaningfully drive the ways in which we approach interdependent others, solve interdependence problems, and utilize interdependence opportunities."
856	27	4	1997	The current research advances an inter dependence analysis of commuting decisions (i.e. commuting by car versus public transportation), delineating the determinants of an individual §s outcomes in terms of own decisions, other commuters §s decisions, and the combination or interaction of own and others §s decisions (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978). Consistent with hypotheses, findings revealed that a concern with comfort led to a higher overall personal preference for the car, and a lower overall preference for others to commute by public transportation, when compared to a concern, with travel time. Additionally, consistent, with the claim that commuter decisions are also guided by considerations broader than a concern with individual outcomes, findings revealed that individuals with prosocial orientations (i.e. those concerned with maximizing collective outcomes) in combination with high levels of trust (i.e. believing in the honesty and cooperative intentions of others) exhibited a greater overall personal preference for public transportation, and a reduced desire to avoid to avoid other commuters, relative to individuals with a prosocial orientation and low levels of trust, or a proself orientation (i.e. those concerned primarily with maximizing own outcomes), regardless of levels of trust. Finally, consistent with the current interdependence analysis, intention to commute by car was positively associated with not only overall personal preference for the cal, but also, with the desire to avoid other commuters.
857	27	4	1997	Differences in the strength of endorsement for distributively fair and unfair leaders in interpersonal and intergroup situations were measured Fair leaders were expected to receive stronger endorsements than unfair leaders in interpersonal situations. This difference, however, was expected to attenuate, if not reverse in intergroup situations wizen the unfairness favoured the ingroup. An attenuation effect obtained in Experiment 1 (N = 49) using ad hoc groups in a laboratory setting. Attenuation and reversal effects obtained, respectively, in Experiments 2 (N = 314) and 3 (N = 213) using preexisting groups (students and New Zealanders, respectively) in a scenario setting. Fairness ratings followed patterns similar to leadership endorsements in Experiments 2 and 3. Finally, Experiment 3 showed a reversal in participants §s private attitudes toward an issue about which the leader expressed an opinion. These data extend previous research on leadership endorsement and are consistent with predictions derived from Social Identity Theory (Tajfel di Turner, 1986).
858	27	5	1997	Research is reported which shows that degrading situations (e,g. a failure on a test) increase affiliative propensity. Four studies demonstrated that this affiliative tendency of degraded subjects is independent of the potential partner §s performance and independent of his/her characteristics. The partners appeared to be equally attractive whether or not they witnessed subject §s failure, and whether they were individuals or a group. On the other hand, the affiliative desires of praised subjects seem to be oriented rather towards those who benefit from a similar situation. The motivation underlying affiliative behaviour is discussed with regard to social psychological literature. It is suggested that degraded subjects §s affiliative behaviour arises from a search for support and that a socially degrading situation places the subject in a state of emotional dependency which is expressed by a non directional affiliative tendency, and vulnerability to social influence. 
859	27	5	1997	Female participants described themselves via desirable and undesirable traits that they, possessed or lacked. For each trait, they then received feedback informing them whether they were similar to, or. different from a female target. After a distracting task, participants received a recognition test and completed a recall test of the traits. The traits that allowed the participant to be differentiated from the target (because they were applicable to one but not the other) were best recognized and recalled. Undesirable traits were better recognized than desirable ones. However, the picture of the target emanating fr om the recall data presents her in a very desirable way. the results are discussed within a pragmatic framework. 
860	27	5	1997	"Self categorization theory posits that the perception of group members is flexible and determined by the comparative social context as well as by group membership. Subjects read about either four ingroup or outgroup target persons in the context of four additional stimulus persons who were members of either the same group as the target persons (intragroup context) or the other group (intergroup context). Individualized and attribute wise information organization was assessed on the basis of information clustering in free recall. As predicted, differential processing of ingroup information occurred as a function of the salient social context; in an intragroup context, ingroup information was organized significantly more by person than in an intergroup context. Conversely, ingroup information tended to be clustered more by attribute in an intergroup than in an intragroup context. Clustering of outgroup information was not sensitive to changes in the social context. The results indicate that the perception of group members may be based on more than group membership alone. "
861	27	5	1997	Three studies examined the role of habit on information acquisition concerning travel mode choices. On the basis of Triandis §s (1980) model of attitude behaviour relations it was expected that habit strength attenuates the elaborateness of choice processes. The studies focused on different phases in the choice process, namely the appreciation of situational cues and appreciation of choice option information. In line with expectations, if was found that, compared to weak habit participants, those who had a strong habit towards choosing a particular travel mode acquired less information and gave evidence of less elaborate choice strategies. If was attempted to break effects of habit by manipulating either accountability demands or level of attention. Although accountability demands raised the level of information acquisition, no interactions with habit were found. Enhanced attention to the choice process initially did override habit effects in a sei ies of choice trials. However, in spite of this manipulation, chronic habit effects emerged during later trials. The results demonstrate the profound effects that habit may, have on the appreciation of information about choice situations and choice options. 
862	27	5	1997	"Prejudice is a pervasive and destructive social problem. Theories of prejudice distinguish between old fashioned and modern Sor ms. The former is an open rejection of minority group members; the latter is subtle and covert, with a veneer of outgroup acceptance. The present study examines the distinction in the context of contemporary attitudes to Australian Aborigines. Separate measures of each, and of other variables, were included in a random survey of the Perth metropolitan area in 1994. The two forms of prejudice were correlated (r = 0.55), but factor analysis revealed that the two constructs are separable. Further, they were distributed differently in the population, with modern prejudice being more prevalent than old fashioned prejudice (57.9 per cent scoring above the midpoint on the modern scale, and only 21.2 per cent on the old fashioned scale). Modern prejudice was predicted more strongly by social psychological variables (R 2 = 0.51) than was old fashioned prejudice (R 2 = 0.30), and the pattern of results from regression analyses differed for the two types of prejudice. Overall, the results confirm the distinction between old fashioned and modern forms of prejudice, but indicate that the two are conceptually and empirically related to one another. Comparisons with earlier research reveal the declining prevalence of old fashioned prejudice, but indicate prejudice is still a major social problem. "
863	27	5	1997	The main concern of the two studies presented here is to investigate whether the different nature of ingroup and outgroup stereotypes is reflected in different selective processing of ingroup and outgroup information. It was predicted that when processing ingroup information people will preferentially encode stereotype inconsistent information as compared to stereotype consistent information, whereas the reverse pattern will hold when people process outgroup information. In addition to selective processing, response bias due to stereotyping was studied. To measure selective processing and response bias, recognition memory measures derived from the theory of signal detection were used. Results of the two studies confirmed our main prediction. Also, response bias was demonstrated. 
864	27	5	1997	The present study aimed at showing that the relationship between identification and ingroup bias is moderated by salient group norms that prescribe or proscribe differentiation in an intergroup context. A study (N=191) in which level of identification and group norms were manipulated showed that high identifiers acted more in accordance with a salient differentiation norm compared to low identifiers. When a fairness norm was made salient, however, the Expected difference was not obtained. The results are discussed in the context of the inconsistent relationships between ingroup bias and identification found in previous research. 
865	27	5	1997	A partial replication of a study by Nisbett and Bellows (1977) to which a memorization condition was added showed that subjects did not have introspective access to the determinants of their judgments, but did so only in the impression formation condition. In the memorization condition, the subjects §s self reports matched the observed experimental effects. An analysis of the results showed that this was probably because the subjects §s judgments in the latter condition were based on causal theories. 
866	27	6	1997	To account for the inconsistent findings from previous studies of group status and discrimination, it was hypothesized that low status groups defer to the high status outgroup on measures perceived as related to the status dimension, but favour the ingroup on status unrelated measures. Subjects randomly assigned to low, equal, or high status minimal groups allocated points to anonymous ingroup and outgroup members using distribution matrices presented as either related or unrelated to the status dimension, and also rated the two groups on traits described as either status related or status unrelated. As predicted, low status groups favoured the ingroup more on status unrelated measures than on status related measures. Furthermore, while low status groups were less discriminatory than high status groups on status related matrices, they were no less discriminatory on status unrelated matrices. In contrast to low status groups, high status groups displayed greater ingroup favouritism when matrices were related to the status dimension than they did when matrices were unrelated. The relatedness manipulation had no significant effect on the discriminatory behaviour of equal status groups. These findings are discussed in terms of implications for research, and relevance to social identity theory. 
867	27	6	1997	The combined influence on ingroup bias of threat to group distinctiveness and prototypicality as a group member was examined in two studies. It was predicted, in line with social identity theory, that threat to group distinctiveness would lead to more ingroup bias. In addition, on the basis of self categorization theory it was predicted that protypical and peripheral group members would react differently to a threat to their group distinctiveness. Only group members who define themselves as prototypical group members should be motivated to defend their threatened distinctiveness by engaging in increased ingroup bias. This hypothesis was first supported in a modified minimal group setting in which threat was operationalized as overlapping group boundaries, These results were then replicated in a Second study, using better established groups, fdr whom distinctiveness threat was manipulated in terms of intergroup similarity. Moreover, some support was found in Study 2 for the prediction that the opportunity to engage in intergroup differentiation can, under restricted conditions, enhance group related self esteem. 
868	27	6	1997	Baumeister, Stillwell and Heatherton (1994) argue that guilt serves primarily interpersonal functions and take issue with more traditional intrapsychic accounts gf guilty feelings, in which causality, responsibility, and blame are emphasized We examined the validity of these claims by asking 198 college students to imagine that they destroyed the valued property of either their best friend or mother, under each of three conditions of causal responsibility (accidental, foreseeable, unjustifiably intended!. They then rated the reactions they anticipated from the victim (anger, disappointment, change in impression of the perpetrator), their perceived blameworthiness, aspects of causality, and how guilty they would feel immediately after perpetrating the harm as well as an entire day later. Imagined guilt was curvilinearly related to responsibility at time I, but linearly at time 2. Results suggest that people only weigh interpersonal concerns more heavily after time has elapsed, but that both factors integrally affect feelings of guilt. 
869	27	6	1997	The current research examines social psychologists §s beliefs regarding the probability of self and others to engage in desirable and undesirable actions relevant to solving dilemmas of academic practice (e.g. openly discussing versus concealing complex effects in a paper). Consistent with hypotheses, results revealed that social psychologists believed that others are more likely than they themselves to engage in undesirable actions and less likely to engage in academically desirable actions. Moreover, the probability of undesirable actions by both self and others was perceived to be greater under conditions of low rather than high perceived traceability (i.e. when others within the field are believed not to verify the appropriateness of the actions). Interestingly, but unexpectedly, this latter result was observed among faculty members but not among individuals with less research experience (i.e. graduate students). The discussion considers possible explanations for this latter finding and closes with an implication relevant to the peel review system. 
870	27	6	1997	We propose here to establish the theoretical link between the concepts of attitude and social representation . We shall base our proposal on recent conceptions of the notion of attitude, and on a structural approach to representations which account for their evaluative nature. This theoretical proposal will be followed by two experiments. The first showed that attitudes towards objects ave based on the evaluative components of the representation of those objects. The second showed that a change in attitude about an object may be accompanied by changes in the evaluative dimension of its representation. 
871	27	6	1997	To investigate the role of competence and morality in stereotypes, a cross national research was set up in six eastern European countries. Study I measured the perceived desirability of stereotype attributes in ingroup versus outgroup members. Across countries, biopolar Competence and Morality components emerged, It was found that the perceived desirability of ingroup attributes was primarily competence based, while desirability perceptions of outgroup attributes were mostly morality based. In Study 2, participants in the six countries rated the occurrence of competence and morality related stereotype attributes among 10 national and ethnic target groups. Study 2 also assessed general evaluative attitudes and perceptions of power and conflict in inter nation relations. Competence and morality dimensions fully explained the evaluative structure of national and ethnic stereotypes, generating a four fold typology of sinful loses, sinful winner, virtuous loser and virtuous winner stereotypes. This typology was strongly related to perceptions of power and conflict between national groups. 
872	27	6	1997	People often select a substitute to replace an intended interactant, thereby revealing how they represent their social intentions. Naturally occurring substitutions preserved the relational model governing the interaction but not the characteristics of individual participants, indicating that social intentions are formulated in terms of relational rather than individual characteristics. 
873	28	1	1998	Two experiments examined the effects of interpersonal and group based similarity on perceived self other differences in persuasibility (i.e. on third person effects, Davison, 1983). Results of Experiment 1 (N=121), based on experimentally created groups, indicated that third person perceptions with respect to the impact of televised product ads were accentuated when the comparison was made with interpersonally different others. Contrary to predictions, third person perceptions were not affected by group based similarity (i.e. ingroup or outgroup other). Results of Experiment 2 (N = 102), based an an enduring social identity, indicated that both interpersonal and group based similarity moderated perceptions of the impact on self and other of least liked product ads. Overall, third person effects were more pronounced with respect to interpersonally dissimilar others. However, when social identity was salient, information about interpersonal similarity of the target did not affect perceived self other differences with respect to ingroup targets. Results also highlighted significant differences in third person perceptions according to the perceiver §s affective evaluation of the persuasive message. 
874	28	1	1998	Four studies investigated differences in accessibility of affective and cognitive components of attitudes. Accessibility was measured by response times on bipolar semantic differential evaluative adjectives (e.g. positive negative ) in response to how one felt and thought, respectively, about an attitude object. The evaluative items were accompanied by affective and cognitive context items, which were not analysed, but were meant to promote the retrieval of affective and cognitive evaluations respectively. Responses to affective evaluations were given faster than responses to cognitive evaluations, suggesting that affect based evaluations are more accessible in memory than cognition based evaluations. The results were obtained in two attitude domains, i.e. brand names and countries. The results support the validity of a two component affect cognition model of attitude. 
875	28	1	1998	"We examined intergroup bias (more favourable evaluations of ingroups than outgroups) at the level of gender subgroups. Male and female subjects listed subgroups of men and women (e.g. career woman, mother). For each subgroup mentioned, we asked the same subjects to (a) describe the characteristics of this group in their own words (coded as positive or negative); (b) give an overall evaluative rating of this group; and (c) indicate whether they themselves belonged to this group. There was no indication that subjects §s perceptions of subgroups of their own sex were more favourable than of other sex subgroups. Within subjects §s own gender category, opt the other hand, subgroups they belonged to were described and rated more favourably than subgroups they did not belong to. These results, which can be explained by social identity motives, illustrate that subgrouping does not resolve the problem of negative outgroup stereotyping, but merely transfers it to the subordinate level. "
876	28	1	1998	Two experiments investigated the influence of priming trait concepts associated with cooperation versus competition on cooperative choices in the Ring Measure of Social Values . While models of associative memory explain priming effects on immediate associative responses, they fail to provide a sufficient account for the impact of priming an deliberate, voluntary behaviours, because the same activated concepts (e.g. strong , profit , success ) may foster opposite behavioural tendencies (i.e. raise competitive impulses or remind the individual of a cooperation norm). The hypothesis is proposed and tested that the evaluative component of the prime stimuli moderates the behavioural tendency (approach versus avoidance) elicited by the semantic printing component. Accordingly, Experiment 1 shows that both positively toned concepts linked to cooperation as well as negatively toned concepts linked to competition lead to increased cooperative choices. Experiment 2 demonstrates that simple, invariant properties of the prime stimuli are more readily extracted than more complex, interactive prime relations. In general, the priming effects are confined to subjects who lack a consistent, pre experimental value orientation. 
877	28	1	1998	By regarding jealousy as a discursively constituted manifold of understandings it becomes germane to explore that multiplex through pattern analysis. In the reported Q methodological study 10 orthogonal, alternative constructions of self generated jealousy scenarios are reported and interpreted. Implications for jealousy research and the study of accounts of experience in general are discussed. 
878	28	1	1998	A collective information sampling model and observations of discussion content suggest that decision making groups often fail to disseminate unshared information. This paper examines the role that a fully informed minority may play in facilitating the sampling and consideration of unshared information. University students read a mystery and then met in four person groups to discuss the case. When critical clues were unshared among three members before discussion, a fully informed fourth member (informed minority) promoted the discussion of these critical clues when participants thought the mystery had a demonstrably correct answer (solve set) but not when they thought the clue may have been insufficient to solve definitively the case (judge set). None the less, under both salve and judge sets, the informed minority increased the likelihood that the group would identify the correct suspect. Social combination, information sampling, and minority influence interpretations of the results are discussed. 
879	28	1	1998	Wagner, Elejabarrieta and Lahnsteiner (1995) conclude that people use gender stereotypic attributes and sexual metaphors in describing the sperm and the ovum. The conclusion is criticized on the basis of two arguments. (1) the sperm is, in actuality, more active than the ovum and this difference is reflected in subjects judgements, (2) in their study, the researchers themselves induced (a) the person metaphor and (b) gender categories. 
880	28	2	1998	"In two studies, subjects filled out a questionnaire requiring them to choose between internal and external explanations of desirable or undesirable events. They, weve also asked to fill out the same questionnaire from another person §s point of view, either a member of the ingroup or a member of the outgroup. The fir st study used students as subjects and the events were about student life. The second study used employees for subjects and the events, were about the working world. As predicted on the basis of internality nor ln theory, internal explanations, were generally found to be chosen more often when the respondent or imagined respondent was said to be a worthy person. The internality scores were the highest for oneself and for the ingroup member, regardless of the desirability of the events,. they, were the lowest for the outgroup member. These internality attribution effects do not seem to stem from the well known ingroup; favouring attributions (ultimate attribution error). Hence, the internality, norm construct, ir respective of event desirability, provides a new pathway for exploring the evaluative effects of inter group relations. "
881	28	2	1998	This study explored how causality orientations, individual differences in imagery, and reward contingency are related to performance and intrinsic motivation. Cognitive evaluation theory, as applied to both causality orientation and reward contingency, was used to make predictions about the effects of internal or external events perceived as being autonomy supportive or controlling. In the light of the fact that task contingent rewards must be salient to undermine intrinsic motivation and performance, one can suppose that high imagery may increase the controlling aspects of task contingent rewards. Moreover, research now indicates that vegetative activation correlates with levels of imagined effort, and that high imagery capabilities enhance performance in motor skills. The main purpose of this study was to contribute some arguments for imagery and reward interaction effects on intrinsic motivation and performance. As predicted, autonomy oriented subjects reported more interest and intrinsic motivation, and exhibited better performance than did control oriented individuals. Similar differences were observed in favour of high imagery individuals. Moreover, the effects of imagery were not only subject to an interaction between imagery and causality orientation, but also between imagery and reward contingency. The links between these variables are discussed in the framework of both Carver and Scheier §s (1981) motivational control theroy, and Deci and Ryan §s (1985a) cognitive evaluation theory. 
882	28	2	1998	Two experiments demonstrate that thinking about a given politician may result in assimilation as well as contrast effects in evolutions of the politician §s party. In two experiments, assimilation effects were observed when an experimental categorization task elicited the inclusion of a highly respected politician in the representation formed of his party, wheres contrast effects were observed when the categorization task elicited his exclusion from the representation, with the control group falling in between. Hence, the same information may elicit assimilation as well as contrast effects, depending on its use in mental construal. 
883	28	2	1998	A study is reported that examines the effects of comparative context oil central tendency and variability judgements of groups, and the evaluation of group characteristics. The central assumption is that these social judgements are not absolute, bur depend on the social context in which they are grounded. it is demonstrated that people vary their description of the ingroup in terms of central tendency and group variability as a function of the possibility of comparing the ingroup favourably with other groups in the judgemental task. In a similar vein, it is shown that the evaluation of an ingroup characteristic is not fixed, but depends on its relative favourability within the comparative context. The results of this study clearly demonstrate the importance of comparative context ingroup perception and are discussed with reference to self categorization theory and alternative models of social judgement. 
884	28	2	1998	"Extending the motivational assumptions of the heuristic systematic model ( Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989), the authors hypthesized that a discrepancy between desired and actual judgemental confidence raises processing effort only if the expectancy that processing will increase confidence is high. In Experiment 1, university students expected to review information for upcoming social judgements. Desired confidence was varied through low versus high task importance. To manipulate expectancy, low versus high perceived processing efficacy was induced via feedback. As predicted, high (as compared to low ) importance participants expressed greater interest in receiving information and selected more information when perceived efficacy was high, and this effect was mediated via a heightened discrepancy between desired and actual confidence. These effects were not obtained under low perceived efficacy. In Experiment 2, students processed a persuasive message. Only high importance conditions were studied; processing efficacy and argument strength were manipulated. As predicted, high (but not low ) efficacy participants processed the message systematically, as indicated by a different impact of argument strength and by mediational path analysis. It is argued that the precision of social judgement models would benefit from an explicit consideration of processing and outcome related expectancy variables. "
885	28	2	1998	This research student judgements and inferences on human rights across democratic non democratic national contests. It is argued that when judging different countries, lay perceivers make use of representations of the country §s inhabitants. Stereotypically democratic and non democratic characteristics of national populations are employed as a basis of political judgements, especially in democratic contexts. In three studies the bases of representations of human rights §s respect and violations are investigated. In the first study 76 subjects drew inferences on the human rights situation from formal discription of countries. These are either described with a type of government ( democratic or authoritarian) or with national characteristics associated to the population ( orderly and discussing or disorderly and clashing). In study 2 (117 subjects), political and population information are crossed. In Study 3, 126 subjects evaluated the responsibility of the government and of the inhabitants in explaining the general situation in two positively and two negatively described national contests. The results show the pervasive impact of population information on political judgements. Moreover members of non democratic countries are viewed as accepting more human rights violations than members of democratic countries. This attitude inference is used by people to account for violations of human rights. Results are discussed in terms of common sense transformation of classical political theories which are grounded on universalism and essentialism. It is suggested that philosophical knowledge, much like scientific knowledge ia altered when penetrating common sense, thereby receiving specific social and ideological functions. 
886	28	2	1998	In the social identity model of reactions of negative social identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1979, 1986), the concept of cognitive alternatives focuses on individual and group perceptions of the possibility of changing group memberships or improving existing ones. In the current paper, the under researched concept of cognitive alternatives is expanded so as to better encompass issues relating to the temporal dimension of social identity maintenance. Markus and Nurius §s (1986) possible selves perspective is used as a starting point for exploring the manner in which social identity maintenance is influenced by cognitions about, and social representations of, a group §s past and possible future. It is proposed that the concept of cognitive alternatives be expanded to incorporate possible social identities, which represent individual and shared cognitions about possible past group memberships, possible future group memberships, and perceptions of the possible past and future for current group memberships. The consequences of perceiving positive and negative possible social identities are examined, and methodological issues which might facilitate their empirical study addressed. 
887	28	2	1998	Social dilemmas face people with various kinds of uncertainty. To extend earlier research on environmental uncertainty in resource dilemmas (i.e. uncertainty about the resource size), the present experiment examines the effects of Environmental Uncertainty (low, high uncertainty about the provision point) and Social Uncertainty (low, high uncertainty about others §s cooperation) in a public goon §s dilemma. bl line with Social Comparison Theory, it was predicted and found that Environmental Uncertainty decreases cooperation only under High Social Uncertainty, but not under Low Social Uncertainty. The detrimental effects of Environmental Uncertainty carl be counteracted by uncertainty reducing information on the provision point and/or others §s contributions as well. 
888	28	2	1998	"Men §s rape myth acceptance (RMA; prejudiced beliefs that serve to exonerate the rapist and blame the victim) has been shown to correlate positively with self reported rape proclivity (RP). To explore the causal pathway underlying this correlation, two experiments were conducted in which the relative cognitive accessibility of RMA and RP was varied. Male students were asked to report their RP in the context of a scale assessing attraction toward sexual aggression (Experiment 1) or in response to five realistic date rape scenarios (Experiment 2), either before or after they filled out a 20 item RMA scale. In both studies, the correlation of RMA and RP was significantly greater in the after than in the before condition, suggesting that the belief in rape myths has a causal influence on men §s proclivity to rape. "
889	28	2	1998	Using an analogue of the layer and engineer item (Kahneman & Tversky, 1973), we compared conditions in which base rates were either presented as percentages (A), or frequencies (B), to conditions in which the natural sampling process was described additionally (C) or was directly experienced (D). We expected the likelihood of base rate utilization to increase as the presentation approaches the process of natural sampling. Accordingly, results showed that the contingency of judgments on base rates systematically increased across conditions A to D. 
890	28	2	1998	A study is reported examining how motivation to detect salary discrimination influences its detection depending on the difficulty of the detection task. Subjects were presented with information about the qualifications and salaries of female and male managers in 10 departments of a hypothetical company. This information was created so that female managers were undercompensated relative to their qualifications. The main dependent variable was subjects §s ratings of gender discrimination. Independent variables were motivation and task difficulty. Based on Hull §s drive theory an interaction effect was predicted and found: when the judgement task was easy, more gender discrimination was detected when motivation to detect discrimination was high rather than low, whereas when the judgement task was difficult, more gender discrimination was detected wizen motivation to detect discrimination was low rather than high. 
891	28	2	1998	The present study examines how motivated self concept changes are reflected in actual behaviour. Subjects were led to believe that either extroversion or introversion was related to success. Their preferences for others as interaction partners were then examined. The findings suggest that people seek others who confirmed the belief that they possessed the success related attribute. Self verification, as a possible strategy to confirm a desired self, was partially supported. 
892	28	2	1998	Participants were exposed to the Asian disease problem (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). When the problem was subtly framed as a medical decision problem previous findings were replicated: participants avoided the risky option when the problem was framed positively, but preferred the risky option when the problem was framed negatively. This reversal of preferences was eliminated however, when the same problem was subtly introduced as a statistical problem. The results are interpreted as evidence for the impact of context cues on the representation of decision problems. 
893	28	2	1998	This study investigated the effects of resource depletion on stereotyping. Participants were instructed to form an impression of a target, and whilst performing this task, they overhead a tape recorded conversation. The conversation was manipulated so that it it was more or less relevant to the participants. Results in general supported the prediction that when participants eavesdrop on a relevant conversation, attentional capacity will be diminished, and target evaluations will be stereotypic in implication. Findings are discussed in terms of contemporary treatments after of stereotyping. 
894	28	3	1998	The Theory of Planned Behaviour was proposed by Ajzen (1985) in an attempt to expand the applicability of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to situations where behaviour is not under complete volitional control. However, recent research does not address the issue of the stability of intentions, yet this is considered a boundary condition of the TRA on theoretical grounds. Therefore, the purposes of the present article were, first, to make a theoretical approach to the study of the stability of behavioural intentions by discussing assumptions underlying self determination theory. Second, because, according to self determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), stability of intentions is related to the functional significance of psychological events, investigation of the functional significance of attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control was attempted through a study dealing with leisure time physical activity. Because investigation of functional significance requires instruments assessing behavioural regulations, instrument development took place. Results partially supported the validity of behavioural regulations with respect to leisure time physical activity. Furthermore, subjective norms were found to represent only the controlling dimension of functional significance. Attitudes and perceived behavioural control were found to represent both the controlling and informational dimensions of functional significance. Results are discussed in relation to assumptions underlying the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour and the Theory of Trying. Implications for theory development are made. 
895	28	3	1998	This article proposes that research has failed to clarify the causal role of group cohesiveness ingroupthink because of a failure to distinguish cohesiveness from friendship. To remedy this, a conceptual distinction, based on social identity theory, is drawn between positive regard grounded in interpersonal relations (personal attraction, friendship), and solidarity grounded ingroup identification (depersonalized social attraction, true group cohesiveness) Hogg (1992). An experiment compared the roles of friendship and social attraction ingroupthink. Foul person discussion groups of friends, or socially attractive ol random groups of strangers, made decisions (N = 472). Background conditions for groupthink were established, and a wide range of subjective and behavioural measures of friendship, identification/social attraction, and the decision making process were taken. Analyses isolated effects associated with friendship/personal attraction, from those associated with identification/social attraction. Friendship was found to be weakly and negatively related to symptoms of groupthink, while group identification and social attraction were strongly and, with some exceptions, positively related to symptoms of groupthink. 
896	28	3	1998	Two experiments investigated conditions under which participants drew outcome biased inferences about ingroups and outgroups. Participants read about ingroup and outgroup targets whose success or failure was influenced by an arbitrary decision rule. In Experiment 1, ingroup and outgroup members experienced two inconsistent outcomes (first success and then failure, or vice versa) despite almost identical performances. After reading about the first performance participants made outcome biased inferences, but when the role of the decision rule became obvious inferences became group serving. That is, outcomes continued to influence inferences when they cast the ingroup in a positive light (as when initial failure was followed by success) but failed to affect inferences when they were detrimental to the ingroup (as when initial success was qualified by later failure). In contrast, inferences about outgroups were outcome biased when failure followed success, but not when success followed failure. The results of Experiment 2 showed that outcome biases influenced inferences when decision rules produced outcomes that promoted the ingroup but not when they produced outcomes that hurt the ingroup. No such benefit occurred for outgroups. The results confirm the impact of motivational concerns such as ingroup bias on the occurrence of outcome biases in inferences. 
897	28	3	1998	In a study that was based on a structural model of deservingness, 24 male and 80 female under graduate students responded to scenarios in which either a liked or disliked unemployed stimulus person expended either high or low effort and then either obtained employment or remained unemployed. Results showed that, when the outcome was employment, judgements of responsibility, deservingness, and pleasure about the successful outcome were higher when the stimulus person expended high effort rather than low effort. When the outcome was unemployment, judgements of responsibility, deservingness, and reported pleasure about the unsuccessful outcome were higher when the stimulus person displayed low effort rather than high effort in seeking a job and participants reported feeling less sympathetic and more annoyed with the stimulus per son and less inclined to provide financial assistance. Liking relations had most effects in the employed condition. The employed outcome elicited more reported pleasure and less resentment for the liked stimulus person and he or she was judged to be more responsible for and more deserving of employment than the disliked stimulus person. The results were discussed in relation to component balanced and unbalanced structures within the structural model and they also suggested some elaboration of the responsibility variable. 
898	28	3	1998	Two experiments investigated the linguistic abstractness and confirmability of elements contained in ingroup and outgroup stereotypes. The first experiment shows that positive elements of the ingroup stereotype (Italians) and negative elements of the outgroup stereotype (Jews, Germans) tended to be particularly abstract. Also, negative elements contained in the outgroup stereotypes required relatively little evidence to be considered true but much disconfirming evidence to be rejected as false . No such bias emerged for ingroup stereotypes. The second experiment compared the abstraction of four outgroup stereotypes (Jews, Blacks, homosexuals, career women) finding the greatest abstraction for the oldest stereotype (Jews), and least abstraction for the most recent stereotype (career women) with the remaining two groups (Blacks, homosexuals) occupying an intermediate position. Results are interpreted as suggesting that stereotypes may become more abstract over time as they lose the concrete elements that are easier to disconfirm while maintaining the abstract elements that are more resistant to change. 
899	28	3	1998	An experiment is reported in which the reactions of observers to the relative and absolute deprivation of others are assessed. Eighty German and 80 Italian subjects made decisions about ingroup (own nationality) or outgroup (foreign) protagonists suffering high or low relative and absolute deprivation. Results showed that subjects were more likely to take social action that violated some rule when the protagonist was in high rather than low absolute deprivation. Racist subjects were somewhat more likely to satisfy the request of a deprived ingroup protagonist whereas non racist subjects favoured the deprived outgroup. No differences emerged for non deprived protagonists. Overall, Germans tended to take social action only when the protagonist suffered high absolute deprivation whereas Italians took action regardless of degree of absolute deprivation. 
900	28	3	1998	"Ethnographic work indicates that food transfer has social significance, but food transfer has not previously been considered as a nonverbal communication channel. We categorize social food transfer along two dimensions: nature of the behaviour in the transfer (X shares food with or feeds Y), and the state of the food transferred (Y §s food never contacted by X, or Y §s food previously bitten/tasted/touched by X; we call the latter food consubstantiation (shared substance)). These two dimensions generate the four conditions investigated in this study: no sharing, sharing, sharing with consubstantiation, and feeding. The social significance of these types of situations was assessed in two ways. American college students indicated in a questionnaire both the extent to which they transfer food within different relationships, and what they took to be normative among American college students. Second, a different group of students participated in an Asch impression study in which they observed a videotape of two young adults of opposite sex eating at a restaurant, with the variable across subjects being the four conditions designated above. Viewers were asked to assess the relationship between the young adults, and to rate the degree of intimacy between the adults in terms of mutual feelings and acts of intimacy (e.g. sharing drinks, touching, having sexual relations). Results from both studies are congruent, and indicate that sharing implies a positive/friendly social relationship, and feeding implies a stronger, often romantic relationship. Consubstantiation superimposed on sharing modestly increased judgments of intimacy and closeness of relationship. "
901	28	3	1998	Skowronski and Welbourne (1997) argue that raw conditional probabilities may be a flawed index of associative strength in recall, and may need to be corrected for chance before they can be safely interpreted. Three experiments examined this idea in the context of an experimental paradigm used by Hamilton, Driscoll and Worth (1989). Participants in this paradigm were asked to read items describing a social target. The items each pertained to one of several different trait concepts, or were irrelevant to those concepts. Participants later recalled the items. The data supported Skowronski and Welbourne §s conjecture. The raw conditional probabilities differed substantially from the chance adjusted probabilities. The data from a second dependent measure, inter item generation times, matched the pattern of adjusted conditional probabilities. In addition to their methodological implications, these results contradict the Complete Association Model of person representation proposed by Hamilton et al. Finally, these data raise the possibility that traditional associative models of person memory, which were based on raw conditional probabilities (e.g. Srull & Wyer, 1989), are flawed. 
902	28	3	1998	Most research on liking of persons and groups has been conducted within separate paradigms, but the implicit assumption has been that the same processes govern judgments of liking or disliking regardless of the nature of the target. Departing from this assumption, we suggest a dual process hypothesis according to which people base their liking of a target per son primarily on the desirability of the person §s characteristics, whereas they base their liking of a group primarily on the degree of similarity between the group and themselves. To test this hypothesis, participants were presented with either positively or negatively valenced sketches that either described an individual pel son or a group of people. Path analyses revealed that liking of a person was best predicted by desirability ratings, whereas liking of a group was best predicted by similarity ratings. Implications of these findings for stereotype maintenance are discussed. 
903	28	3	1998	This paper addresses the alternate aspect of the rationalization process. Requiring individuals to provide justification for a problematic behaviour renders its cognitive rationalization easier and makes a rationalization in act less probable. The effect of rationalization in act decreases the individual §s focus in his justification. 
904	28	3	1998	We hypothesize that sharing a birthday is sufficient to create a unit relationship. Two studies demonstrated that individuals cooperated more in a prisoners dilemma game when their (fictitious) opponent shared their birthday. They also reacted more negatively to betrayal and were less sensitive to relative gains for self versus other. 
905	28	4	1998	According to our reciprocal interdependence hypothesis, derived from the Behavioural Interaction model (BIM), groups in a Prisoner §s Dilemma Game (PDG) will strive more for the long term goal of mutual cooperation than inidividuals, provided that the other (programmed) opponent can be expected or tl trusted to cooperate as well. If the opponent seems to follow a con competitive ol exploitative strategy groups will behave more competitively than individuals (e.g. Rabbie et al., 1982). In other PDG research it is found that groups are almost invariably more competitive or less cooperative than individuals (e.g. Schopler & Insko 1992). Our conjecture is that this individual group discontinuity effect may be partly attributed to unique features of the experimental procedures of Schopler and Insko which induce mutual (reciprocal) cooperation between individals and mutual competition between groups. A review of the evidence seems to provide more support for the reciprocity hypothesis than for the various explanations for the discontinuity effect proposed by Schopler, Insko, and their associates. 
906	28	4	1998	Traditional crowd theory decontextualizes crowd incidents and explains behaviour entirely in terms of processes internal to the crowd itself. This ignores the fact that such incidents are characteristically intergroup encounters and draws attention away from the role of groups such as the police in the development of events. This paper begins to rectify this omission through an analysis of interviews with 26 Public Order trained police concerning crowds in general and the Poll Tax riof of 31 March 1990 in particular. The analysis shows that, despite a perception of crowd composition as heterogeneous, officers perceive crowd dynamics as involving nrl anti social minority? seeking to exploit the mindlessness of ordinary people in the mass. Consequently, all crowds are seen as potentially dangerous and, in situations of actual conflict, all crowd members are seen as equally dangerous. In addition, police tactics for dealing with disorder make it very difficult to distinguish between individuals or subgroups in the crowd. This convergence of ideological and practical factors leads to rite police treating crowds in disorder as an homogeneous whole. It is argued that such action can often play an important role in escalating (if not initiating) collective conflict and is also a key component of social change in crowd contests. 
907	28	4	1998	"A meta analysis (N = 229) was performed to test effects of group membership and identification on the use of (sub) categories across five of our own experiments. In each experiment a name matching paradigm was used to investigate rite extent to which (sub)categories were used to organize social information in memory. Four subcategories (male students, female students, male teachers, female teachers) were available to categorize the stimulus persons, as a result of crossing sex and academic status. Comparing findings over studies yielded (a) a strong tendency to use subtypes to organize social information in memory; (b) no support for the prediction of stronger subtyping of ingroup members than of outgroup members; (c) support for the prediction that subjects high on identification with own sex: group would use subtypes within gender categories to a lesser extent than subjects low on identification with own sex. (d) In addition, it appeared that sex and academic status were used as independent overall categorizations as well, although superordinate categorization effects were caused for a large part (75 87 per cent) by name confusions within subcategories, which suggests a preference for the use of subtypes over superordinate categories. "
908	28	4	1998	This study used 50 Natural Science and English Literature students who held differential behavioural expectations of ingroup and outgroup members to investigate evaluative, attributional and behavioural responses to power use in an Experimental research paradigm. It was hypothesized that subordinates interpret frequent power use by a superior differently depending on whether it is consistent or inconsistent with previous expectations. Frequent power use results in decreased satisfaction and negative evaluations of the superior. Attributional ratings indicated that when an outgroup member engaged in frequent power use, this negatively evaluated behaviour was attributed to the superior §s group membership, and resulted in decreased cooperation on the part of the subordinate. To the extent that frequent power use of an ingroup member was attributed to external circumstances, subordinates maintained a sense of commitment to the ingroup superior, which resulted in displays of cooperative behaviour. 
909	28	4	1998	An impressive body of evidence has accumulated demonstrating that many of the judgmental errors or biases formerly thought due to purely cognitive shortcomings actually reflect the operation of communication goals and strategies that people rely upon to comprehend and generate meaningful conversation. This study examines the effects of individual differences in conversational skills on the production of biased responses using six judgmental heuristics tasks, base rate error, conjunction error, dilution effect, underuse of consensus information, primary effect, and confirmation bias. Clarke §s (1975) method of reconstruction was used to obtain two, measures of conversational sophistication.. relevance seeking and (un)responsiveness. A path analysis predicting biased judgments from the skill variables demonstrates that a combination of these variables, which we term Pragmatic Competence , is predictive of two independent subsets of the heuristics tasks. Our model provides convergent evidence with other, parametric studies for the proposition that biased social judgements are, at least in part, artifacts of participants §s reasonable (and unreasonable!) expectations concerning experimenter cooperativeness. 
910	28	4	1998	Two questionnaire studies were conducted (N = 80 and N = 175) to examine the structure and the social anchoring of the organizing principles of personal and governmental involvement concerning human rights. The results indicated that these organizing principles had, as hypothesized one abstract and one applied dimension. The second study evaluated the correlations between these dimensions and values. Results were consistent with Schwartz §s (1992) model predicting both the internal structure of values and their relations with other variables. Amongst other results, self transcendence values were positively correlated with the abstract involvements and the applied personal involvement, and negatively with the applied governmental involvement. The results concerning the correlations between conservation values and the four organizing principles were the opposite. Results concerning the links between different levels of social anchorings, particularly between the value types and variables such as religious affiliation and practice political preferences, and social and political activism were also presented and discussed. 
911	28	4	1998	"Schisms withingroups are extremely widespread, yet the phenomenon has been virtually ignored within social psychology. Indeed prominent theories of group process virtually, exclude the possibility of schism by presupposing the unitary nature of group identity. In this paper we offer a social psychological approach to the schismatic process based on the idea that, while group members may expect to achieve consensus, the issue of where that consensus should reside may; be a matter of argument. When differing constructions cannot be reconciled such that what one faction considers to represent group identity is seen by the another to contradict group identity, then the basis for schism exists. This approach is illustrated rising an analysis of the 1991 split of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) into two organizations, the PDS anti RC. Interviews with 26 members of these two organizations show that they produce different arguments concerning the identity of the categories involved. However, all the arguments are structured so as to construe the ingroup faction as consonant with the true identity of the PCI and the outgroup faction as dissonant with that identity. The implication of this analysis both for a social psychology of schism and for the conceptualization of group consensus are discussed. "
912	28	4	1998	Tokenism is defined as an intergroup context in which very few, members of a disadvantaged group ale accepted into positions usually, reserved for members of the advantaged group, while access is systematically denied for the vast majority, of disqualified disadvantaged group members. In a laboratory experiment, Wright, Taylor and Moghaddam (1990) found that when disadvantaged group members are denied upward mobility because of a policy of tokenism? the? did not respond with socially, disruptive forms of collective action. Instead, they chose a more benign individual non normative response. The robustness of this unexpected response to tokenism is explored in two experiments. In Experiment 1, the use of a relevant real world ingroup as the target of tokenism resulted in a pattern of responses consistent with Wright et al. §s (1990) findings. In Experiment 2, interaction with other disadvantaged group members prior to the imposition of the policy of tokenism also did not alter participants §s behavioural responses. These findings support the robustness of this pattern of response to tokenism, and strengthen concerns that tokenism may be an effective tool for reducing the likelihood of collective action directed against the discriminatory practices of the advantaged gr group. 
913	28	4	1998	Vonk & van Vliet (1998) criticise the methods used in the study by Wagner, Elejabarrieta & Lahnsteiner (1995). They conclude that methodological flaws render some findings of the study invalid. It is shown that those flaws are in fact not present and that the remaining part of the conceptual critique is at least debatable. 
914	28	4	1998	This research provides evidence for the generality of the Muhammad Ali effect (Allison, Messick, & Goethals, 1989), demonstrating that Dutch participants believe that the trait honesty is more descriptive of the self than of others, whereas the a ait intelligence is believed to be equally descriptive of the self and others. Congruent with proposed explanations for the Muhammad Ali effect, participants regard honesty as more desirable, more controllable, and less verifiable than intelligence. Mediation analyses indicated that the Muhammad Ali effect is stronger among participants who view honesty as more desirable than intelligence. 
915	28	4	1998	Supporting a stage perspective of assimilation and contrast effects, and in contrast to an extremity conceptualization, this study demonstrated that priming moderate person exemplars before the behaviour of an ambiguous target person had been encoded results in assimilation, whereas priming such exenplars after encoding results in a small contrast effect. 
916	28	5	1998	In a replication of Wright, Taylor and Moghaddam (1990a), group openness (open/minimally open/closed) and individual ability (high/low) were manipulated. Participating in their regular class groups, 114 male teenagers tried to gain access into a high status group. On their subsequent rejection, they indicated their endorsement of five behavioural options, ranging from acceptance to combinations of individual/collective and normative/nonnormative action alternatives. Overall, they preferred normative reactions, both collective and individual, to nonnormative ones. Nonnormative action, especially collective nonnormative action, was only favoured by talented subjects confronted with a completely closed high status group. These subjects were also the only ones who reported negative feelings both about their personal and about their group treatment. These results challenge previous findings and suggest a partial modification of the five stage model. 
917	28	5	1998	Taken from literature on social identity theory and social comparison theory, 12 strategies of identity management were identified as possible responses to negative social identity. A taxonomy with two orthogonal axes is proposed as theoretical organization of these diverse strategies. While the first axis considers responses as being either individual or collective, the second axis refers to the distinction between behaviours and cognitions. It is assumed that the German unification process implied a lower status position of East Germans relative to West Germans on relevant comparison dimensions, and that East Germans have to deal with this threat to their identity. Hence, data of ail East German sample are used to empirically systematize identity management strategies, and thus, to test the proposed taxonomy. Results support the expected four factor. solution only for those strategies taken from social identity theory, while the responses derived from social comparison research build a fifth factor. In addition, the empirical assignments of strategies to cells of the taxonomy are only partly in line with the expected pattern. The empirical findings suggest some clarification and modifications of the proposed response taxonomy. The most important refers to a re interpretation of the taxonomy §s first axis, which now differentiates between responses according to the specific changes of the comparison parameters they imply. 
918	28	5	1998	"The predictions of four social psychological theories of the relationship between cognitive style and conservatism the theory of the authoritarian personality, extremism theory, context theory, and value pluralism theory are examined in two empirical studies. Unlike previous research, these studies employ a measure of ambiguity tolerance, the Attitudinal Ambiguity Tolerance scale, which can assess cross content variability in cognitive style. The results of the two studies conflict with the expectations of all four theories. In particular, only certain aspects of conservatism were related to ambiguity tolerance toward a particular content domain; and massive variability was evident in the shape of the relationship between ambiguity tolerance and conservatism across different content domains of ambiguity tolerance. The results are discussed in terms of value conflict which arises from endorsing conservative beliefs in a liberal institutional context. "
919	28	5	1998	Although it has long been recognized that stereotypes achieve much of their force from being shared by members of social groups, relatively little empirical work has examined the process by which such consensus is reached. This paper tests predictions derived from self categorization theory that stereotype consensus will be enhanced (a) by factors which make the shared social identity of perceivers salient and (b) by group interaction that is premised upon that shared identity. In Experiment 1 (N = 40) the consensus of ingroup stereotypes is enhanced where an ingroup is judged after (rather than before) an outgroup. In Experiment 2 (N = 80) when only one group is judged, group interaction is shown to enhance the consensus of outgroup stereotypes more than those of the ingroup an apparent outgroup consensus effect . In Experiment 3 (N = 135) this asymmetry is extinguished and group interaction found to produce equally high consensus in both ingroup and outgroup stereotypes when the ingroup is explicitly, contrasted from an outgroup. Implications for alternative models of consensus development are discussed. 
920	28	5	1998	This research tested the hypothesis that when individuals first answer a question about relative evaluation, i.e. the degree in which they feel they are better or worse off than comparison others and next a question about general evaluation, i.e. the general judgment of one §s situation or one §s characteristics, the correlations between both variables will be higher than when the order of the questions is reversed. In the first case individuals will use social comparison information as a reference point for making a judgement of their situation, whereas general evaluations not preceded by relative evaluations may be based on a variety of factors. The content of the questions concerned optimism with respect to one §s own prospects concerning intimate relationships, i.e. the perceived chances of having a happy intimate relationship in the future, and the perceived chance of not becoming involved in a divorce. The results of two studies a questionnaire study among students (n = 274), and a computer administered survey among single adults (n = 275) confirmed the predictions. 
921	28	5	1998	An experiment employing the Twelve Angry Men paradigm was conducted to determine the role of the rate of majority defection to the minority position and the use of persuasive arguments by the minority on minority influence. Subjects were more influenced by the minority when it provided persuasive arguments by refuting the majority viewpoint than when the minority did not. More minority influence occurred when the minority obtained majority defectors than when the minority did not. Moreover, the rate of majority defection made a difference. Minority influence was not obtained with the initial acquisition of a single defector and the significant influence that occurred with the acquisition of four defectors was not further increased by the acquisition of additional defectors. The results for the number of majority defectors were generally consistent with Tanford and Penrod §s social influence model. Finally, the issue of the number of majority defectors versus the speed at which they defect is discussed. 
922	28	5	1998	Social representations of the individual are examined in three post Communist Central European nations, i.e. the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary, and in three West European nations, i.e. Scotland, England and France. All sh nations share a common European history since the Renaissance and Humanism, based on such values as freedom, agency!, individual rights and individual responsibility. Many of these values were rejected by the Communist regimes in which people lived for 40 years. Extreme forms of individualism developed in certain West European nations during the same period. In view of these historical events we have asked the following questions. Do people in the post Communist countries of Central Europe, after 40 years of totalitarian collectivism, still adhere to the values of the common European heritage? What is the meaning of the individual today, in Western democracies and in Central European post Communist nations? Which issues are important for the well being of the individual and how do they relate to the political and economic circumstances of those individuals? The results show that the values of the common European heritage in Central Europe have not been destroyed and that factors relating to the well being of the individual differ between the two parts of Europe. These data are discussed in terms of the political and economic situations in Central and Western Europe, the relationship between language and social representations and the structure of social representations. 
923	28	5	1998	To test the common assumption that social representations originate in ordinary communication, tell 24 person groups of American college students exchanged messages for 2 1/2 weeks, about six specific issues drawn from a 21 item questionnaire previously used by Clemence, Doise, & Lorenzi Cioldi (1994) in a cross cultural investigation on human rights. As expected, interpersonal communication led to increased spatial clustering (neighbours in social space became more similar) and enhanced correlations among these issues, leading to a more coherent factor structure of human rights conceptions. Clustering and correlation simultaneously illustrate the emergence of self organization in social systems and are taken as evidence for the social origin of social representations. These findings show how Latane §s Dynamic Social Impact Theory complements Moscovici §s Social Representation Theory, providing a mechanism for understanding how and criteria for knowing when social representations arise from communication. 
924	28	5	1998	The current research examines the role of social value orientation in determining the extent to which individuals are inclined to reciprocate cooperation exhibited by others perceived as either honest, intelligent, or unintelligent. Results revealed that individuals with prosocial orientation reciprocated high levels of cooperation regardless of other §s characteristics. Individuals with proself orientation (i.e. individualists and competitors) exhibited some reciprocal cooperation toward others perceived as honest, yet took advantage of others perceived as intelligent or unintelligent. These results suggest that proselfs can be motivated to reciprocate cooperation by others if they have faith in others §s benign intentions and trustworthiness. 
925	28	5	1998	The role of distinctiveness information in majority and minority influence was studied. Students read a message containing strong or weak arguments advocated by a minority or majority sour cc. The communicator §s minority (majority) status was said to be tither distinctive to the tal get topic or nondistinctive across topics. Major dependent variables were attitude judgements and cognitive responses. Across conditions, messages were processed systematically, and a majority communicator tended to be more persuasive than a minority communicator. Most importantly, high distinctiveness led to greater influence than low distinctiveness, and this effect was independent of argument strength and minority versus majority status. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed. 
926	28	6	1998	This article examines the role of behavioural routines in decision making. In order to induce routines, participants were confronted with recurrent route decisions in a computer controlled trucking game, which allows for manipulation of routine acquisition and strength. During the final round of the game, time pressure and novelty in task presentation were varied as between factors, It was hypothesized that time pressure would increase the likelihood of routine maintenance and novelty would increase the likelihood of deviation. Besides individual choices, response latencies and self reports were additionally assessed to measure the amount of deliberation during decision making. Results show that time pressure strongly increased the probability of routine maintenance, even though the situation indicated the inadequacy of the routine. In contrast, novelty in task presentation provoked routine deviation and increased deliberation, as evident from response latencies and self reports. 
927	28	6	1998	The question whether body movements and body postures are indicative of specific emotions is a matter of debate. While some studies have found evidence for specific body movements accompanying specific emotions, others indicate that movement behaviour (aside from facial expression) may be only indicative of the quantity (intensity) of emotion, but not of its quality. The study reported here is an attempt to demonstrate that body movements and pastures to some degree are specific for certain emotions. A sample of 224 video takes, in which actors and actresses portrayed the emotions of elated joy, happiness, sadness, despair, fear, terror, cold anger, hot anger, disgust, contempt, shame, guilt, pride, and boredom via a scenario approach, was analysed using coding schemata for the analysis of body movements and postures. Results indicate that some emotion specific movement and posture characteristics seem to exist, but that for body movements differences between emotions can be partly explained by the dimension of activation. While encoder (actor) differences are rather pronounced with respect to specific movement and posture habits, these differences are largely independent from the emotion specific differences found. The results are discussed with respect to emotion specific discrete expression models in contrast to dimensional models of emotion encoding. 
928	28	6	1998	Recent research on causal inference suggests that common actions tend to be attributed to goals, whereas difficult actions, if obstructed are attributed primarily to preconditions. The present studies examine the way that the framing of causal questions influences ratings of goals and preconditions for common actions. The studies test the view that why questions favour goal explanations, by presenting causal questions framed as why questions or explain questions. Structured and free response measures were used They show that when the question is expressed as asking why an action occurs, goals are rated better than preconditions, regardless of the presence of obstacles, whereas if the question is framed as requesting an explanation of the action, preconditions are deemed better explanations than goals for obstructed actions. Goals remain better explanations when the action is unobstructed. These findings confirm the importance of the framing of causal questions for research on causal explanation, and suggest that the phrasing of causal questions influences the focus of explanations. 
929	28	6	1998	The relationship between self esteem deriving from both personal and social identity and comparisons at both interpersonal and intergroup level was examined. Participants took part in individual and group brainstorming tasks which they later had the opportunity to evaluate. In the case of the individual task, participants §s own solutions were judged in conjunction with solutions provided by a member of their ingroup and a member of the outgroup. Ebr the group task, the ingroup solution was compared with an outgroup solution. Both personal and collective self esteem were found to influence these ratings, but in different ways. In terms of intergroup comparisons, participants with high personal self esteem (PSE) showed greatest ingroup bias. In contrast, this same effect was associated with low public collective self esteem (CSE), that is, people who felt that their group was viewed negatively differentiated most strongly. Furthermore, this opposition of the effects of PSE and CSE also applied to the interpersonal comparisons. Participants with high PSE self enhanced relative to participants with low PSE, while the reverse pertained for CSE scores. Participants with low private CSE rated both their own and the ingroup member §s solution more positively than the outgroup solution. An analysis is presented which explains these effects in terms of threat experienced as a result of incongruency between comparative context and optimal identity enhancement strategies. 
930	28	6	1998	A series of four studies investigated systematic differences between actor and recipient interpretations and justice evaluations of negative incidents in interpersonal relationships. Due to a refined methodology, each negative incident was assessed both by the respective recipient and actor, and each participant reported incidents from both perspectives. The studies provided clear evidence of systematic recipient actor differences and showed that the quality of the relationship between the parties involved in the incidents can moderate the occurrence and shape of the differences. Significant gender differences were found showing that women respond more accusingly than men in the role of the recipient and more defensively than men in the role of the actor. 
931	28	6	1998	Campbell §s (1958) concept of ingroup entitativity is reformulated as a perceived interconnection of self and others. A 2 (intergroup relations: competitive, neutral) x 3 (intragroup interaction. low, medium, high) between subjects design was used to examine (I) the effects of intergroup and intragroup relations on perceived ingroup entitativity and (2) the relation between ingroup entitativity and intergroup bias. Regardless of the relations between groups, members who experienced intragroup interaction had stronger perceptions of ingroup entitativity and stronger representations of the aggregate of ingroup and outgroup members as two separate groups than members who lacked intragroup interaction. Furthermore, perceptions of ingroup entitativity mediated the effect of the salience of the intergroup boundary on behavioural intergroup bias. These results call into question the intergroup nature of group based phenomena. An ingroup entitativity framework is presented that locates the source of group based phenomena (e.g. intergroup bias) in intragroup processes. 
932	28	6	1998	This paper reports supportive evidence for a modified self categorisation model of mass social influence, whereby category definitions are determined rhetorically and the character of collective action is shaped through category arguments. The study was conducted shortly after the Gulf War and was concerned with the respective constructions of pro and anti war respondents. Respondents were first asked to recall the images of the war which had most impact on them. They were then shown 29 images of the war and asked to rate the impact of each one as well as explain why they had given such impact ratings. Finally, they were asked to select the five images which had most impact on them. The results indicated that different subjects indicated very different views of the categories opposing each other despite the fact that they were characterising the same event. Moreover, the constructions of pro and anti war subjects matched those previously having been shown to characterise the rhetoric of pro and anti war leaders. Thus pro war subjects recalled and rated highly those images that were consistent with a construction of the war as opposing the civilised world (ingroup) to Saddam Hussein (outgroup). Anti war subjects recalled and rated highly those images that were consistent with a construction of the war as opposing ordinary people (ingroup) to business and political leaders prosecuting the war (outgroup). 
933	28	6	1998	In two studies, one among 94 Moroccan and 203 Turkish immigrants in the Netherlands and one among 1844 people of the Dutch majority, we examined how these groups react to four different adaptation strategies of people with a Moroccan and a Turkish background. These strategies are. assimilation (original culture is considered unimportant whereas contact with the majority is considered important), integration (both the original culture and contact with the majority are important), separation (original culture is considered important whereas contact with the majority is not), and marginalization (both the original culture and contact with the majority are considered unimportant). The respondents were confronted with a scenario (a fictitious newspaper article) representing one of the four strategies. Moroccans and Turks had to indicate whether they identified themselves with the person in the scenario. Their affective and normative reactions towards that person were also measured. Both Moroccans and Turks appeared to react most positively to integration and to identify themselves most with an integrating person. Dutch majority members were asked to estimate the percentage of Moroccans or Turks that use a particular adaptation form, and were also asked to give their affective and normative reactions towards the person in the scenario. The Dutch have positive attitudes towards assimilation and integration. Remarkably, they believe that separation, which is the least liked strategy by them, is the one chosen most frequently by the immigrants. 
934	28	6	1998	"A theory that private and collective self cognitions are stored in separate locations in memory (Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991; Trafimow, Silverman, Fan, & Law, 1997) was tested with a sample of participants (Native Americans) that differed substantially from those in previous research. Two findings supported the theory. First, participants retrieved more private self cognitions when the private self rather than the collective self was primed, but retrieved more collective self cognitions when the collective self rather than the private self was primed. Second, people were more likely to retrieve a private self cognition following another private self cognition than following a collective one, but were more likely to retrieve a collective self cognition following another collective one than following a private one. "
935	29	1	1999	A questionnaire study using the 30 Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was conducted in 35 countries (N = 6791 students). The basic assumption was that human rights can be studied as social representations following the model of Doise, Clemence, & Lorenzi Cioldi (1993). The existence of a shared meaning system concerning the 30 articles in different countries was demonstrated. Individual attitudes toward the whole set of rights were proven to be highly consistent. However, individuals differed systematically in beliefs about their own and the government §s efficacy in having human rights respected. An individual level and a pancultural analysis (Kenny & La Voie, 1985, Leung & Bond, 1989) converged in the definition of four groups of respondents: advocates (most favourable responses towards human lights), sceptics (less favourable responses), personalists (high personal involvement and scepticism about governmental efficacy) and governmentalists (low personal involvement and strong belief in governmental efficacy). Analyses of anchoring started either from assessing individual positionings or from maximizing between country differences. Individual level analyses show that positionings are anchored in value choices as well as in perception and experience of social conflicts. Pancultural analyses confirm the importance of national context concerning the attitudes of scepticism of advocacy, personalism and governmentalism. 
936	29	1	1999	"A survey was conducted to assess the prevalence of spontaneous social comparisons in people §s ingroup descriptions and to investigate factors involved in the choice of an outgroup comparator. The intel group context was that of different countries within the European Community (EC). Two hundred and ninety three respondents from six countries provided open ended descriptions of their own country, rank ordered the twelve EC countries, and selected two other countries for comparison purposes. Social comparisons were made spontaneously by 20% of the sample; temporal comparisons less frequently (11%). There was a general tendency for respondents to choose higher status comparators. These were still generally somewhat similar to own country except in the case of the two lowest status countries where the preference was for dissimilar (and superior) outgroups. Regression analysis revealed that threat to national identity was also correlated with comparison choice. The findings are related to classic and contemporary theories of social comparison process. "
937	29	1	1999	The present article proposes a theoretical model of factors affecting the salience of social categorizations. The model is strongly related to the accessibility x fit formulation by Brunei (1957) and to Oakes §s (1987) functional perspective on category salience. The results of an experimental sei ies using the Who said what? paradigm are presented, which examined several hypotheses derived from the model. In Study I it was shown that the salience of a social categorization with high chronic accessibility (sex categorization) was related to perceptions of issue relevance (normative Jit) and intercategory differences (meta contrast ratio). Furthermore, in line with the salience model measures to increase the situational accessibility, (i.e. a priming procedure) of categorizations with low chronic accessibility (educational group and home town categorizations) failed to affect category salience as long as participants perceived no comparative and normative Jit of these categorizations (Study II). Under conditions where comparative fit of these categorizations was perceived, however, the printing procedure successfully enhanced category salience (Studies II and III). Results are largely consistent with the hypotheses derived from the salience model and support Oakes §s functional approach to category salience. Finally, the complex interrelation between situational accessibility and perceived fit will be discussed. 
938	29	1	1999	Subjective probability judgments often violate a normative principle in that the conjunction of two events is judged to be more likely than the probability of either of the two events occurring separately,. Most previous explanations of these conjunction effects have assumed that probability judgments depend on some psychological relation (e.g. representativeness) between the constituents mentioned explicitly in the stimulus information. In contrast, the present approach highlights the fundamental role of implicitly inferred information. Participants are assumed to transform the explicit stimulus information into implicit mental models in their attempt to make sense of the experimental task. Probability judgments should then reflect the degree of activation of such a mental model in memory given a set of propositions, rather than the quantitative Jit ol likelihood of the propositions themselves. Two studies are reported which provide converging evidence for the proposed mental model approach. In the first study, using graded conjunctions of one to Jive propositions, probability judgments are shown to vary as a function of the activation of a mental model rather than the likelihood of the component events. In a second study, a priming procedure is employed to activate mental models that either fit an event conjunction or do not, leading to an increase or decrease of conjunction effects in probability judgment. 
939	29	1	1999	The hypotheses that children use language strategically (e.g. as in the Linguistic Intergroup Bias) and with increasing strength with age were supported in an experiment with participants ranging in age from 8 to 19 years. In a second experiment, the impact of biased language use on participants §s inferences was examined in a sample ranging in age from 5 to 11 years. It was shown for all age groups that participants §s inferences were systematically influenced by the abstractness or concreteness of a message. The implications of these findings for the communication and transmission of stereotypes at an early age ave discussed. 
940	29	1	1999	Previous research has underestimated children §s capacity to understand the self presentational behaviour of other people. We argue from recent research in mental state understanding that 8 year olds should be able to attribute self presentational motives in older to explain others §s behaviour. In the present study, children aged 6 to 11 years heard stories involving emotion masking displays and were then asked to explain the motivations for those displays. Results supported our prediction. 
941	29	1	1999	This paper investigates whether persons §s cognitive representations of valued group identities differ in content from their representations of their personal identity. The results showed differences between participants §s qualitative descriptions of their group identities and their personal identities. Values, emotions, and personal relationships were more often listed ingroup identity representations than in personal identity representations. 
942	29	1	1999	We examined whether social group attitudes are subject to context effects. Tt was hypothesised that manipulating the context in which a group exemplar was rendered accessible would produce different effects when subjects were subsequently asked to evaluate the exemplar §s group. In our study, all subjects first expressed their opinion about the (popular) Queen Mother before indicating their attitude toward the British Royal Family. In the non redundant condition, the two questions were structured such that rite Queen Mother was expected to be included in individuals §s representation of the Royal Family, leading to a high correlation between the two judgements and a favourable evaluation of the group. Conversely, in the redundant condition, the questions were structured such that the Queen Mother was expected to be expected from individuals §s representation of the Royal Family, lending to a lower correlation between the judgements and a less favourable evaluation of the group. The results supported the hypothesis, and are consistent with the Schwarz and Bless (1992a,b) inclusion/exclusion model of assimilation and contrast. 
943	29	1	1999	In this study, participants were instructed to correct for the influence of a trait priming task on their judgments of ambiguous information. The time at which correction was instigated (preinformation or postinformation) determined whether contrastive correction effects were found solely on information related ratings (preinformation conditions) or on both information related and information unrelated ratings (postinformation conditions). Assimilative trait priming effects were found when no correction instructions were given. 
944	29	02-mar	1999	Subjects (N = 129) judged the favourability of 20 behaviours enacted towards either. subordinates or superiors of the actor. Likeable behaviours were evaluated more moderately when they were enacted towards superiors, indicating that subjects took into account the possibility that the actor was engaging in ingratiation. Moderately dislikeable behaviours were evaluated more negatively when they were enacted towards subordinates, suggesting that their negative meaning wins strengthened wizen the behavioural tm ger was powerless. Extremely dislikeable behaviours were evaluated negatively regardless of the persons towards whom they were enacted These results suggest that, in interpreting positive and moderate (i.e. ambiguous) behaviours, characteristics of the behavioural targets are used to determine the actor §s intentions and, thereby, the evaluative meaning of the behaviour. 
945	29	02-mar	1999	To assess the influence of individual differences in empathy on predictions about the likely thoughts and feelings of prototypic and nonprototypic others, high school students completed Davis §s (1983) IRI empathy scale and made predictions about young and old, male and female targets §s likely thoughts and feelings. Predictions were categorized using Karniol §s (1986) transformation rules and the variety of rules served as the dependent measure. A greater variety of rules was used for making predictions about old targets than young ones. Subject gender did not influence the variety of rules used for making predictions. As for individual differences in empathy, individuals high versus low in overall empathy, on the Perspective Taking subscale and on the Empathic Concern subscale, used a greater variety of transformation rules for making predictions about others §s likely thoughts and feelings and differentiated more between targets in different social categories. The findings provide support for the view of empathy as a method of information gathering and illustrate the heuristic value of the transformation rule model for making predictions about others §s thoughts and feelings. 
946	29	02-mar	1999	"The theory of reasoned action (TRA, Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), the theory of planned behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1985) and the theory of self regulation (TSR, Bagozzi, 1992) were applied to Italian undergraduate students §s studying behaviour. The main focus of the research was to ascertain the predictive power of past behaviour on intention and behaviour and thus test for the sufficiency of the theories. For theory sufficiency to be demonstrated, past behaviour influences on intention and present behaviour should be totally mediated by the focal variables of the theories (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and desire). It is argued that past behaviour affects intentions and present behaviour over and above attitudinal variables and that these effects will be weaker on intention for the TPB and TSR models. A structural equation approach was used to test the construct validity of measures such as the predictive validity of the theories. A total sample of 240 Italian college students participated in the research. A subsample of 90 subjects provided a self report behavioural measure one week later. Results show that past behaviour is a strong prediction of both intention and behaviour in the TRA model, while it is a weaker predictor of intention in the TPB and in the TSR models. Implications for attitude behaviour relationships are discussed. "
947	29	02-mar	1999	The study investigated participants §s judgements of the defendant §s guilt, severity of punishment and memory of information concerning a crime presented earlier, as a function of activated stereotype (positive versus negative) and cognitive load (i.e. self paced versus quick processing pace). As hypothesized, it was found that judgement of guilt, punishment and memory were affected by the activated stereotype only under high load conditions. Under these conditions, a negative stereotype of the defendant evoked higher estimates of guilt, harsher punishment and better memory of incriminating evidence than a positive stereotype, while there was no effect of stereotype valence in the low load condition. 
948	29	02-mar	1999	The results of numerous experimental studies have provided ample evidence for William James §s theory that emotional conduct is a sufficient condition for the occurrence of emotional feelings. Two further questions are addressed in the study reported in this paper. First, critics have speculated that the effects of peripheral feedback from expressive bodily movement may lead to generalized diffuse pleasant or unpleasant experiences, rather than the specific emotional feelings consistent with James §s position. Second if the Jamesian account is correct, then the simultaneous combination of multiple, consistent solaces of expressive bodily feedback should result in greater magnitudes of emotional response than those caused by separate, individual sources. The results of the present study replicate those of the only other study (Duclos et al., 1989) which has demonstrated specific effects of expressive behaviours on corresponding emotional feelings. It was also possible to demonstrate, via correlational analyses, that those people who are responsive to their expressions tend to be responsive to their postures as well, since subjects in this study received manipulations of their facial expressions mid their bodily, postures. The results of this study also indicate that matching combinations of facial expressions and bodily postures result in more powerful feelings of the corresponding emotional feelings than do either expressions or postures alone. 
949	29	02-mar	1999	Social psychologists studying intergroup relations acknowledge the importance of social context but remain strongly focused on the individual in both theoretical and methodological respects. The present study tries to go beyond this individualistic perspective by using multilevel analysis to address the effects of both individual and contextual variables and their interactions. Ethnic group evaluations among Dutch and Turkish children (10 13 years of age) were examined. First, the results showed that intergroup evaluations are determined not only by characteristics of the child but also by the context in which the child is situated. Second, contextual variables not only affected ingroup favouritism directly but also moderated the relationship between identification and ingroup favouritism. Third, children in classes in which the teacher pays attention to ethnic discrimination and cultural differences indicated less ingroup favouritism. Furthermore, relative group size did not affect ingroup favouritism directly, rather it was found that only children who constituted a numerical minority revealed a positive association between identification and ingroup favouritism. Additionally, at the individual level ingroup favouritism was explained by identification, the perception of the teacher §s reaction to ethnic harassment among classmates and subject ethnicity. It is concluded that a multilevel approach can make a contribution to the existing literature on intergroup evaluation and towards a more contextual social psychology. 
950	29	02-mar	1999	The present study deals with social relationships in the extreme situation of the concentration camp, using Primo Levi §s If This Is a Man, written just after the author §s release front Auschwitz. This text was chosen because it is one of the most important testimonies of the Holocaust and at the same time, a work of great artistic value. An analysis of the behaviour described gives us access to otherwise irretrievable data. Three aims hale been pursued: (1) to explore and describe interpersonal and intergroup behaviour in extreme situations from the victims §s perspective, (2) to analyse these types of behaviour through social identity theory (SIT), and (3) to highlight certain observations and comments by Levi, an excellent privileged observer , which might suggest new directions of research in this field. Turning our attention to interpersonal and intergroup relations, we submitted the text to content analysis. Correspondence analysis was then carried out. The results support the importance of Tajfel §s (1981) theory for the analysis of extreme situations, but also suggest possible extensions of the present model following Levi §s theorizing. 
951	29	02-mar	1999	In a field study in East Germany, predictions by Social Identity Theory concerning relations among socio structural characteristics of intergroup relations (stability.,,, legitimacy, permeability) and identity management strategies (e.g. social competition) were examined. In general, East Germans were expected to consider their status position as inferior compared to West Germans. Moreover, depending on whether they regard such a status difference as legitimate or illegitimate, as stable or unstable, and whether they perceive group boundaries as permeable or impermeable, East German participants should differ with respect to identity management strategics such as change of status relations, change of categorization, change of comparison dimension, change of comparison object and change of group membership. File hundred and seventeen participants from different regions of East Germany completed a questionnaire on various aspects of life satisfaction. A path model including stability, legitimacy and permeability as predictors, ingroup identification as mediator and identity management strategies as criteria was tested. Results ale mainly in line with assumptions on main effects derived from Social Identity Theory. However, some extensions and clarifications with respect to assimilation situations seem to be adequate. In addition, results show that ingroup identification can be regarded as a powerful mediator between perceived intergroup relations and identity management strategies.
952	29	02-mar	1999	What follows is a quasi experimental study aiming to analyse the influence of the social division of roles (especially the division between public and private spheres of activity on gender social identities. Subjects were asked to describe themselves as well as their images of the perfect or ideal person in the context of their professional activities or their close relationships. The order of presentation (self description and the description of the perfect person ) was balanced. We found that women and men perceived themselves according to the traditional gender stereotypes (women perceived themselves as more feminine while men describe themselves as more masculine). However the context in which subjects imagined themselves affected their self perceptions as well as their images of the ideal person : A public context (professional activity) elicited more masculine self images in women and men whereas private contexts (close relationships) led to more feminine images of themselves. Furthermore, the images of the perfect person varied according to which context was salient: these images were more masculine in the public context and more feminine in the private one. Finally, the asymmetry hypothesis in social comparison was confirmed. Although there was a significant correlation between self images and the image of the perfect or ideal person , this correlation was stronger when subjects described themselves first and described their images of the ideal person before. This result was interpreted as reflecting the subjects §s tendency to see themselves as prototypes in the social comparison. 
953	29	02-mar	1999	Two studies investigated how behavioural information about the morality or intelligence of another person influences impressions, expectations of cooperative behaviour, and own cooperation in a mixed motive interdependence situation. Consistent with the morality importance hypothesis, results revealed that morality information influenced impressions, expectations of other §s cooperative behaviour, as well as own cooperation more strongly than intelligence information, and led to greater confidence in expectations and better recall. Consistent with the negativity effect hypothesis, negative information about morality and intelligence had more impact on impressions and interaction relevant measures than positive information. An additional finding was that people overall expected more cooperation from others than they were willing to display themselves, and that this difference was especially pronounced for unintelligent and moral targets. Explanations and implications are discussed from a behavioural adaptive perspective on impression formation. 
954	29	02-mar	1999	This research concerned attitude change towards a majority or minority position as a function of convergent and divergent message processing. Results of a 2 (majority/minority support for persuasive arguments) x 3 (convergent/divergent/no processing instructions) experiment showed that recipients identified more with a majority rather than minority, and identification was positively correlated with articles on the focal, but not the related issue. More importantly, results showed that in the no processing condition, counter attitudinal majority arguments produced more positive attitudes on the focal rather than related issue, minority arguments had no effects on either issue. A similar pattern emerged under convergent processing: major it!, support produced more positive attitudes on focal than related issues, while minority support had no effect on either issue. Divergent processing instructions, finally, produced more positive attitudes on the related issue than on the focal issue, especially in the case of minority support. Unexpectedly, majority arguments under divergent processing had ilo effect on focal or related attitudes whatsoever. Overall, results support the conclusion that majority arguments affect attitudes on focal issues more than on related issues because of convergent message processing, while minority arguments affect attitudes on related issues more than on focal issues because of divergent message processing and a desire to avoid identification with the source. 
955	29	02-mar	1999	Two experiments based upon Gollwitzer §s (1993) concept of implementation intentions are described. In both experiments, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and intentions from Ajzen §s (1991) theory of planned behaviour were used to measure participants §s motivation prior to an intervention in which participants made implementation intentions specifying where and when they would take a vitamin C pill each day. Behaviours were assessed by self report and pill count at both 10 days and 3 weeks in Experiment 1, and at 2 weeks and 5 weeks in Experiment 2. Results supported the view that participants who formed implementation intentions were less likely to miss taking a pill every day compared to controls. Evidence suggested that implementation intentions were effective because they allowed participants to pass control of behaviour to the environmental cues contained in the implementation intention. Implications of the study and some suggestions for future research are outlined. 
956	29	02-mar	1999	The aim of this study is to show that, when examining social identification, it is both possible and important to distinguish between self categorisation, commitment to the group, and group self esteem, as related but separate aspects of group members §s social identity. This was demonstrated in an experiment (N = 119), in which Ingroup Status (high/low), Ingroup Size (majority/minority), and Group Formation (self selected/assigned group membership) were manipulated orthogonally. The results of this study confirm that these three aspects of social identity can be distinguished as separate factors in a principal components analysis. Furthermore, as predicted, the three aspects are differentially related to manipulated group features, as well as displays of ingroup favouritism. Group members §s self categorisations were only affected by the relative size of the group, while group self esteem was only influenced by group status. Affective commitment to the group depended both on group status and on the group assignment criterion. Importantly, only the group commitment aspect of social identity mediated displays of ingroup favouritism. 
957	29	02-mar	1999	Abstractness and frequency of descriptions of positive and negative behaviours were examined as a function of target (self versus others), valence (positive versus negative), and type of behaviour (publicly verifiable behaviours versus not publicly verifiable behaviours). Positive behaviours of self were expected to be reported more often and more abstractly than positive behaviours of others. For negative behaviours, this pattern of effects should be reversed. Further, publicly verifiable behaviours were expected to offer less opportunity for self enhancement than private and ambiguous behaviours. ANOVA partially supported these expectations. However, the magnitude of self enhancing beliefs did not depend on the degree to which the behaviours were publicly verifiable. Implications are discussed. 
958	29	02-mar	1999	In this study a questionnaire was administered via e mail to Dutch social psychologists. We asked to what extent respondents felt that a widely published plagiarism scandal involving a Dutch psychologist affected themselves and the image of their profession. As predicted, findings indicate that the impact of the scandal was dependent on the salient identity of both the perceiver ( social psychologist or psychologist ) and the stimulus targe ( clinical psychologist or psychologist ). Respondents were more affected by the plagiarism scandal when the self category that was made salient matched the category of the target of the scandal. 
959	29	02-mar	1999	Self determination theory suggests that better prediction of behaviour will be observed from intentions based on attitudes than intentions based on subjective norms. Analyses of the intention behaviour relationship for both attitudinally versus normatively controlled people and attitudinally versus normatively controlled behaviours supported this hypothesis. 
960	29	02-mar	1999	Under conditions of higher or lower uncertainty, college students recalled three or eight ways to improve exam performance and then estimated their likelihood of getting As on their easiest and hardest finals. Results supported the hypothesis that the availability heuristic is used only under conditions of uncertainty. 
961	29	02-mar	1999	Following Self Categorization Theory, the present study argues that self stereotyping should be considered in examining the relationship between identification and ingroup bias. A study among Iranians living in the Netherlands was conducted. It was found that identification was related to self stereotyping under conditions of group threat. Further, only self stereotyping made a unique contribution to the explanation of ingroup bias. However, there was an interaction effect showing that self stereotyping was related to ingroup bias for high identifiers. Future studies on ingroup bias are advised to examine the role of bath identification and self stereotyping. 
962	29	4	1999	The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour continue to receive considerable research attention, despite criticisms of their asocial conceptualisation and the rational decision making approach. Two studies were designed to assess the impact of induced mood on condom use (Study I) and food choice (Study 2). Both studies provided support for application of the theory of reasoned action to health related behaviour, and for. differential effects of mood on information processing. Study I provided support for problem focus theory, with attitudes (but not subjective norm) predicting intention in the negative mood condition. The opposite pattern of findings held for the positive mood condition (i.e. only subjective norm predicted intention). The results of Study 2 provided for ther support for the problem focus approach and for the inclusion of self identity in the theory of planned behaviour. The findings are discussed with implications for future work on mood and behavioural decision making. 
963	29	4	1999	Two studies, one conducted in the Netherlands (N = 87) and one in Italy with two samples Catholic Youth (N = 41) and Young Communists (N = 41) assessed the cross cultural generality of the previously confirmed hypothesis (Pepitone & Saffiotti, 1997) that six universal nonmaterial beliefs fate, God, luck, chance, just punishment, and just reward are used selectively to interpret life events. A selective correspondence between the six beliefs and the standard life event cases specifically constructed to engage the belief specializations was predicted. All three samples showed the predicted correspondence in terms of significant ordinal correlations in a 6 nonmaterial belief x 9 life events classification. In addition, the findings ave consistent with the assumption that the degree of selective correspondence depends upon the importance of beliefs in the sample under study. 
964	29	4	1999	In a field study with 295 factory employees, three hypotheses were tested: (I) Procedural injustice at work is correlated negatively with job satisfaction and psychosomatic wellbeing. (2) The perception of procedural injustice depends on the person §s chronic justice sensitivity. (3) Justice sensitivity moderates the correlation of procedural injustice with satisfaction and well being, the correlation becoming larger with increasing justice sensitivity. Procedural injustice was a defined as the discrepancy between desired (ought) and perceived (is) procedures. notice sensitivity and procedural fairness according to Leventhal §s criteria (consistency, nonpartiality, accuracy, correctability, representativeness) and one additional criterion (open information) were measured via questionnaire. Job satisfaction, number of sick days during the last six months and number of days a per son felt sick at work during the last six months served as indicators of psychosomatic well being. The first and second hypotheses were supported by the data. Partial support was also obtained for the third hypothesis: Justice sensitivity moderated the con elation of procedural unfairness with (a) the number of clays the person felt sick at work and (b) the sum of this variable with the number of sick days. 
965	29	4	1999	The well documented relationship between political orientation and moral reasoning has most often been interpreted in terms of the influence of level of moral development (cf. Kohlberg, 1984) upon an individual §s political inclinations: those who have reached the conventional level (or stage 4) in Kohlberg §s terms will as a result tend to favour the political right, whereas those who progress to the principled level (stage 5) shift their political preferences to the left. An alternative, social communication view is that these different forms of moral reasoning are expressions of contrasting political identities, and differ in ideological content rather than developmental level. We compared the inferences that American and British students (n = 211) drew about the political, moral and cognitive attributes of a target who, in response to moral dilemmas, used either stage 4A, stage 4B or stage 5 mol al arguments as defined by Kohlberg. Perception of the target §s political attributes varied consistently and significantly as a function of the tal get §s moral reasoning, but there were no corresponding effects on perception of moral or cognitive attributes. The results are interpreted as supporting a social communication view of moral reasoning and its relation to political orientation, and at the same time questioning the claim that conventional (stage 4) and principled (stage 5) moral reasoning are distinct levels of socio cognitive development. 
966	29	4	1999	We tested the idea that the col relation between implicit and explicit measures of prejudice depends on whether or not groups ale normatively protected against discrimination. A pilot study (N = 31) showed that 13 categories varied widely in the degree to which if is acceptable to express negative opinions about them. The main study involving 89 Catholic subjects found that explicit (reward allocation, liking ratings) and implicit measures (linguistic intergroup bias) of prejudice were correlated for the outgroup that is not normatively protected against discrimination (Islamic Fundamentalists) but uncorrelated for the outgroup that is protected (Je,vs). 
967	29	4	1999	Building on a self aspect model (SAM) of the individual self and the collective self, the authors hypothesized that personally important and positive aspects of the self would facilitate the construal of a collective self. Following a self description task, research participants selected either two positive ol two negative self aspects. One aspect in each pair had to be of high personal importance and one of low personal importance. Then, measures of self categorization, perceived ingroup and outgroup homogeneity and intergroup differentiation were administered. Our hypothesis received convergent support from all measures. It is concluded that personally important and positive self aspects are very likely to function as meaningful social categories. 
968	29	4	1999	Previous findings have shown that some reactions (e.g. satisfaction with feedback) are guided by self enhancement theory, whereas other reactions (e.g. perceived feedback accuracy) have been shown to follow predictions of self consistency theory. The Integrative Self Schema Model (ISSM) assumes that these effects should be moderated by the elaboration of the self schema involved This assumption was tested in an experimental study. 72 participants received fictitious feedback on different personality dimensions allegedly based on an adjective checklist. This feedback was either consistent with self perceptions, more positive than expected, or more negative than expected, and addressed highly elaborated (schematic) or less elaborated (aschematic) personality dimensions. Satisfaction, feedback accuracy and interest in further information were analysed as dependent variables. The experimental results clearly confirmed the hypotheses derived from the ISSM for satisfaction and perceived feedback accuracy. A self consistency effect regarding perceived feedback accuracy was found only for feedback on schematic dimensions but was attenuated on aschematic dimensions. A self enhancement effect regarding satisfaction was found only on aschematic dimensions. This finding was level sed on schematic dimensions. Finally, interest in further information did not follow the predictions made by the ISSM. 
969	29	4	1999	Two studies examined the relationship between categorization, intergroup anxiety and intel group attitudes (intergroup bias and negative affect). Study I consisted of a survey of 236 British and Japanese nationals. Study 2 was a longitudinal study of 54 Japanese students studying in the UK. Of the three categorization variables (interpersonal, super ordinate and intergroup), only intel group categorization was shown to have a relationship to generalized intergroup attitudes. In addition, intergroup anxiety and quality of contact were associated with ingroup bias and negative affect to the outgroup. Study 2 revealed an interaction between intergroup categorization and quality of contact in predicting negative affect. Intergroup anxiety was also associated with increased intergroup categorization. It is concluded that the effects of categorization during contact are still poorly understood and that intergroup anxiety is a far more powerful variable in contact than the current literature acknowledges. 
970	29	4	1999	A study of race based ingroup and outgroup judgment demonstrates the links between two models of social judgment the black sheep effect (Marques, Yzerbyt & Leyens, 1988) and expectancy violation theory (Jussim, Coleman & Lerch, 1987). White participants had a live intel action with a Black or White partner who contributed to a team success or failure at a game. Partner judgments, perceived expectancy violation, and mood changes indicated a pattern of ingroup polarization, though the race differential was reliable only when targets performed poorly. Consistent with other research, this pattern was most striking among Whites who were highly identified with their racial group. We suggest that racial identification activates favourable withingroup judgment standards which, when violated, produce mood decrements and negative evaluations. 
971	29	4	1999	"Optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT; Brewer, 1991, 1993a,b) argues that people can respond to membership of an over ly inclusive group by engaging in a drive for subgroup distinctiveness. To test this, 280 subgroup members (humanities and maths science students) rated the extent to which they perceived their superordinate group university of Queensland to be inclusive. After performing a task designed to activate their superordinate category membership, participants completed a questionnaire assessing inter subgroup attitudes. Consistent with ODT, ratings of superordinate inclusiveness explained a moderate amount of variance in subgroup bias (5 8 per cent), such that the more inclusive the superordinate category was seen to be, the more bias was demonstrated. The results are discussed in terms of their relevance for ODT and their implications for promoting subgroup harmony. "
972	29	4	1999	In two experiments using the minimal group paradigm, subjects had to describe an ingroup member and an outgroup member on the BSRI. Although the targets were not categorized by sex, the results showed that the typical ingroup member was described by men as having more male traits and by women as having more female tr nits. They also showed that the lesser worth of outgroup members was associated for men with fewer male and female traits, whereas for women it was mainly associated with fewer female traits. 
973	29	05-giu	1999	This study examines the relationship between alternative sources of authority which might influence a child §s moral reasoning. It returns to Piaget §s (1932) work to explore features of a child §s social relations which may act either to promote or constrain the communication and acceptance of moral knowledge. Children were asked to judge which of two boys Il,ns naughtier in one of Piaget §s moral Stories §s . Those who had independently given different responses were placed in a pal, and asked to agree a response together. An authority of status was introduced into some pairs by varying the gender composition of the dyad and contrasted with epistemic authority derived from the arguments more closely associated with moral autonomy. In the absence of an authority of status (in same sex pairs) influence through epistemic authority occurred with relative ease. When status and epistemic authority conflicted subjects took far longer to accept the legitimacy of the epistemic authority. 
974	29	05-giu	1999	This paper tests a prediction front the information processing model of helplessness (Sedek & Kofta, 1990) that during exposure to uncontrollability people experience high le,eis of irreducible uncertainty. Participants were given either a solvable or unsolvable discrimination task consisting of five problems. After completion of each problem participants evaluated the probability of all solution hypotheses. Three times during the course of each problem, participants indicated the solution hypotheses they were considering at that point. As predicted (1) entropy of the hypothesis set (the uncertainty measure) was higher under unsolvable than solvable tasks, (2) a gradual reduction in the number of hypotheses was noted in the solvable but not unsolvable task condition, and (3) uncertainty was a reliable predictor of self reported cognitive difficulties with thinking production and attention. 
975	29	05-giu	1999	A field experiment demonstrated that forming implementation intentions was effective in changing complex everyday behaviour, in this case establishing a healthier diet. Implementation intentions concerned a specific plan for when and how to act. The effect of implementation intentions was additive to the prediction of healthy earing by behavioural intentions to eat healthily. Implementation intentions were pitted against individual differences in counterintentional (unhealthy) habits. The effects of implementation intentions and counterintentional habits were independent, suggesting that implementation intentions did not break the negative influence of unhealthy habits, and yet managed to make those with unhealthy habits eat healthier in habit unrelated respects. 
976	29	05-giu	1999	The results of this study! demonstrate that how people react emotionally to ethnic minority groups varies as a function of seif categorisation. Studying ethnic Dutch participants, it was found that participants with high social self categorisation reported more negative emotions than participants with low social self categorisation. Moreover, it was found that only among the former group of participants were ingroup stereotypes related to emotional reactions towards minority groups. The role of self categorisation, was found for both negative and positive emotions, and also for situations where the presence of ethnic minority groups had either negative or positive consequences for the ingroup. Additionally: only individual ingroup stereotypes and not cultural ingroup stereotypes were found to be related to emotions. These results support insights from self categorisation theory and illustrate the generalisation of the self categorisation process. 
977	29	05-giu	1999	"The category confusion paradigm (Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff & Ruderman, 1978) was used to examine the relationship between cognitive load and the extent of social categorization. The original prediction made by Taylor et al. (1978; Experiment 2) and inferences from the cognitive miser model suggest that categorization should increase or be unaffected by cognitive fond. In contrast, it is argued that social categorization can be an effortful and resource consuming process, especially, where the representation of multiple stimuli are concerned. This leads to the prediction that social categorization should decrease with load assuming there is enough load to produce recall er rows in the first place. We obtained results consistent with this analysis in paradigms which manipulated load by means of set size (Study I) and processing pace (Study 2). "
978	29	05-giu	1999	Should stereotyping be characterised as an act of cognitive miserliness of one of rational meaning seeking? This paper uses a cognitive load paradigm to investigate the adequacy of popular resource based explanations of stereotyping in comparison to art alternative fit based or meaning based explanation, in Experiment 1, load was increased by means of concurrent tasks within a highly fitting context (where targets generally behaved bz a stereotype consistent fashion). A linear decrease in stereotyping resulted as measured by category confusions on a who said, what recognition task (Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff & Ruderman, 1978). This outcome is inconsistent with a resource based analysis of stereotyping. Experiment 2 manipulated load as stimulus exposure rime. Although load was successfully, imposed in this second experiment, stereotyping neither increased nor decreased as a function of lend. The concept of cognitive load and the importance of fit for the analysis of stereotyping are discussed. 
979	29	05-giu	1999	This study reports a conceptual replication and extensions of Deschamps §s (1977) experiment concerning the effects of subcategorization on an existing dimension of physical classification. Using a computerized procedure and a more sophisticated statistical analysis, ve found support for category differentiation processes at the intra as well as inter class level of differentiation. In contrast to the original findings, we also found evidence for decategorization, a previously neglected potential outcome of multiple categorization procedures. 
980	29	05-giu	1999	This article is aimed at providing further supporting evidence for the assumption that the cognitive processing of certain kinds of information is socially driven, even at very low levels of processing. More specifically, we hypothesize that knowledge associated with a social norm like the norm of internality (Jellison & Green, 1981, Beauvois & Dubois, 1988) may be more accessible in memory than Knowledge associated with a non normative register, and may therefore be processed more easily. Experiment 1 shows that adults in a cognitive overload situation who were presented either with internal attribution statements (normative) or with external attribution statements (non normative) managed to recall some of the former, but proved incapable of recalling any of the latter. Experiment allows us to show that 10 and 11 year old children (age at which the norm of internality is being acquired) in an analogous situations were not able to process internal attribution statements unless they were pretrained to detect the value associated with normative causal explanations. Experiment 3 enables us to verify that training adults in this way did not change the conclusions drawn irt Experiment I. The results as a whole are discussed in ter ms of the potential storage in semantic memory of the social value associated with normative explanation. 
981	29	05-giu	1999	The goal of this research was to develop the work of Py and Somat (1991) concerning normative clearsightedness. Although they were interested in the norm of internality, they, defined normative clearsightedness as the knowledge of the normative or counter normative aspect of certain types of behaviour or certain types of judgements . However, even though they placed the concept normative clearsightedness within a broad normative perspective that goes beyond merely? the norm of internality, it remains to be explored what this broad perspective consists of. In this study, we haw turned towards the notion of individualism which testifies, just like the norm of internality, to a certain social desirability (Somat, Doisneau & Gouin, 1994, unpublished manuscript) in testing the generalizability of normative clearsightedness to other norms. the results obtained in this study demonstrate that normative clearsightedness is applicable to at least one norm other than the norm of internality. In fact, the normative clearsightedness of internal explanations seems to be associated with the normativity of individualistic beliefs. In other words, we find that subjects who are clearsighted with regard to internality are also clearsighted with regard to individualism. 
982	29	05-giu	1999	Most research on social identity and relative deprivation has focused on the salience of social identity in social comparisons. In contrast, little research has studied relative deprivation in relation to one §s identification with the ingroup, and across a variety of comparison targets. Using samples of Latino and African American respondents, the present study investigated ingroup identification and relative deprivation in comparisons with Ingroup Members, Other Minorities, and Whites. High Identification respondents felt more group deprivation than Low Identification respondents in comparisons with both Other Minorities and Whites. High identification respondents also reported more personal deprivation than Low Identification respondents where comparing themselves with Whites and less personal satisfaction when comparing themselves with Other Minorities, yet they generally expressed satisfaction in comparisons with Ingroup Members. Results suggest that ingroup identification and comparison targets are important considerations for deprivation research, as one §s relationships, with targets may be associated with outcomes of social comparisons. 
983	29	05-giu	1999	Previous research examined the predictions of the self enhancement theory and the selfconsistency, theory regarding reactions to self relevant feedback. In the present study two circumstances that are supposed to moderate self enhancement and self consistency motives have been examined, the elaboration of a self conception and the discrepancy, between the actual self and a personal standard. One hundred and fourteen participants received either positive, consistent, or negative feedback regarding their results on a personality test. Affective and cognitive reactions to fictitious feedback were measured as dependent variables. In accordance with prior empirical evidence, affective reactions followed the self enhancement theory and cognitive reactions Mere in line with the self consistency theory. Moreover, affective and cognitive reactions were influenced by the elaboration of a self conception and the discrepancy between the actual self and a personal standard as predicted Regarding affective reactions, the predictions of the self enhancement theory were more clearly supported when self conceptions were less elaborated or when people perceived a high self discrepancy. Regarding cognitive reactions, the predictions of the self consistency theory were more clearly supported when self conceptions were highly elaborated or when people perceived a low, self discrepancy. 
984	29	05-giu	1999	Two studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that heightened membership salience, achieved by increasing the prototypicality of particular outgroup members during cooperative intergroup contact, facilitates the generalization of positive attitudes toward the outgroup as a whole. The first study (N = 64) utilized an experimental paradigm in which the perceived typicality of a target outgroup member and the perceived homogeneity of the outgroup as a whole were manipulated. Consistent with our hypothesis, results indicated that positive attitudinal generalization was facilitated by encounters with typical outgroup members. The effects of membership prototypicality were further examined in a second study (N = 293) where a survey was administered in six European Community countries. Results supported the hypothesis that membership salience moderates the impact of contact on a generalized measure of favourable orientation towards another country. 
985	29	05-giu	1999	A field experiment studied the effect of extended contact through peer modelling for tolerance promotion among 1480 Finnish students (ages 13 15) in three pairs of middle schools that were matched on the proportion of foreign students (ranging from 3 per cent to 19 per cent) and randomised to control or experimental condition. In the experimental schools, printed stories of ingroup members engaged in close friendship with members of outgroups were presented in two sessions as examples of successful intergroup contact. In order to avoid subtyping, i.e. to ensure both inclusion of the ingroup member in the self and generalisation from the outgroup friend to the whole outgroup, the typicality of both the ingroup exemplar and the outgroup friend was enhanced. Intergroup attitudes were measured before and after the experimental intervention. A scale score measuring intergroup tolerance showed stability or favourable changes in experimental schools, while attitudes worsened or stayed the same in the cona ol schools. The experimental effect was significant in four statistical tests (p < 0.001 to p < 0.05). The results show that tolerance can be improved or maintained by extended contact, i.e. peer modelling of positive intergroup contacts. 
986	29	05-giu	1999	This study explores the conditions under which experimentally primed anger influences both attributions of responsibility and the processes by which people make such attributions. Drawing on social functional theory, it was hypothesized that people are best thought of as intuitive prosecutors who lower their thresholds for making attributions of harmful intent and recommending harsh punishment when they both witness a serious transgression of societal norms and believe that the transgressor escaped punishment. The data support the hypotheses. Anger primed by a serious crime carried over to influence judgments of unrelated acts of harm only wizen the perpetrator of the crime went unpunished, notwithstanding the arousal of equally intense anger in conditions in which the perpetrator appropriately punished or his fate was unknown. Participants in the perpetrator unpunished condition also relied on simpler and more punitive attributional heuristics for inferring responsibility for harm. 
987	29	05-giu	1999	The theoretical implications of individualism collectivism for self esteem suggest that collectivism is associated with (1) relatively higher self liking and lower self competence and (2) greater change in self liking in response to social life events. In contrast, individualism is expected to be associated with (1) relatively higher self competence and lower self liking and (2) greater change in self competence in response to achievement related life events. A 6 month prospective study comparing students in (collectivist) Spain and (individualist) Britain confirmed the expected differences in relative (adjusted) levels of self liking and self competence. The predicted differential sensitivity to social events was also confirmed. No evidence for differential sensitivity, to achievement related events, however, was found. 
988	29	05-giu	1999	In line with a social support for shared self interest interpretation of competitive intergroup behaviour Schopler, Insko, Graetz, Drigotas, Smith and Dahl (1993) observed that, in the face of consistent cooperative outgroup, behaviour, two ingroup members behaved competitively, when this strategy, had been suggested by another (role playing) ingroup member. Because a comparable amount of competitive PDG choosing was observed in a no suggestion condition with two subjects and one neutral role player (single no suggestion condition), Schopler et al. assumed that the two subjects, motivated by greed, each initiated and supported competitive suggestions. Within the boundaries of Schopler et al. s, research paradigm, the present experiment aimed to rest this assumption by adding a no suggestion cooperative feedback condition with two neutral role players, rendering impossible any form of explicit social support. In this double no suggestion condition a significant reduction of competitive responding, vas observed, compared to a single no suggestion condition. Additionally it was observed that the single no suggestion condition yielded less competition than a manipulated (explicit) competitive suggestion condition. Finally, the new condition still produced more competition than a manipulated (explicit) cooperative suggestion condition. As a whole, our results are in line with predictions derived from the social support for shared self interest hypothesis. Nevertheless, alternative interpretations, calling for further research, are also proposed. 
989	29	05-giu	1999	An analogous thinking task was used to test Nemeth §s Convergent Divergent theory of majority and minority influence. Participants read a (base) problem and one of three solutions (one of which is considered the best solution). They then generated solutions to a second (target) problem which shared similar structural features to the first problem. Due to the similarities between problems, the solution given to the fir st problem can be used as an analogy ill solving the second. In contrast to Nemeth §s theory, when the solution to the base problem, was endorsed by a numerical majority there was not an increase in analogy transfer in solving the target problem. However, in support of Nemeth §s theory, when the base solution was supported by a numerical minority then the participants were more likely to generate the best solution to the target problem regardless of which base solution they were given. 
990	29	7	1999	Behaviours are judged by their causes (i.e. the actor §s intentions) as well as by their consequences. The present study focuses on the effects of the latter. Subjects judged behaviours that were either socially good, socially bad competent, or incompetent. The consequences of the behaviours were either (a) personal consequences for the actor, (b) interpersonal consequences for others, or (c) not mentioned. Behaviours with interpersonal consequences were judged more extremely than with personal consequences. When no consequences were mentioned the behaviours were rated similarly as in the condition with interpersonal consequences. These effects emerged regardless of behaviour valence (positive versus negative) and dimension (social versus competence related). The results suggest that others §s behaviours are judged primarily by their interpersonal implications, and that observers take the perspective of those whose outcomes may be affected by the actor. 
991	29	7	1999	Insights from leader member exchange theory and social justice theory were combined to derive predictions about the effects of relative competence and power use by a move powerful other on evaluative and behavioural responses of subordinates. These predictions were tested in two experiments, using a simulated organizational structure. The main results of the first experiment (N = 73) indicate that frequency of power use is an important determinant of subordinates §s evaluations of the status quo, supporting predictions from leader member exchange theory. However, in line with a procedural justice explanation, perceived legitimacy of the superior §s behaviour and participants §s cooperative intentions were determined jointly by power use and relative competence. A second experiment (N = 152) more closely investigated behavioural responses. The findings obtained in Experiment 1 were replicated, and as predicted, interaction effects of the superior §s power use and competence were found for subordinates §s collaborative behaviour and employee turnover. Both these effects were mediated by participants §s sense of commitment to their superior. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. 
992	29	7	1999	Three experimental studies were conducted to examine two alternative explanations for the widely established positive effect of social identification in promoting cooperation in social dilemmas. We hypothesised that social identification effects could be either ascribed to (1) an increase in the value assigned to the collective good (i.e. goal transformation hypothesis) or (2) an enhancement of trust in the cooperation of other group members (i.e. goal amplification hypothesis). To disentangle these two explanations, we examined the effects of social identification on the contributions to a public good of people with a different social value orientation (i.e. pre existing differences in preferred outcome distribution between self and others). Following the goal transformation hypothesis, we predicted that an increased group identification would raise contributions, in particular for people essentially concerned with their personal welfare (i.e. pro self value orientation). Alternatively, following the goal amplification hypothesis it was expected that increased group identification would primarily affect decisions of people concerned with the collective welfare (i.e, prosocial value orientation). The results of all three studies provided support for the goal transformation rather than goal amplification hypothesis, suggesting that selfish individuals can be encouraged to cooperate by increasing the salience of their group membership. 
993	29	7	1999	"Implicit attributions in media coverage of wrestling; events are investigated A special feature of show wrestling is a separation in morally good fighters who win because of their intrinsic goodness and morally bad fighters who win by bending the rules. Thus, show wrestling can be characterized by the attributions it affords. Linguistic abstractness as an index of attributions of dispositionality is measured with the Linguistic Category Model (LCM; Semin & Fiedler, 1988). Analyses of published fight reports in an official wrestling magazine show that goodness and badness is indeed attributed on a stable and global level and that fights with the expected outcome are described in terms of fighters §s dispositions in contrast to fights with an unexpected outcome. "
994	29	7	1999	Can empathy induced altruism motivate a person to cooperate in a prisoner §s dilemma? To answer this question, 60 undergraduate women were placed in a one trial prisoner §s dilemma, and empathy for the other person was manipulated. Regardless of whether the dilemma was framed as a social exchange or as a business transaction, cooperation was significantly higher among those women led to feel empathy for the other than among those not led to feel empathy. Among those not led to feel empathy, the business frame reduced cooperation, lending support to the idea of an exemption on moral motivation in business transactions. Lack of a business exemption on empathy induced altruism supported the suggestion that altruism is not simply a type of moral motivation, but is a distinct form of prosocial motivation. 
995	29	7	1999	Two studies investigated the effects of cognitive busyness and group variability on participants §s memory for stereotype related information, In Study 1, participants formed an impression of an experimentally created group that was either homogeneous or heterogeneous in composition. While learning about the group, half of the participants were made cognitively busy, the others were not. The results supported our prediction that stereotypical efforts on memory are moderated by both the availability of processing resources and the variability of the target group under consideration. Under optimal processing circumstances, participants §s recollections were dominated by the perceived variability of the group in question. That is, participants displayed preferential recall for stereotype consistent information when they believed the group to be homogeneous in composition, but a tendency to recall more stereotype inconsistent information when they considered the group to be heterogeneous in nature, Under suboptimal processing conditions, however, a different pattern emerged. Now, participants preferentially recalled stereotype consistent information regardless of the perceived variability of the group. These results were largely replicated in Study 2 when the perceived variability of a real social group was manipulated. We consider the implications of these findings for contemporary theories of stereotyping. 
996	29	7	1999	A survey of anti poverty activists and non activists in Canada and the Philippines was conducted to assess their beliefs about the causes of poverty in developing nations. Principal components analysis revealed that the respondents §s poverty attributions could be distinguished along five main dimensions: exploitation, characterological weaknesses of the poor, natural causes, conflict, and poor government. Group breakdowns revealed several significant differences related to respondents §s countries of residence and social ideologies. A path analysis suggested that attributions fully mediated the relationship between social ideology and participation in anti poverty activism. 
997	29	7	1999	High and low prejudiced participants were presented with a lecture segment in which the race of the professor (White or Black) and lecture quality (high or low) were manipulated. Consistent with predictions, low prejudiced participants were more extreme in their evaluations (more negative) and performed more poor ly on test items when presented with an expectancy violating low quality Black lecturer. High prejudiced participants were more extreme in their evaluations (more positive) and performed more poorly when presented with an expectancy violating high quality Black lecturer. 
998	29	8	1999	The present experiment investigated cognitive and behavioural effects of planning (i.e. forming implementation intentions) on goal pursuit during the performance of mundane behaviours. Participants received the goal to collect a coupon halfway the hall from the lab to the cafeteria. Later, they were also given the task to go from the lab to the cafeteria. Thus participants had to attain a new goal by interrupting a mundane behaviour. Some participants enriched their goal with implementation intentions, others did not. Results showed that participants who formed implementation intentions were more effective in goal pursuit than the control group. Importantly, the data suggest that the effects of planning on goal completion are mediated by a heightened mental accessibility of environmental cues related to the goal completion task. 
999	29	8	1999	Good luck implies comparison with a worse counterfactual outcome, whereas bad luck implies upward comparisons. People will accordingly describe themselves as particularly lucky after recollecting situations where they, avoided something negative, and as particularly unlucky after recollecting episodes in which they missed something positive (Study 1). Upward and downward comparisons can be creat