Progr Volume Issue Year Abstract 1 1 2 1971 " The aim of the studies was to assess the effects of social categorization on intergroup behaviour when, in the intergroup situation, neither calculations of individual interest nor previously existing attitudes of hostility could have been said to have determined discriminative behaviour against an outgroup. These conditions were satisfied in the experimental design. In the first series of experiments, it was found that the subjects favoured their own group in the distribution of real rewards and penalities in a situation in which nothing but the variable of fairly irrelevant classification distinguished between the ingroup and the outgroup. In the second series of experiments it was found that: 1) maximum joint profit independent of group membership did not affect significantly the manner in which the subjects divided real pecuniary rewards; 2) maximum profit for own group did affect the distribution of rewards; 3) the clearest effect on the distribution of rewards was due to the subjects §s attempt to achieve a maximum difference between the ingroup and the outgroup even at the price of sacrificing other objective advantages. The design and the results of the study are theoretically discussed within the framework of social norms and expectations and particularly in relation to a generic norm of outgroup behaviour prevalent in some societies. " 2 1 2 1971 An attempt was made to extend social exchange theory to a situation in which the outcomes available for exchanges were of qualitatively different sorts. Male Ss judged the creativity of sentences constructed by female accomplices under conditions of high versus low attractiveness (presence or absence of smiling and eye contact) of the accomplice and high versus low cost of judgemental accuracy to the S. An interaction between Attractiveness × Cost was predicted and found in experiment 1. Experiment 2 replicated that finding and added two control conditions. The results indicated that for the high attractiveness manipulation the positive reciprocity tendency which occurred under low cost was not found under higher cost. In addition, both studies showed a non significant negative reciprocity tendency under high attractiveness and high cost. Jones §s theory of ingratiation was examined for its relevancy, but it does not appear to be more appropriate in this situation than the reward cost model. 3 1 2 1971 " The theories of social influence assert that: a) the existing dependence on the source of influence and hence the presence of the latter, is the cause of the above changes, b) the effective qualities of the stimulus or those which are attributed to it ambiguity, clarity and certitude, etc., can be seen in the divergence or convergence of the estimations made on the stimulus have an independent effect from the relations which exist between this source and its target. In this research OUI aim is to question both postulates by using a very well know phenomenon. On the one hand we have shown that the style of behaviour of the source, its consistency, is sufficient to produce the desired influence. On the other hand, we have shown that if this behaviour creates a conflict of response, the subject will adopt the proposed response on the condition that he has done so of his own free will and not because of having given in under pressure. That is why an absent source of influence can be successful; the subject has the impression of approaching it without giving in to it, while the presence of a source of influence causes the polarization, this being the only means for the subject to preserve his independence. The experimental paradigm used is the same as that of Sherif. Dozens of experiments have shown that the greater the distance between the stooge subjects and the naive subjects, the greater the tendency for response polarization. In the control situation where subjects were confronted with a constant stodge for the entire duration of the experiment, we obtained the same results. In the experimental situation where the stooge would leave the room with a justified excuse before the end of the experiment, we have found a trend converging towards his judgements. The polarization phenomenon is therefore due to the relation between the source and the target of influence, to the meaning which is assigned to the distances of judgment rather than to the distances themselves. Moreover, the withdrawal of the source in no way diminishes its influence and so, those who are absent are sometimes right. " 4 1 2 1971 Seventy two male subjects from lower technical schools were divided into groups of three and assigned to three conditions in which they expected to work together in competition with another group, to work together but independently of the other group, or did not anticipate to work together at all. Subjects who anticipated working together showed a more favourable attitude toward their group and its members than subjects who did not. Moreover, actual social interaction increased in group attractiveness. Intergroup competition led to a more differentiated leadership structure and a greater consensus about the distribution of influence in the group. Contrary to our predictions, intergroup competition produced no greater in group solidarity, nor any over evaluation of the group §s product. Low influence persons felt comparatively more positive about their group even before they actually had the opportunity to work together. An attempt was made to relate this finding to the ordinal position of the low status figure, his affiliative tendencies under stress, and his greater social dependence. 5 1 2 1971 A method is presented to explore, empirically, patterns of social and personal identity: the social identity inventory (SII). The SII is based on free associations describing a person §s principal group memberships (first order data). The responses obtained are used as stimuli to generate second order data through focused introspection. The results reveal patterns of relationship between self representation and group representation, the differential probability of different group memberships to elicit self representations, and the cognitive processes underlying the natural representations of group memberships. 6 1 2 1971 " This study contrasts the interactions and influence choices amongst line managers in three organizations. The organizations were selected because of their contrasting formal structures (degree of bureaucratization, etc., after Pugh et al., 1968). The relations between the sociometric indicators and the various aspects of organization structure are explored across different sub parts of the line management systems. The overall results are that the effects of aspects of organization structure on social processes are generally in the directions predicted, though the relationships are not large; and that the effects of one aspect of organization structure can be moderated by other structurat features. Global generalizations about the effects of, say, bureaucracy on social behaviour are therefore inadvisable. " 7 1 3 1971 Ajter a brief discussion of work on experimenter bias, it is suggested that the possibility of less well documented biases should be considered. A number of such biases are suggested. They are presented in terms of their source, namely the political ideologies, cultural backgrounds, biographical characteristics and personal characteristics of scientists. In considering implications of biases, three reactions are discussed: ignoring, controlling and understanding them. In particular, it is proposed that understanding the operation of bias might be furthered by working towards a taxonomy of biases, organized in terms of the sources of biases and the points in the research process at which they intrude. 8 1 3 1971 This article attempts to introduce and investigate a new variable in the experimental study of groups: the representation system. This study deals more specifically with the rile played by the representation of the task. This representation of the task constitutes the theory, the system of hypotheses individuals work out with respect to the nature of the task and the means to use in order to carry it out. The key results of this study are that group performance depends on the representation of the task, with optimum effectiveness achieved when the representation of the task and its objective nature coincide. Another finding is that the structure of communications within the group is determined by the representation of the task rather than by its objective character. It was also established that the representation of the task determines the cognitive process adopted by the group. Thus the entire group activity is tied to the representations in its midst. The group organizes itself, regulates itself interactions, and determines its priorities in terms of these representations. 9 1 3 1971 The Pollyanna hypothesis is extended into the field of intertrait inference to predict that inferential thresholds for positively evaluated characteristics will be lower than those for negatively evaluated characteristics. This prediction is confirmed, and is shown to have important implications for models of inference rules. Data from several studies are analysed to reveal that the Pollyanna threshold effect is reliably greater for women than for men, and it is shown that this effect is unrelated to sex differences in extremity of responding. 10 1 3 1971 This study explored the different interpretations of the 4 3 2 power pattern (Caplow, 1956) in the standard pachisiboard situation, originated by Vinacke and Arkoff (1957). The results show that A (4) does not misperceive his power more than B (3) or C (2), as Kelley and Arrowood (1960) and Vinacke and Arkoff (1957) assumed. The results also did not fit the predictions of game theory (Shapley and Shubik, 1964). Gamson §s (1964) explanation was not confirmed either. The conspiracy hypothesis (Hoffman et al., 1954), which states that if the players perceive that they are comparable and one of the players is given an initial advantage, then the two other players will conspire against him, can explain the results of this study reasonably well. 11 1 3 1971 This paper, which draws on follow up data collected from English subjects first tested as adolescents and then, 1I years later, as young inen of 24–25, falls into three parts. Part I examines the structuring of responses to authoritarian statements. No general authoritarian factor could be isolated in either adolescence or in adult life. Instead, four separate authoritarian response tendencies, each with its own antecedents, significance and predictive value, were obtained. Only the adolescent measures correlated significantly with ability level. This, together with the greater stability across time of the responses of the more able 13–14 year olds, led us to hypothesize that some of the variance in adolescent scores was cognitively, not motivationally, determined. Part II reports a series of experimental studies (using additional data from the follow up investigation) testing the cognitive and developmental hypothesis, which received support. Part III proposes a general model for the consideration of attitudes, in which any given attitudinal response is located in a three dimensional space of cognitive complexity, personality needs and social structure. 12 1 3 1971 " Two experiments are reported here in which Ss were asked to rate videotapes of a performer reading friendly, neutral and hostile messages in a friendly, neutral or hostile non verbal style. These messages and non verbal styles had previously been presented independently to a separate group of Ss jor rating, in order to obtain an estimate of their individual strengths in terms of six rating scales, and thus permit a matching of verbal (messages) and non verbal (styles) cues in the experiment where both types of cues were presented in combination. The results of both experiments indicate that non verbal cues had a greater effect on ratings made on 7 point scales, such as hostile friendly, than verbal cues. The magnitude of this greater effect of non verbal cues, however, was dependent on the relative strength of non verbal as opposed to verbal cues. In the first experiment, both types of cues were approximately equal in strength when ruted alone; here non verbal cues accounted for 12.5 times us much variance us verbal cues, and produced 5.7 times as much shift on the ratitig scales. In the second experiment the verbal cues were much stronger than the non verbal cues when rated alone. Here the relative effect of non verbal cues in the second experiment was diminished; the ratio of non verbal : verbal variance was now 1.67:1. When verbal and non verbal signals were inconsistent, the performance was rated as insincere, unstable and confusing which was not found in earlier experiments on the superior inferior dimension. " 13 1 4 1971 Judgments of attitude statements with the method of equal appearing intervals have been found to vary as a function of the judges §s attitudes. In this paper explanations of the relationship between judges §s attitudes and judgments of attitude statements in terms of models of psychophysical judgment are discussed. It is argued that psychophysical models such as adaptation level theory, the range frequency model, and the rubber band model and its derivations, cannot account satisfactorily for judges §s performance of the attitude rating task in a great number of studies. The reason for this failure, it is argued, is that the stimulus series employed in the psychophysical judgment research on which these models are based typically varied only on the dimension being judged. The sets of statements judged in attitude rating studies, however, vary not only on the dimension of interest (favourability Unfavourability) but also on a number of other dimensions. It is suggested that this incidental stimulus variation of attitude statements may account for the failure of psychophysical models to predict accurately the performance of judges in the attitude rating task. It is argued that if principles which could account for the effects of this incidental stimulus variation on attitude ratings could be incorporated into psychophysical models, the predictive qualities of these models could be improved considerably. One such model is discussed. 14 1 4 1971 Cognitive consistency theories predict changes in evaluation within an existing frame of reference. This frame of reference must be defined in terms of those dimensions or aspects of the situation that appear most salient to the individual concerned. The same situation may appear balanced or unbalanced, depending on which dimensions are seen as salient. The tendency to maintain balance may therefore reveal itself in a tendency to see as salient those dimensions in terms of which a given situation will appear most balanced. This is consistent with evidence from the judgment of attitude statements, which suggests that individuals will regard as most salient those dimensions along which their own evaluations of a set of statements will be most congruent with the value connotations of the terms by which the judgment scale is labelled. 15 1 4 1971 Positivity bias is approached from three viewpoints: (a) It may be the effect of purely cognitive dispositions. (b) As such, it may function as an hypothesis about reality. The related dynamic factor would be a tendency toward cognitive validity which may lead to an orientation toward the negative as a means to test the positivity hypothesis. (c) Finally, the subject may seek rewarding behavioural interactions with entities within his life space. In this context cognitive positivity bias may reflect a behavioural approach bias which can be related to the dynamics of mere survival and self actualization. 16 1 4 1971 " In three parallel experiments, subjects rated their impressions of hypothetical 20 year old males described by means of single or combined personality trait adjectives on 36 bipolar (Semantic Differential) scales. These ratings were a) intercorrelated across the scales (Q technique) and factor analysed separately for each subject, and b) submitted to an analysis of variance separately for each scale. It was shown that 1) when contradictory adjectives were combined the major portion of the variance of judgments fell on dimensions independent of that which characterized the contradiction; 2) there were substantial inter individual consistencies in the direction of the deviation from that dimension; and 3) the utility of a linear model for the prediction of judgments of combined adjectives increases with increases in the extent to which the subject experiences the combination as consistent. However, the utility of the linear model decreases considerably and consistently if the combined adjectives are experienced as non consistent. " 17 1 4 1971 " There are two aims to this paper; to report in brief preliminary form a number of studies on group risk taking that have been carried out in Bristol in the past two years, and to relate these studies to an explanation of group risk taking phenomena primarily in terms of group polarization. The paper has five sections. The first section supplies some background material regarding basic phenomena and previous attempts at explanations. The second section relates to initial individual decisions and the third section to decisions following group discussion and consensus. In the fourth section a tentative explanation of group risk taking effects is proposed in terms of group polarization processes, together with something like an overall value for risk. Group polarization itself is discussed in terms of normative and informational aspects of social influence. The final section deals with two implications of the proposed explanation, one relating to the role of individual familiarization and the other to the generality of group polarization processes. " 18 1 4 1971 A reanalysis of data obtained by Kogan and Wallach, 1966 is presented. Wherever the original analysis showed the extremity of unanimous group judgments in general not to be different from the average extremity of individual judgments, the present analysis indicates that these group judgments differ from the average of individual judgments: they are significantly more extreme than the average positions of the individuals. 19 1 4 1971 " The relationship between riskiness of decisions and confidence in decisions was examined using Choice Dilemma items. Graphs show a clear curvilinear relationship between riskiness and confidence; on both risky items and cautious items greater confidence is associate with extremely risky and extremely cautious decisions than with moderate ones. it was also demonstrated that individual subjects have more confidence in their extreme decisions than in their moderate ones. " 20 2 1 1972 Thirty two groups of four naive Ss and one accomplice participated in this 2 × 2 × 2 experiment designed to test conditions facilitating imitation of a competent model played by the accomplice. It was assumed that the psychological distance between the competent model and the Ss would be lessened so that imitation would increase: 1. if the model was friendly rather than hostile, 2. if the situation was non frustrating rather than frustrating, and 3. if aggression was permitted rather than forbidden. Imitation was measured by the Ss §s reproduction of the model §s two mannerisms, and was found to be significantly influenced in the predicted way by the three variables. However, the freedom to aggress did not lessen psychological distance. Alternative explanations are provided for these results. 21 2 1 1972 " The aim of first study, carried out by an English investigator, was to assess the extent to which Asian immigrant children had moved away from the values of their culture of origin. For this purpose some novel techniques were employed, including an identikit task and one focusing on Scottish versus Asian names. The outcome suggested that the children had been very powerfully influenced by the values of the host community. Since it was suspected that these results might have been in part a function of the ethnic membership of the investigator and/or the specific methods employed, the study was repeated on a comparable sample with an Indian psychologist and using modified test materials. The results of the second study remained unchanged as far as factual aspects were concerned; however, preferences expressed changed significantly in the direction of Asian cultural values. The theoretical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed, and it is argued that studies of this type are likely to have an inherent element of uncertainty which calls for caution in making generalizations. " 22 2 1 1972 " In a learning experiment 10 Ss as receivers judged looking signals of a sender. Providing feedback about the real direction of gaze produced learning in the direction of an improvement of discrimination performance; the improvement was independent of visual acuity of receivers and was not correlated to extraversion and neuroticism. Performance at the beginning was poorer and learning progress better for fixation points which were further away from the face. Results are discussed with reference to improving accuracy of observers on the variable looking behaviour, important in studies on nonverbal communication. A pre training of observers which allows explicit feedback about the real direction of gaze is proposed. " 23 2 1 1972 Dissonance theory and incentive theory call for different predictions concerning the relation of reward and attitude change after a person has performed some counter attitudinal behaviour. According to dissonance theory a negative, and according to incentive theory a positive relationship is expected. An experiment was conducted in West Germany testing the interactions of choice versus no choice and public versus anonymous (private) essay writing. A dissonance effect was predicted for the choice/public condition and an incentive effect for the no choice/anonymous condition. The results support these predictions. 24 2 1 1972 Data obtained from four national samples of 6–11 year old children are presented, showing preference for four countries, perceived friendship of these countries with the subject §s own country and perceived relationships among the target countries. Two quantitative analogues of Heider §s balance theory are used to examine the relations between these sets of data, one employing a multiplicative and the other a distance approach. Both models were found to fit the data adequately, further research being needed to discriminate between them. An explanation in terms of ethnocentric correspondence is given to explain why prediction is noticeably better for British and Austrian than for Belgian and Greek samples. 25 2 1 1972 The analysis of the responses from certain questions in a series of guided interviews suggests that the views of workpeople §s motivation held by executives relate more to the size and type of company in which they are employed than to their age, training, education or amount shop floor of contact arising from periods of apprenticeship or of line management experience. The ways in which their view of the motivation of workpeople differs from their own attitudes to work are indicated. In particular, the commonly held dictum that apprenticeship is valuable in creating an understanding of workpeople and their viewpoints does not appear to be supported. The limitations of the study are discussed and future work indicated. 26 2 1 1972 " An experiment was conducted to determine the nature of position biases in the cognitive representation of hierarchical social structures. A position in such a structure reflects the relative influence of its occupants. Using DeSoto §s technique, 24 Dutch and 24 French Ss learned either a completely ordered or incompletely ordered structure. No significant differences were found between countries. The completely ordered structure was found easier to learn than the incomplete ones. According to the results of previous studies (Van Kreveld and Zajonc, 1966; Poitou, 1970) the learning curves for completely and incompletely ordered structures were expected to be respectively curvilinear and monotonic. The results did not support this expectation. " 27 2 2 1972 Three dependent variables, derived from an extended Signal Detection paradigma, were used in each of 3 experiments: memory performance, confidence level, and response bias. Each memory item was first judged by S and then fictitiously by 2 confederates providing different degrees of agreement and disagreement. As compared to agreement moderate disagreement yielded both better recognition performance and, if S §s judgements were false, less confidence. Strong disagreement failed to repeat these findings. Balanced agreement/disagreement raised the level of both performance and confidence relative to a situation without information from the group. In all the experiments correct decisions yielded higher confidence than errors. Festinger §s theory of social comparison processes accounts for all results in performance, but for explaining the confidence shifts assumptions on internal cues should also be incorporated. The response bias was not affected by social treatment differences, thus supporting the view of some Signal Detection theorists. Proposals towards a general theory of stimulus processing in social context are outlined and some of its consequences are discussed by taking as examples some conformity experiments. 28 2 2 1972 This research shows that in an experimental game it is the perception of an actual relationship, of an interaction with the other person more than the nature of the game which creates a climate in which cooperative responses can be established. Cooperative sets can be induced through the Representation of the partner: a reactive partner promoting cooperation, and a rigid one promoting competition. In addition it is noted that in order to understand the reactions induced by the partner §s behaviour, the behaviour in itself it not sufficient. Indeed it is interpreted and understood in terms of the initial representation. The analysis of a person §s behaviour when in relation with another, should be based on a joint study of the existing representations and of the actual behaviour observed. 29 2 2 1972 The purpose of this experiment was to explore psychological mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of extremization of judgments (accentuation) under stress. Specifically the question was raised whether accentuation was due to some change of the internal representation of the objective scale (the personal reference scale, Upshaw, 1969). In the case of no indication for such a change a further analysis of accentuation concerning the nature of response shifts was intended. Four different degrees of stress were induced by varying levels of white noise stimulation. Induction of stress was monitored by measures of electrodermal and cardiac activity. Ss in each of the stress conditions rated statements on social issues for degree of socialist or communist attitude expressed. In part I of the experiment Ss were free to choose any bipolar scale comprising 2–13 categories. In part II they repeated their judgments on a 9 point bipolar scale. As degree of stress was not systematically related to scale selection in part I, there was no support for the hypothesis of a change of personal reference scale. A linear function between a general instability of the judgmental frame of reference and stress was found, however. Again an increasing tendency to accentuate under intermediate stress levels was observed. Under medium degree of stress an increased tendency to vary scales was also observed. 30 2 2 1972 Differential vocal emphasis in the tape recorded instruction reading for a standard person perception task was manipulated by mechanically raising or lowering the volume of the key words describing the success or failure response alternatives on the rating scale. In a series of three experiments, Ss exposed to success emphasis in the instructions rated the stimulus persons as more successful than did Ss exposed to failure emphasis. This trend was reversed for Ss who listened twice to the instructions. None of the Ss reported awareness of the influence attempt. 31 2 2 1972 " The purpose of the present experiment was to show that the occurrence of psychological reactance is diminished when a person a) estimates the freedom eliminating source of social influence as highly attractive, and b) shows strong need for social approval and that c) psychological reactance might be stored up when the actual freedom eliminating social influence is too strong. In an experiment with 3 phases female students served as Ss. Two partners (S and stooge) had to decide whether or not to answer an item from a set of everyday questions with two choice alternatives. In the case of a positive decision they had to give their judgments covertly. In the first phase the S decided whether to answer or not; then the stooge urged the S not to answer a special set of questions. In the second phase the stooge announced her decision whether to answer a question or not and she left out the crucial items. In the third phase the S answered the items alone since the stooge left the room for a short time having good reasons. The independent variables were interpersonal attraction: high vs. low (manipulated by instruction) and social desirability: high vs. low (measured by median split half of the scores of a German version of the Marlowe Crowne scale). Reactance was measured as the number of answers to the crucial items in phase 3 in relation to the previous phases. The delay effect of psychological reactance was tested by a comparison of answers in phase 2 and 3. The data lent support to the first (attraction) and third (delay) experimental hypotheses stated. " 32 2 3 1972 The discovery of the effects of risky shift focusses the interest on the study of decision processes. Nevertheless the researches carried on until now have always shown confusion between the theoretical and experimental analysis of these processes and the risk related behaviour. In the first part of the article the authors try to clear this confusion as well as to define the conditions of a systematic study of the mechanisms of decision leading either to an averaging or to a polarization of individual views. The authors insist on the necessity to compare groups rather than individuals to groups. To start with, one hypothesis concerning the effects of group organization on the degree of polarization of views is proposed. The experiment described in the second part of the article confirms the hypothesis: A group in which individuals have the possibility to communicate with each other and to interact directly take more extreme decisions than a group deprived of this possibility. It is presumptuous and inexact to state that groups take more extreme risk than individuals whereas it is right to say that certain groups take risks when circumstances are favourable. 33 2 3 1972 Different sets of expectations were induced in groups of observers before asking them to observe a film. Four aspects of Hall §s notation system for the observation of proxemic behaviour (1963) were adopted for the purposes of this study and another observation aspect was added. All Ss observed the same scenes of the film. They only differed in the kind of information on experimenters §s beliefs and the hypotheses of the observation study. Results indicate that induced expectancies influenced the recordings of the observers. Implications of these outcomes are discussed. 34 2 3 1972 Twelve four person female groups of subjects displaying the typical underestimation of their peers §s (relative to their own) risk acceptance were compared with twelve groups of subjects who (slightly) overestimated their peers §s risk acceptance. Risk level was measured by responses to a set of hypothetical decision situations known to elicit risky shift on the basis of previous research. Risky shift following group discussion was not found to be different for the two types of groups, casting doubt on the widely suggested role of peer underestimation in risky shift. Nor was risky shift affected by whether or not group members stated their individual decisions publicly at the close of discussion. Larger group risky shifts were accompanied by higher self ratings given by group members on a number of polarity scales. In discussing the findings, we outline an explanation of group induced shifts in risk taking, emphasizing the motivational and informational inducements provided by group discussion whereby group members come to discard their prior positions in favour of more aspired ones. 35 2 3 1972 In this study expectancy and equity theory were compared. An experiment was carried out on the effect of overpayment. Overpayment was manipulated by varying perceived input (perceived qualifications) and received outcome (financial compensation). The experiment consisted of a 2 × 3 design: two levels of payment (4 guilders p.h. and 8 guilders p.h.) and three levels of perceived qualifications (high, medium, low). Sixty six subjects were hired through the students placement service to decode personality questionnaires. Overpayment by manipulation of monetary rewards did not lead to greater production, as was hypothesized by Adams §s equity theory (1965). As far m overpayment has been manipulated by perceived qualifications for the job the data confirmed equity theory. Several other theories (e.g. expectancy theory: Lawler, 1968b) can explain both results. 36 2 3 1972 Hypotheses derived from the Harvey, Hunt and Schroder personality organization system were tested in an attitude change situation. Female subjects selected for extremeness of conceptual structure and negative attitude toward women §s equality were subjected to a sensory deprivation, a normal control or an overstimulation environment in which a high salience (HS) or a low salience (LS) communication was presented. The main prediction of a three way interaction among conceptual structure, communication salience and environmental complexity received some support. Concrete individuals who received the HS communication showed significantly more change than those who received the LS communication. The expected reversal of this effect for abstract individuals was not found. The HS communication produced significantly greater change than the LS communication, and this difference was significantly related to environmental complexity. These findings were discussed in terms of McGuire §s and Berlyne §s respective proposals concerning comprehension yielding, and arousal reduction. 37 2 4 1972 The present study consists of three related experiments which are concerned with the development of national attitudes in children between the ages of seven and twelve. It was predicted on the basis of a structural interpretation of Allport §s three stage developmental theory of prejudice that national attitudes will increase at first due to increasing consistency of judgment and decrease afterwards due to cognitive differentiation. The hypothesis is partially confirmed with respect to the attitudes of children towards other countries but not confirmed with respect to the attitudes of children towards people who are perceived as foreigners. A tentative explanation is offered for the last finding. It was shown moreover that the attitudes of older children display more cognitive balance than those of younger children. In connection with the last problem, a quantified modification Bf Heider §s theory of balanced states was introduced. 38 2 4 1972 Ten introverts and 10 extraverts were selected from a student population on the bask of their responses to the E.P.I. The groups contained 5 men and 5 women and were matched for Neuroticism. Each subject took part in two 4 minute conversations, one with a male confederate, one with a female confederate. The same two confederates were used throughout the experiment, and no attempt was made to programme any aspect of their behaviour. Two trained observers, who sat behind a one way screen situated close to the speakers, recorded the visual and speech behaviour of both subject and confederate by means of a four channel event recorder. The recordings were made for the last 3 minutes of each interaction. Extraverts Looked more frequently than introverts, but there were no differences between the two groups in the proportions of time spent in Looking and eye contact, or in the mean length of Looks. Extraverts also spoke more frequently than introverts, a finding which may complement that for the number of Looks. The findings could not be explained by the behaviour of the confederates, since they behaved consistently across the two groups of subjects. The experiment is discussed with particular reference to Mobbs (1968) and Kendon and Cook (1969). Comparisons of methodology are made. 39 2 4 1972 " In the context of a labour management simulation study, three man union teams were made to believe that they had either a very strong or a very weak bargaining position vis à vis the other party. In half of each of these conditions, a cooperative and a competitive orientation toward the other group was induced. In preparation for the intergroup negotiations, the subjects were first asked to indicate their individual aspirations for three negotiation issues. After a group discussion, their collective aspirations were obtained. Regardless of the experimental conditions. groups set significantly higher aspiration levels than individuals on the most important issue but were more conservative and cautious on less important issues. In general, for all three topics, significant or near significant interactions were found between bargaining strength and the direction of the group induced shift. In the strong bargaining condition, groups set higher aspiration levels than the average of prior individual judgments; in the weak bargaining condition the opposite trend occurred. An effort was made to relate these findings to the various theories developed in the risky shift literature. " 40 2 4 1972 " Moscovici and Zavalloni (1969) suggest that both risk shifts and attitude shifts after group discussion are examples of a general group tendency to polarize opinions. In the present experiment, using both attitude and risk items, group discussion did not make individual opinions more extreme; only the group average became more extreme. This group extremity increase was not simply a more general way of conceptualizing the directional shifts in attitude and risk; group extremity increase appeared to be an effect of discussion that was independent of the risk and attitude shifts. Also, subjects in the co working pretest of the standard risk shift paradigm were found to be less extreme and more agreeing than pretest subjects who were truly alone. This co working/alone difference persisted after discussion and was not related to group extremity increase. On both attitude and risk items, group extremity increase was strongly correlated with group opinion convergence. It is argued from this correlation that group extremity increase may be an effect of some aspect of conformity influence. " 41 2 4 1972 An implication was examined of three assumptions of Personal Construct Theory. Personal and supplied construct systems were compared for their capacity to account for 34 subjects §s behaviour in an independent sorting task. It was found that either construct system tended to account for a significant amount of the variance in sorting behaviour, but that more was accounted for by personal Construct systems. Observations were made on the way in which this phenomenon varied between subjects, sub tasks, and parts of construct systems. The assumptions examined were held to be relevant to Social perception and cognitive theories. 42 2 4 1972 " Discussions of intergroup behaviour (e.g., Rabbie and Wilkens, 1971; Tajfel, Flament, Billig and Bundy, 1971) have drawn attention to the influence of both assumed similarity and anticipated future interaction between an individual and other members of his group on his tendency to assign more favourable outcomes to members of his own group than to members of another group. This note examines whether similar processes may also affect an individual §s tendency to make intragroup discriminations between different members of a group to which he himself does not belong, in a situation where the variables of similarity and anticipated interaction may be treated as independent factors. " 43 2 4 1972 " While a considerable amount of research has centered on explaining the risky shift (enhancement of risk acceptance through group discussion; see, for example, Dion, Baron, and Miller, 1970), few studies have investigated the generality of the phenomenon. Three of several ways in which the laboratory context is usually lacking of reality are: (a) The decision consequences are imaginary, as in the Choice Dilemma situations used in most of the risky shift research; (b) the decision consequences even if they are real (e.g. money) are slight; and (c) the decisions are made for oneself (whereas in real life many decisions involve agents acting on behalf of others). The present study was designed to investigate the effects of the above three factors type of incentive, magnitude of stake and decision target using a betting task as the decision situation. " 44 3 1 1973 A research project was conducted to extend social exchange theory to a situation of exchanging unlike behaviours. In the present study, female judges rated the performance of males (accomplices of E) in a creativity task. A 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design manipulated the variables of cost to the judge for inaccurate ratings, attractiveness of the male performer and dependency of the performer §s outcomes on the judge §s ratings. The basic expectations were generated from social exchange theory and significantly supported. Under low cost, and to a lesser extent also under high cost, higher creativity ratings would be given to highly attractive than to less attractive performers. This result pattern was not affected by the dependency manipulation as could tentatively be expected on the basis of the altruism and ingratiation phenomena. These findings are discussed in relation to those of a previous study using male judges and female performers and differences are interpretated in terms of the appropriateness of the behaviour according to sex role prescriptions. The discussion suggests the need for research directed toward determining the conditions which predispose people to choose one social exchange rule over another. 45 3 1 1973 The present study is one of a series exploring the role of social categorization in intergroup behaviour. It has been found in our previous studies that in ‚minimal' situations, in which the subjects were categorized into groups on the basis of visual judgments they had made or of their aesthetic preferences, they clearly discriminated against members of an outgroup although this gave them no personal advantage. However, in these previous studies division into groups was still made on the basis of certain criteria of ‚real' similarity between subjects who were assigned to the same category. Therefore, the present study established social categories on an explicitly random basis without any reference to any such real similarity. It was found that, as soon as the notion of ‚group' was introduced into the situation, the subjects still discriminated against those assigned to another random category. This discrimination was considerably more marked than the one based on a division of subjects in terms of interindividual similarities in which the notion of ‚group' was never explicitly introduced. In addition, it was found that fairness was also a determinant of the subjects §s decisions. The results are discussed from the point of view of their relevance to a social cognitive theory of intergroup behaviour. 46 3 1 1973 " Subject correctness and group agreement were varied for college subjects engaged in a light discrimination task. On another task, employing multiple choice questions about Canada, the dependent variable of conformity was assessed to examine generalization of relative competence formed on the light discrimination task. It was seen that (1) relative competence was seen to mediate conformity for a specific task (Canadian Knowledge Inventory), but did not generalize across tasks (i.e. from the light discrimination task to the Canadian Knowledge Inventory); (2) with respect to the Canadian Knowledge Inventory, subjects who perceived themselves as more competent than the group did not conform as much as those who either perceived themselves as less competent than or as competent as the group; (3) the experimental manipulations did not affect conformity, further supporting the findings that perceived competence does not generalize across classes of tasks; (4) females conformed more than males: and (5) nonsuspicious subjects conformed more than suspicious subjects. " 47 3 1 1973 Forty male inmates from an adult correctional training centre participated in a 2 × 2 factorial design with subject correctness incorrectness and group agreement disagreement constituting the classification factors. A modified Asch procedure was used to manipulate a S §s prior experience of correctness and agreement (Part 1) and to assess subsequent conformity to 3 male confederates (Part 2). The female experimenter served as the source of reinforcement and group correctness. Ss responded to a (two part) 26 verbal and perceptual item scale, including 11 conformity items. Subject correctness and group agreement interacted, for perceptual items only, so that subjects who were more competent than the group or equally incompetent to the group conformed less than those who were less competent than the group, who in turn conformed less than those who were equally competent to the group, where both the subjects and the group were correct. Subjects conformed more to difficult verbal items than to perceptual items, and unsuspicious subjects conformed more than suspicious subjects. Both relative competence, mediating the effects of prior experience, and the situational factor of reinforcement affect conformity to perceptual tasks. 48 3 1 1973 The accuracy with which Ss could identify the national governments referred to by a set of semantic differential profiles was found to be significantly related to whether they were given true, false, or unspecific information concerning the source of the profiles. Contrary to hypothesis, attitude similarity between the Ss who constructed the profiles and those who interpreted them failed to enhance communication accuracy. 49 3 1 1973 Our purpose was to gain insight into the processes linking interaction and attitude polarization. We wished to determine whether polarization might occur in an individual situation, during the task of familiarization with the object. Two experiments were undertaken, one relating to an individual situation and the other involving a group situation. No polarization took place in the individual situation. In addition as a result of the coercive normative pressure induced in the course of the group discussion, we were able to observe unwilling agreement by individuals, provoking in turn a noticeable regression during the post consensus. 50 3 2 1973 Previous studies have assumed that people have a predilection for single linear orderings, of which status congruence is a special case. Eighty two subjects were run in a two stage experiment to examine preference for linear orderings and whether single or multiple discrepant orderings are preferred when 1 instead of having to learn, subjects freely construct social structures, and 2 the material they are presented is more specified and less simplified than is usually the case in cognitive bias studies. In the first stage Ss were presented with sets of five individual characteristic dimensions, of which three were inherently orderable. Their task was to attribute one characteristic from each dimension to each of five fictitious persons. In the second stage, Ss were asked, for three types of influence (professional, political and cultural), to build an influence structure among the five persons constructed in the first stage. In Stage 1, linear ordering was used for three of the five dimensions. Two of these dimensions used a single ordering, while the third was only weakly related to the first two. In Stage 2, largely transitive but incomplete relations of influence were established, based on a salary occupational hierarchy. The completeness of the relation depended on the nature of the influence. 51 3 2 1973 " In two experiments on choice the durations of attention to the alternatives were measured. In experiment 1 each subject chose one from two pictures; in experiment 2 the choice was one from three pictures. In both experiments the subjects understood that they would acquire the picture that they selected. In each experiment higher and lower conflict conditions were induced by offering subjects a choice between alternatives that had been evaluated either equally or disparately. In both experiments a significant relationship appeared between duration of attention and preference order with most subjects looking longest at the alternative that was preferred. In the comparison between conditions this effect was found to be stronger under lower conflict than under higher conflict; this difference reached a significant level in experiment 2. These results are contrary to findings by Gerard (1967), and this matter is discussed. The relevance of the results to other theories is examined. Inferences were drawn from dissonance theory about re evaluation effects after decision, and evaluation changes were measured in the experiments. After adjustment for measurement regression, the data failed to reveal a significant chronic re evaluation effect. Contrary to dissonance theory, the re evaluation effect was weaker in the three alternative choice experiment than in the two alternative choice experiment. " 52 3 2 1973 In the first two parts of the paper a distinction is made between a ‚conflict or convergence of interests §s approach (Sherif) and a ‚categorisation' approach (Tajfel) in the area of the experimental study of intergroup relations. Some recent experimental findings are mentioned, and a theoretical development of the categorisation approach is proposed. In the third part a new experiment illustrating the relevance of the categorisation approach is described. 53 3 2 1973 The influence of two different reinforcers of aggression was investigated: Frustration (intrinsic primary reinforcement) and instrumental value of aggression (extrinsic primary reinforcement). In the first part of the experiment frustration was manipulated on two levels by having the stooge interfere very often or seldom in the ‚building a village' task of the subject. In the second part of the study the stooge had to judge distances in traffic while the subject was allowed to give him electrical shocks in order to startle and hinder the stooge in his estimation task. The aggression score of the subject was formed by the number and the intensity of the shocks delivered. Instrumentality of aggression was manipulated on two levels by indicating or not that the subjects could earn more money the more and stronger they shocked their partner. Confirming the predictions, significantly more aggression was expressed when this could lead to earning more money than in those conditions where this was not the case. Also confirming predictions, the impact of instrumentality on aggression was stronger than the influence of frustration. Frustration did not lead to a significant increase in the level of aggression. 54 3 2 1973 The article is introduced by an analysis of how the effects of a negotiator §s intragroup status (leader versus non leader) on his negotiation performance (in particular, toughness) may be modified by such factors as the source of the status assignment (e.g., election versus imposition) and the presence and timing of position formation in the group. The accountability experienced by a negotiator vis à vis his group is proposed as the central intervening variable mediating status effects on negotiation. In a series of (previously published) experiments, all using the same procedural paradigm a prenegotiation, intragroup phase followed by intergroup negotiation among equal status group delegates, the issues requiring a choice between higher and lower risk levels some of the above variables and additional ones, were investigated. Overall, there was evidence of greater toughness among group elected leaders (relative to non leaders) and among subordinates (relative to imposed, ‚dictatorial' leaders). The latter effect obtained only when the negotiators were being continuously monitored by, and had to consult, their respective group partners during the negotiations. Results concerning risky shift (enhancement of risk acceptance through the negotiation discussions) are considered in the light of relevant theory. 55 3 2 1973 " Fifty six male and 61 female university students participated in a 2 × 2 × 2 design with task correctness incorrectness, group agreement disagreement and sex of subject constituting the classification factors. A modified Crutchfield apparatus served to manipulate a subject §s prior experience of correctness and agreement, and to measure subsequent conformity. Correctness and group agreement were seen to interact to produce varying degrees of perceived competence relative to a simulated group. Relative competence mediated conformity such that (a) on the basis of both experimentally manipulated competence and perceived competence, subjects who were less competent than the group manifested more conformity than subjects who were more competent than the group. This finding replicates the Ettinger et al. (1971) study; (b) subjects who perceived themselves and the group as equally competent conformed more than subjects who perceived themselves as either more competent or less competent than the group. This result was explained in terms of reciprocity; (c) no sex differences were found and possible explanations for this result were discussed; (d) no conformity differences between suspicious and unsuspicious subjects suggested the possibility that suspicious subjects were role playing. " 56 3 3 1973 An examination of the relation between authoritarianism and conservatism is made using newly developed balanced forms of the D and F scales together with scales to measure political, social, moral and economic conservatism. Neither BD nor BF scales predicted voting preference. The BD scale was significantly, positively related to the political, social and moral conservatism scales but was non significantly, negatively related to economic conservatism. It was concluded that both the BD and BF scales are equally good measures of general authoritarianism among supporters of Australian political parties and that while it is in general true that dogmatic people tend to be ideologically conservative, an exception must be made for economic conservatism. This exception is seen to be inferable from the theory of working class authoritarianism advanced by Lipset (1960). 57 3 3 1973 " Investigating stereotypes associated with world powers, 28 men and 28 women at a British university rated 24 world powers using the semantic differential. Significance tests show the relationship of the powers to concepts assumed to measure the Evaluative, Potency, and Activity factors. Three dimensional models show the relative positioning by men and by women. Results indicate (1) general agreement between men and women; (2) superpowers close to BAD and STRONG; (3) countries associated with war and strife closer to BAD, WEAK, and PASSIVE. Comparisons were made with an American sample. The need for doing further stereotype studies over time was stressed. " 58 3 3 1973 The perception of other people is shown to require a different set of scientific assumptions than that used in traditional psychology. Mind body dualism, subject object dichotomy and traditional notions of scientific causality are shown to be inapplicable to the perception of people, except where people are being seen as objects. The ‚predict and control' model of psychology, and the ‚medical model' of psychiatry both involve the perception of people as objects. The ‚participant observer' model is seen to be the optimal one for the study of human beings. 59 3 3 1973 The purpose of the present experiment was to test several hypotheses concerning the interrelationship of dissonance reduction mechanisms in a situation where response possibilities are relatively unconstrained. Engaged female students were invited to take part in a bogus ‚Marriage Expectancy Test' that was supposed to allow predictions of marriage success. One week later, they received fictitious results differing negatively from their initial expectations of marriage success. The reactions measured were ‚conformity with the result' and ‚derogation of source' (confrontation mechanisms), and ‚devaluation of importance of the issue' and ‚under recall' (avoidance mechanisms). As predicted, avoidance responses increased steeply with discrepancy, while little increase was found for confrontation mechanisms. Psychological differentiation had no significant effect on dissonance reduction, whereas high vs. low self esteem influenced ‚derogation of source' and ‚devaluation of importance of the issue'. 60 3 3 1973 The present experiment was designed to determine relative preference for fulfilment of consistency motivation. Ninety two students rated their attraction to, identification with, and idealization of a hypothetical stimulus person who was represented as having fulfilled particular social motives such as approval, power, achievement and consistency. Results confirmed that subjects prefer persons who have satisfied traditional needs more so than others whose consistency desires have been fulfilled. Implications for the role of consistency motivation in social behaviour are considered. 61 3 3 1973 The aim of this study was to discover whether the pattern of out group oriented racial attitudes manifest among the children of various disadvantaged minority groups (e.g. black American children) might also be found among the children of ‚coloured' immigrants to Britain. To this end, measures of racial identification, preference, rudimentary stereotyping and social aspirations were administered to primary school children whose parents were of West Indian and Asian origin, and to native white English children for purposes of comparison. While the English children showed attitudes which consistently favoured the in group, both immigrant groups evidenced marked out group (i.e. white) orientation. One quarter of the Asian children and nearly one half of the West Indian children identified themselves with the white out group. The phenomenon of misidentification among children of disadvantaged racial minorities is discussed, and explanations of the difference between the West Indian and Asian groups in this respect are suggested in terms of their differing cultural backgrounds and practices, aspirations to integration, and relationship to the host community. The results of the study are reported in the context of the continuing debate over the effect of the race of the tester in racial attitude research. 62 3 3 1973 " The effects of reinforcement, social approval and sex on conformity were studied. Seventy two male and 72 female college Ss were divided into equal high and low need for social approval groups. Each group was assigned to 1 of 3 experimental conformity conditions: (a) True agree; (b) neutral; and (c) true disagree. The groups were tested via a social conformity apparatus. It was found that: (a) Reinforcement for agreeing with a contrived group consensus (true agree group) elicited more conformity than social pressure without reinforcement (neutral group), which in turn elicted more conformity than reinforcement for disagreeing with the consensus (true A disagree group); (b) females conformed more than males; (c) there was a slight tendency for high social approval Ss to conform more than low social approval Ss. Conformity was explained in terms of social learning, and it was suggested that the situational factor of reinforcement was a more important determinant of conformity than the motivational factor of social approval. The modified conformity scoring procedure used focuses on the conformity process. " 63 3 3 1973 A model of subject behaviour in scale answering situations is derived, developed and illustrated empirically. The model allows for the possibility that a subject, faced with a request to describe how much of some attribute an object possesses, may internally represent either that object or some other. Additionally, it allows that he may give honest expression to his internal representation or modify so as to proffer a more ‚functional' description. Thus two basic parameters (representation and description) characterise the process whereby a response emitter (S) gives a descriptive evaluative response to a response elicitor (E). The parameters of the model are demonstrated by two studies using a psycho metrically sophisticated personality scale (Mach. V). In the first, object substitution is shown by contrasting self referent and other referent responses using a personating technique. In the second, response modification, due to favourable self presentation, is found to operate despite a scale format designed specially to eliminate such biases. Two major implications of the model are discussed: * AThat the nature of descriptive evaluative responding is such as to render the construction of non fakeable descriptive scales impossible. * bThat many experiments using descriptive scales are dubious tests of their stated hypotheses because there are no provisions for the control of the parameters of description and representation. 64 3 4 1973 In the experiments reviewed in this article the subjects are asked to produce ideas that are relevant to a given task request (e.g., possible consequences of a hypothetical event). After describing the specific task material and the performance measures used in the relevant research studies, some analytic background is given by outlining the cognitive resources required in this kind of experimental task and by listing the various factors that may come into play when subjects perform in groups (with discussion) instead of individually. We then review the studies comparing individual and group performance. In all of these experiments the subjects were asked to work according to the rules of brainstorming, which prescribe that participants refrain from evaluating their ideas. This procedure purportedly results in superior group, relative to individual, performance. However, the empirical evidence clearly indicates that subjects brainstorming in small groups produce fewer ideas than the same number of subjects brainstorming individually. Less clear evidence is available on measures of quality, uniqueness and variety. The discussion considers factors that may be responsible for this inferiority of groups. The role of social inhibition receives particular attention also in terms of suggestions for research. Apart from the group individual comparison we review the existing research concerning factors that may influence group performance on idea generation tasks. 65 3 4 1973 Two experiments were designed to investigate some possible extensions to Locke §s theory of task motivation and incentives. In experiment 1 (192 Ss) the effect of KR on small group effectiveness (SGE) was analysed. The SGE measurements (productivity and group atmosphere) were based on a subjective operationalization of the concept ‚small group effectiveness §s . Five one way analyses of variance revealed no significant influence of KR on SGE thus supporting Locke §s findings. In experiment 2 (64 Ss) homogeneous male groups were compared to homogeneous female groups to find out whether sex composition of the group would have a significant influence on SGE. Five Fisher t tests revealed no differences between the means of male and female groups. In this case, too, Locke §s theory was supported. Limitations and implications of these results are discussed. 66 3 4 1973 In this experimental study, individual risk taking for self and others was observed for three experimental situations (the choice dilemma situations of Kogan and Wallach, 1964, the Pruitt and Teger gambling situation, 1969, and a simple one trial gamble game). The results of the present study suggest that one takes as much risk for oneself as for somebody else. An attempt was made to determine to what degree the results could be explained by properties of the experimental situations. 67 3 4 1973 An experimental method for inquiring into the organization of an act of communication is presented, the basic idea being to create an interactional setting where one of the basic prerequisites for successful communication is not satisfied. In this particular design, the subjects interact under the false belief that they are sharing the same ‚here'. (In mean the subjects interacted more than a quarter of an hour before any doubt or suspicion about the situation was expressed, indicating that our manipulation had been successful.) During the subjects trying (1) to ‚diagnose' their communicative difficulties, and (2) to apply different ‚therapeutic tools §s in order to improve their communication, one is in a very good position to study the impact from a variety of basic phenomena upon communication. It is argued that this situation may well be applied as a ‚standard experimental method'. And an experiment where this method revealed interesting differences in the communication between couples having and couples not having a schizophrenic offspring is discussed. 68 3 4 1973 The present research investigated the occurrence of ingratiation as mediated by the sex of sender and recipient in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design and also explored the underlying structure and preference of ingratiation overtures. Subjects were instructed to enact the role of interviewees and were motivated either to make themselves amiable or to act spontaneously to improve evaluation accorded by the interviewer. It was hypothesized that ingratiation behaviours would be distinguished from spontaneous behaviours for the investigated opinion conformity, self presentation, other enhancement and smiling. These main effects were found and specified by the sex variables in the expected direction with modesty as an ingratiation tactic under the female homogeneous dyad, more ingratiation overtures under the heterogeneous than homogeneous dyads on some verbal measures, and less ingratiation smiling under the male homogeneous dyad. Further, verbal and nonverbal overtures were shown to possess a different structure, and a multivariate analysis of variance revealed opinion conformity to be the most sensitive differentiator between the verbal ingratiation overtures. The discussion deals with the search for the subtleties in ingratiation messages and emphasizes some provocative findings. 69 3 4 1973 The study was designed, using the ‚matched guise' technique, to determine how different groups of Welshmen perceive members of their own national group who use various linguistic codes. Three matched groups of adult Welsh Ss were used: Bilinguals, those who were learning Welsh and those who could not speak Welsh and were not learning it either. These Ss were asked to evaluate on 22 scales the personalities of various Welsh speakers they heard reading the same passage of prose on tape. Essentially, the stimulus tape consisted of two male bilinguals reading the passage once each in Welsh, in English with a Welsh accent and in English with an RP accent. It was found, despite the fact that the groups differed in their language skills and self perceived Welshness, that Ss as a whole upgraded the bilingual speakers on most traits. Indeed, the RP speakers were evaluated most favourably on only one trait self confidence. It was suggested that language to a large extent serves as a symbol of Welsh identity, and the results were discussed in relation to how other ethnic groups appear to view their own linguistic codes. 70 3 4 1973 In this article we have dealt with a critical analysis pertaining to the notion of the informational influence. We hereby show that in every inter actionary situation, the judgments emitted by the source (influence agent) appear to contain informations on the judged objects from their elementary content and, at the same time, from their organisation, like indications on the source itself, on its purpose. In this manner, we have come to distinguish the instrumental influence from the symbolical influence. An experiment where the subjects have to judge the number of points appearing on the slides shows that this distinction reveals what happens in the process of influence. 71 4 1 1974 The diffusion of responsibility hypothesis as an explanation of helping behaviour (or lack of same) is qualified by suggesting that the hypothesis applies only in non interacting situations. It is hypothesized that interacting groups who are aware of a help demanding situation actually focus the responsibility and, therefore, take action as a group more rapidly than will a non interacting group. Evidence is gathered in a contrived help demanding situation employing a 2 × 3 (sex × condition) in which three conditions alone, non interacting (pseudo) groups, and interacting groups are used. The evidence substantiates the major hypothesis. Speculation is also presented concerning the relationship of the alone condition to the interacting and non interacting groups and concerning sex effects. 72 4 1 1974 In this article we have presented a theoretical outline and a body of empirical work relating to the processes of social differentiation and social originality. If, in a competition, someone else seems to possess a decisive advantage or if mere comparison with this other person constitutes a threat to social identity, there are signs, in given conditions, of a tendency to differentiate oneself from the other, to be different or to do something else, to invent new criteria of being or doing with others or to combine accepted criteria in an original way. In other words, one tends to give proof of originality or, to use a Darwinian metaphor, to occupy vacant places. Doubtless the strategies described here only apply to certain social systems in which the visibility of the agent is an important social value and in which comparison may pose a threat to that identity. The restoring of identity by way of the search for otherness merits the attention of social psychology. But originality is not necessarily accepted or not necessarily immediately. Innovation may take time, may necessitate the creation of schismatic groups and the waging of battles for recognition, etc. We give a brief account of observations made with regard to groups of children in summer camps, laboratory experiments and the results of surveys in the scientific and artistic communities which fit into our theoretical framework. It will not be difficult for the reader to see that this article is a first step in a direction which, in our eyes, holds out a great deal of promise. 73 4 1 1974 In reaction to the decades of research that tended to assume that social influence is synonymous with conformity, recent work has concentrated on the ability of a minority, by having a system of answers of its own, to influence the majority in the direction of their judgments. A study by Moscovici, Lage and Naffrechoux (1969) demonstrated this phenomenon but found that consistency of response, in the sense of repetition, was necessary for minority influence to be effected. They assumed that repetition was necessary to give the minority judgment the same value as that of the majority and to intensify the conflict that was engendered by the differences in opinion. Our position is that the lack of repetition in that study was construed to mean that the minority did not really have a position in which they were confident. As such, they were discounted. Thus, it is the attribution of consistency and confidence that leads to minority influence, not intensification of the conflict. The present study found that non repetitious behaviour by a minority could be seen as reflecting consistency and confidence and could lead to minority influence provided the inconsistency was patterned with some property of the stimulus. Such inconsistency was perceived as favourable and as effective as any other condition and even more effective than one of the repetitious conditions. 74 4 1 1974 A content analysis is reported of child rearing manuals published in sixteenth to nineteenth centuries and of the themes of the Don Juan plays in seventeenth to twentieth centuries. The relationship between the content of the manuals and the themes of the plays supports the thesis that child rearing patterns advocated in one century are reflected in the next in the attitudes expressed in popular cultural activities towards aggression, achievement and sex roles. 75 4 2 1974 " Subjects had five encounters with trained confederates, who each displayed five patterns of gaze with different subjects, in a graeco latin square design. The patterns of gaze were: Zero, looking while talking, looking while listening, normal and continuous. Two conditions were used: Subjects were either getting acquainted with the confederates or assessing them while they behaved in an ingratiating manner. Subjects and confederates were either both male or both female. Subjects rated the confederates on fifteen rating scales; a principle components analysis produced five main components, the first two being liking/evaluation and activity/potency. Gaze affected scores on these components as predicted: Ratings of liking/evaluation increased from zero gaze to normal and were lower for continuous confirming the affiliative balance theory; and the more gaze the higher the ratings on activity/potency. The predicted effects of ingratiation on the interpretation of gaze were not obtained, though ingratiators were seen as less intelligent. Decoders responded to amount of gaze, and not to its relation to talking and listening. " 76 4 2 1974 The literature on status congruency is summarized in two statements: 1) Individuals strive after status congruency, and 2) status congruency involves favourable state for individuals, groups and the society. The two reported experiments throw serious doubts on the generality of these statements. Experiment I is a variation of Burnstein and Zajonc §s (1965) experiment. It is hypothesized and shown that the striving after congruency is weakened under condition of a competitive reward structure, the Ss giving incongruent self rankings. Moreover it is found that nominations for a different task are not congruent at all. Experiment II was designed to replicate and extend Exline and Ziller §s (1959) experiment, in which it was shown that status congruency in small groups causes interpersonal conflict. On none of the several measures was clear support obtained. In the discussion it is argued that there is hardly any experimental evidence for the two statements formulated above. It is pointed out that the correlational relationships between status congruency and other variables may be attributed to some internal cognitive link in the person, serving as an intermediate variable, the forces of it perhaps being self interest (as supported by Experiment I), a need for clarity and a need for justice. 77 4 2 1974 Implicitly or explicitly, linkage is a basic concept in all theories of cognitive consistency consistency or inconsistency can exist only with reference to entities which are cognitively linked through association or dissociation. The nature of cognitive linkages has not been systematically studied, but it seems evident that they may vary in many ways. One is the strength or intensity of perceived relationship between cognitive entities. The basic hypothesis in the present two experiments was that the effect of a communication in terms of attitude change would depend on the strength of linkage between concepts mentioned in the message. Results show no such effect when strength was manipulated through combination of linkages, whereas the hypothesis was confirmed when linkage strength was varied semantically. Also, previous studies on direct and mediated generalization of attitude change towards consistency were successfully replicated. Finally, it was found that amount of attitude change towards consistency was significantly higher for linkages involving affect (L relations) than for linkages simply expressing unit formation (U relations). 78 4 2 1974 The main supporting evidence for Rokeach §s theory of prejudice (the Anticipated Belief Differences Theory of Prejudice) comes from the strong belief effects obtained in a simple Race/Belief manipulation. Analysis shows that the theory is unfalsifiable with this paradigm and is therefore neither tested nor confirmed by the many studies purporting to do so. The Belief undefined/Belief partially defined manipulation of Stein, Hardyck and Smith (1965) does test the theory. However, these authors §s conclusion that favourable evidence was obtained is incorrect owing to the use of an inappropriate statistic. Although race effects can be incorporated within a theory of belief prejudice it is equally possible to incorporate belief effects within any theory of prejudice which is contingent on an initial categorization into in group and out group. An empirical distinction between Rokeach §s theory and other theories of prejudice can be made using a Belief undefined/Belief partially defined manipulation. Finally the theoretical adequacy of Rokeach §s theory is discussed in terms of more general characteristics of prejudice. 79 4 2 1974 " Two central hypotheses of the original version of the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) (1) that dissonance is to be conceived of as a primary drive and (2) that in order to reduce dissonance less resistant cognitions will be changed more than highly resistant ones led to hypotheses which were confirmed by two experiments. In Experiment I, a 2 × 3 factorial design, order and familiarity of dissonance reduction modes were manipulated. After receiving a dissonant information the subjects were offered a relatively low and a relatively high resistant cognition for dissonance reduction, each being placed first (series I, high low resistance) or last (series II, low high resistance) respectively. Subjects did (known) or did not (unknown) read these modes before reacting to them. Under the unknown condition dissonance will be reduced more with a specific mode if it is placed first than last. With known reduction modes the order of presentation does not have an effect. Under series I condition the first placed, higher resistant cognition will be changed more in the unknown condition than in the known condition. Under the series II condition the first placed, lower resistant cognition will be changed equally in the known and unknown condition. In short, the higher resistant cognition will be changed more, only when it is placed first and when the following modes are not known. Two explanations for these results are possible: (1) The more dissonance is reduced by changing a more or a less resistant congnition, the less further reduction is necessary; (2) dissonance will be reduced in an internally consistent way. Experiment II excluded the first explanation. Subjects were allowed to revise their original way of reducing dissonance. First, subjects in one condition received series I unknown and subjects in the other condition received series II unknown. Reacting to the dissonance reduction modes the second time, there was more revision when the high resistant congition was placed first (series 1 revision) than when placed last (series II revision). These results support the hypothesis that dissonance reduction by changing a less resistant congnition more and changing a high resistant one less is preferred. Implications of the results of the two experments for the stability of dissonance reduction, the method and interpretation of dissonance experiments are discussed. " 80 4 2 1974 The effects of discussion on subsequent group and individual choices are studied in a situation where subjects choose between a sure gain of varying amount and five probability levels associated with larger gains of expected value equal to that of the sure gain. At the end of the experiment, a single bet, chosen at random, is played for money. Before discussion, subjects have to guess the percentage of similar, more risky and more cautious choices made by their peers for each of the six bets. As predicted by a majority rule decision making model significant risky shifts were observed for relatively low values of sure gain. For higher values, however, groups tended to be more cautious than individuals. The final private choices of individuals were significantly more risky than their initial decisions. Most individuals apparently thought they were at least as risky as most others. This finding was due, however, primarily to the responses of subjects who chose the highest risk level (the ceiling effect) and, secondly, to the consistent tendency of most individuals to guess that others make the same choices as they themselves. It is concluded that majority influence seems a satisfactory explanation of group risky shifts observed in the present study, but it cannot account for modifications of group and individual choices in all risk taking situations. 81 4 3 1974 " It is argued that compliance in groups will be highest where the composition is maximally confrontation generating; identification will be highest where composition is support generating; and internalisation will be highest where both some support and some confrontation are present. The hypotheses were tested in sixteen one day experimentally composed T groups. All the hypotheses were supported, particularly the first two. In this setting internalisation was found to be related to confrontation but not to support. " 82 4 3 1974 Seven experiments were conducted which measured changes in the subjects §s actual performance resulting from manipulated personal and categorical comparison of performance with another subject. In line with Festinger §s (1954) theory of social comparison of ability, it was found that subjects who were visually isolated from sources of evaluation (setting 2, experiment 2 and 3) showed relatively low performance after a VI (very inferior) or VS (very superior) outcome and relatively high performance after an EQ (equal) outcome, whereas subjects who were visually exposed to sources of evaluation (setting 1, experiment 1 and 4) showed relatively low performance only after a VS outcome and relatively high performance after both a VI and EQ outcome. When (also in setting 1) the manipulation of outcome was combined with a manipulation of expectation (experiment 5), it was found that an EQ expectation did not alter the original pattern of outcome effects, but that a VI or VS expectation markedly influenced the effect of outcome: A complete confirmation of VI expectation and an almost complete disconfirmation of VS expectation resulted in relatively high performance, whereas all other combinations of VI or VS expectation with a given outcome resulted in relatively low performance. Finally, it was found that changing the manipulation of personal comparison of performance of the previous experiments into a manipulation of categorical comparison of performance of the previous experiments into a manipulation of categorical comparison of performance (experiment 6a and 6b) resulted in a pattern of data wich was about the opposite of the typical previous pattern. In setting 1 (experiment 6a), the subjects §s performance was relatively low after being categorized into a VI or EQ category and relatively high after being categorized into a VS category, whereas in setting 2 (experiment 6b) both the VI and VS categorization resulted in the same performance and the EQ categorization resulted in a slightly lower performance. 83 4 3 1974 " We tried to find out why Ss chose a specific risk level. We, therefore, constructed a questionnaire with 30 statements about aspects of the contents of the choice dilemmas. A factor analysis of the 30 statements over ten choice dilemmas and 61 field officers led to a structure of four cognitive elements. With these four factors as predictors we could explain a main part of the variance of the individual risk level of each choice dilemma. This regression analysis was done with normal product moment correlations and with scalar products. Both analyses show great similarity, although it seemed to be better to use scalar products because one can use the information of the means. The four cognitive elements could be interpreted as: (1) Decision making strategy; (2) Responsibility for others; (3) Reputation; (4) Socially valued riskiness. " 84 4 3 1974 " This study examined the effects of fear and anxiety inducing situations on affiliative behaviour of approach oriented and avoidance oriented Ss. Two samples of high school and university students were utilized to examine the following hypotheses: a) In fear situations, affiliative behaviour will increase in both approach and avoidance oriented subjects; b) in anxiety situations, affiliative behaviour will increase in approach oriented subjects and decrease in avoidance oriented ones. The results confirmed the hypotheses for a verbal criterion of affiliative behaviour, and partially for a behaviour criterion. " 85 4 3 1974 " Relations between the representations of group members with respect to different elements in the group set up: The task, the others, the self and the group as a whole are analysed from data collected in four experiments. Results show that the interrelations between these representations in the subjects §s cognitive universe are determined by a combination of three separate principles which deal respectively with: 1) the degree of generality, complexity or semantic globality of each element of the situation in the subjects §s representation thereof; 2) the functional importance (particularly in determining behaviours in the situation) of each representation, as well as its centrality within the subjects §s representational system. The functional importance and centrality of a given representation seem to be directly related in turn to the perceived normative character of the represented objects in terms of the group §s objectives; 3) a process of social comparison between the self and others, according to which each group member tends to perceive himself as being more in harmony than the others with the norms and requirements of the situation as he perceives them. The discussion deals with the generality of the above results. " 86 4 4 1974 This study is an attempt, based on historical materialism (the science of the history of social formations), to critically analyse the notion of conflict as social psychology has defined it and as social psychology has developed it with models of non zero sum games imported from game theory. Whether it concerns the postulate of conflict resolution (which governs this domain of social psychology), or the ideological foundations of the notion of conflict, the structure of a game of the PDG type and the imaginary trap it orms, or even the staging which the psycho sociologist produces in utilizing this model, it is shown that this whole proceeding is an ideological construction which functions principally as an obstacle to true scientific knowledge of the field it covers which can be defined as constituted by the relationships between the subjective and the political and secondly as the raw material for a theory of ideology, which is understood as having the double function of recognition and misappreciation. Both tasks demand intensive theoretical study as part of the development of storical materialism and, from that point of view, this work should be considered only as a preliminary study. 87 4 4 1974 M. Plon commits the same offense that he finds so odious in American social psychology: A confounding of political axioms and scientific reasoning. His desire to demonstrate ideological blindness in Americans leads him to misinterpret some published works on the Prisoner §s Dilemma paradigm in bargaining research and to ignore the issue of the most useful balance in emphasis between conflict maintenance and conflict resolution when these topics are studied experimentally. Thus, M. Plon §s angry attack is not a clarification of the deep issues that he essays but, rather, another data point that will itself need to be understood. 88 4 4 1974 This paper is a rejoinder to Plon §s critique of the social psychology of conflict published in this Journal. The rejoinder reviews the history of American social psychology, the meaning of conflict resolution, the nature of the dilemma in the Prisoner §s Dilemma, and other related matters, which Plon has apparently misconstrued. The rejoinder criticizes Plon §s crude economic determinism version of Marxist theory and briefly considers the role of power in politics. The characteristics of the present author §s social psychological approach to conflict is outlined, and it is suggested that such an approach has direct relevance to the intellectual concerns of those who seek to bring about social change. 89 4 4 1974 Judging from the main point of the replies received, a Marxist position which does not accept a dialogue with social psychology is not allowed. To indicate that such a position is Marxist only in name, and thus usurped, we are rapidly accused of economism, qualified as orthodox and finally, last but not least, given the label Stalinist. The psycho sociologists are firmly locked up in the rhetoric of the dilemma. The two positions theoretical and political which are presented in the reply by Morton Deutsch are in reality complementary: Their common characteristic is that they forget the main point of Marxism Leninism, the thesis of the primacy of the class struggle. To accept social psychology without asking oneself questions about its meaning, or to ignore social psychology by considering it as an out of date ideology, leads to the same result, namely, leaving open the place of a Marxist Leninist theory of ideology. 90 4 4 1974 " In two experiments four sets of both favorable and unfavourable verbal material were classified as belonging to four labels, two specific labels (politicians) and two less specific labels (classes of people). Ss §s attitudes towards one of the politicians were more positive than towards the other. Ss stored these stimuli in their memory under casual, incidental instructions. Then Ss retrieved information by deciding which one of two labels was formerly connected to the given verbal items. Ss were expected to accentuate on two orthogonal dependent variables: (1) Discrimination performance between labels; (2) response preference for labels. Discrimination performance was improved for politician labels compared to classes of people labels but was not affected by the favourableness of the verbal material. However, response preference for one politician label occurred when two conditions were fulfilled: (a) Both the verbal material and Ss §s attitudes towards the label were unfavourable, and (b) the content of verbal material was characteristic of the label. The accentuation theories of Bruner Goodman and Tajfel were reformulated and integrated into a two level model. " 91 5 1 1975 Recent studies have reported that the variable of social categorization per se is sufficient for intergroup discrimination. This paper presents an explanation of these findings in terms of the operation of social comparison processes between groups based on the need for a positive ingroup identity. The relationship between perceived social identity and intergroup comparison is elaborated theoretically, and it is argued that social comparisons give rise to processes of mutual differentiation between groups which can be analysed as a form of social competition. Social competition is distinguished from realistic competition (conflict of group interests). New data is reported which strengthens this interpretation of the minimal categorization studies. It is found that minimal intergroup discrimination takes place in the distribution of meaningless points as well as monetary rewards and that social categorization per se does not lead to intergroup behaviour where the subjects can act directly in terms of self. Other studies on intergroup biases are reviewed to argue for the generality of social competition in intergroup situations. 92 5 1 1975 " Predictions concerning aggression displacement, derived from Miller §s conflict model, were investigated under conditions in which subjects §s inhibitions about aggressing against an attacker were manipulated. Half of the high attacked subjects were placed in a high inhibition situation, designed so that strong inhibitory tendencies competed with strong aggressive tendencies; the remaining high attacked subjects were placed in a low inhibition situation, designed so that weak inhibitory tendencies competed with strong aggressive tendencies. Low attacked control subjects also received the inhibition treatment. High and low attacked subjects were then confronted with one of four target persons, varying in similarity, toward whom they could aggress with electric shock. As expected, under high inhibition, the target most similar to the attacker received more shocks from high attacked subjects than did either the attacker or two less similar targets. Contrary to expectation, the attacker did not receive the most shocks under low inhibition; personality evaluations of the attacker suggested that high attacked subjects in substitute target conditions may have been unintentionally angered further by being denied the opportunity for direct retaliation. " 93 5 1 1975 Since independence, the government of India, through various constitutional and legislative measures, has tried to root out the evils of the caste system. In order to study the effect of these measures and of various socioeconomic changes on intercaste attitudes, a study of intercaste attitudes conducted by the author in 1968 is used as a baseline to study the changes over the four year period. The responses to the 15 items compared deal with general caste attitudes, attitudes toward special privileges for the scheduled castes and, the caste Hindus §s attitudes toward Harijans (former untouchables). The comparison of the responses to these items in 1968 and 1972 (the follow up study) indicates that a higher percentage of respondents gave liberal responses in 1972 than in 1968 to the questions dealing with public and peripheral areas of interaction. However, very little change was found in those spheres of interaction which are relatively personal and central or involve intimate interaction, e.g., the theory of Karma, attitude toward the caste system as such and attitudes toward dining with or acceptance of food from Harijans. The results lend further support to the cognitive imbalance theory of attitude change. 94 5 1 1975 " In a reconsideration of the achievement motivation theory it is assumed that moderate stimulation releases positive affects and very low or high stimulation negative affects. It is further assumed that as far as the achievement motivation system is concerned the most stimulating situation is that where the probability of success (Ps) is about .50, the least stimulating that where Ps is near 1.00 or .00. The motive to achieve success (Ms) and the motive to avoid failure (Mf) are thought of as moderators of the stimulation provided by a given situation. Ms dominated individuals should experience positive affects (moderate stimulation) where Ps is about .50 and should therefore engage in such situations. Ps near 1.00 or .00 implies very low stimulation; hence, negative affects should be released, resulting in resistance to such situations. Mf dominated individuals should experience negative affects (very high stimulation) where Ps is about .50, while they should experience moderate stimulation, and thus positive affects, if at any point, only where Ps is either very high or very low. This implies that the relationship between Ms strength, respectively Mf strength, and degree of engagement should vary from positive to negative, depending on the probability of success in the situation. Results from previous investigations are related to these viewpoints. " 95 5 1 1975 " We have presented two experiments on the processes of normalization (appraisal of an ambiguous stimulus). In the first experiment, pairs of subjects were taken from natural groups whose structure and functioning we had previously studied; the subjects were paired off in terms of (a) sociometric choices which they had put forward and (b) difference in hierarchical position in the ordinary life of the group. In the second experiment a definite image of the other subject (an accomplice) was created in the subject such that he appeared very similar or very different to him (in areas in no way connected with the task). Furthermore, in the collective phase of the estimation the accomplice replied exactly like the subject or in a way which was remote or very remote from the subject §s replies. We did not observe the contrast phenomenon described by some authors, but we were able to show that the patterns of interaction of everyday life, stabilized social relationships or images of the other which are unconnected with the tasks to be performed play a role in the influence that the replies of one subject have on those of another. Apart from differential assimilation we have shown a process of dissimilation, these two phenomena being, in our opinion, rooted in the structures of action of the social agents §s lives. Negotiation in influence is rarely something symmetrical, even in situations of normalization where the dissymmetry of everyday life can be transfered. We have shown, too, that in these types of situations the subjects do not always try to minimize conflict since when they are in agreement (there is nothing to negotiate) they can diverge from one another. It can thus be said that subjects are not rational in the usual sense and are quite clearly something different from logicians or statisticians. The explanation which we have outlined shows how notions of social identity, differentiation and otherness are brought into play. " 96 5 2 1975 Punitiveness in male movie goers in London, Philadelphia, Rome and Toronto was measured before or after they attended films varying in content (aggressive, sexual, neutral) and arousal potential (low, high). A second dependent variable, altruism, was also assessed for some Ss. Hypotheses stemming from social learning theory and arousal theory were tested by comparing changes in punitiveness at aggressive, nonaggressive arousing (sexual) and nonaggressive nonarousing (neutral) films. At aggressive films there was an increase in punitiveness whereas a reduction in punitiveness was found at neutral films. Sexual films led to a smaller (nonsignificant) increase in punitiveness than aggressive films. The findings implied that arousal was a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for increasing punitiveness. There were no significant cross national differences in response to the films. Since the results did not generalize to other, nonaggressive responses, the film effects may be aggression specific. Two additional findings in the U.S. sample were that urban Ss were more punitive than rural Ss and that the length of urban residency correlated negatively with altruism. 97 5 2 1975 In the central equation of Fishbein §s attitude theory the overall affect attached to an object is equated with the sum of evaluation × belief strength for the salient beliefs held by the individual concerned. Two previous studies have shown equally good prediction of attitude whether the beliefs used are those spontaneously elicited by each individual (ISB) or those most frequently elicited by the population (MSB). This result is replicated here in the context of an attitude change study. Fishbein §s explanation for the efficiency, and occasional superiority, of modal sets of beliefs relative to individuals §s own sets of beliefs, i.e., that MSB contain less non salient items than ISB which result from inaccurate, forced elicitation, cannot account for the results in the present study since it is shown that a large proportion of MSB were non salient for many of the subjects. Further, certain sets of beliefs known to be inappropriate, i.e., which were neither modally salient nor individually salient, are shown to be good predictors of attitude using the Fishbein equation. The implications of these findings for the theory and the practical use of the Fishbein technique are discussed. 98 5 2 1975 " Subjects were required to describe line drawings of two dimensional shapes at two levels of verbal codability, with and without using hand gestures. Elimination of gesture affected speech performance by changing the semantic content of utterances and the proportion of speaking time spent pausing; numbers of words, numbers of pauses, mean pause length and semantic content were found to be related to the verbal codability of the stimulus material; and the number of hesitations was related to both gesture and level of codability. " 99 5 2 1975 Judgment type (snap and thoughtful) and valence of stimulus person (from likable to unlikable) were varied as within subjects factors in four studies to test whether situational and motivational variables (as opposed to the perceptual variable of unit formation) would interfere with integrative activity in forming first impressions. If such variables are influential, both the averaging and meaning shift formulations would expect that snap judgments should produce less extreme impression ratings than more thoughtful judgments. None of three indices of integrative activity (impression ratings, component ratings and variance of impression ratings) detected a difference between the snap and thoughtful response conditions for early and late judgments in a series, for moderate or extreme traits, or for between or within subjects designs. These findings suggest that certain boundary conditions need to be placed on the assumptions underlying the averaging and meaning shift formulations. 100 5 2 1975 " The new theoretical presuppositions used by Moscovici to explain social influence phenomena led him to show that the consistency of behaviour can account for the influence of a minority. Experimental data confirm this idea. However, some counter examples, showing that consistency sometimes induces subjects to refuse compromises, are problematical. To clear up this apparent contradiction, a distinction is made between behavioural style (in the face of the majority norm) and the style of negotiation (in the face of the population the minority wants to influence). A first experiment, then, shows that when two minorities are seen as equally consistent, the minority with a flexible style of negotiation has more influence than the more rigid minority. A second experiment deals with Ss §s perception of the source of influence and clarifies the effects of minority negotiations; the links between opinions, opinion change and perception of others are also clarified. " 101 5 2 1975 This experiment aims at testing the relationship between the aggressive meaning of slides and the viewers §s behaviour. Three sets of slides varying in their perceived aggressive content (revolver, whistle and a box of chocolate milk) were shown to three groups of Ss who had to choose the intensity of electric shocks they wanted to administer to a partner. As expected, viewing a highly aggressive slide increased the aggressive behaviour of the Ss who had been insulted. These results broaden the generalizability of the Berkowitz and LePage (1967) original finding, and they cannot be explained by Page and Scheidt §s (1971) criticisms. 102 5 2 1975 The effects of shifting opinions within a group upon majority opinion, communication between members and perceived attractiveness of other members were studied. Each subject perceived himself to be a member of the majority in a group whose opinion was divided 6–2 on an important issue. But later one to three group members changed their vote. Six conditions of change were established: Control, majority reactionary, majority compromise, majority defection (5 3), minority compromise, minority compromise plus majority reactionary. Only majority compromise or defection affected majority opinion (private and public). Majority members were disliked when they deviated from majority opinion, but particularly so when they shifted toward minority opinion. Minority members were liked most when they induced a majority member to compromise (but not defect). Majority communication to minority occurred most when the minority was compromising, but most disagreement with minority opinion was expressed when a majority member had either compromised or defected. 103 5 3 1975 " Subject correctness and group agreement were initially varied for college subjects performing a multiple choice informational task (Canadian Knowledge Inventory). On a subsequent perceptual task (Raven §s Standard Progressive Matrices), the dependent variable of conformity was assessed to examine generalization of relative competence formed on the informational task. It was seen that: (1) Those who perceived themselves to be less competent than the group on the first task exhibited the greatest level of conformity on the second task, thus replicating previous research on perceived relative competence as a determinant of conformity; (2) suspicion reduced conformity. " 104 5 3 1975 The extent to which subjects reciprocate unfavourable evaluations of performance was investigated in a dyadic inspection situation. The members of twelve male subject pairings alternated in their roles as inspector and operator on a discrimination task. As operators, the subjects were led to believe that their inspectors had evaluated their performance favourably or unfavourably on the basis of either a subjective judgment or an objective matching evaluation criterion. Results showed that those operators who reciprocated most were those whose discriminations were rejected by means of the judgment criterion. This result is in line with the attribution hypothesis that a person is held more responsible for an act having an unfavourable outcome for others when that act is perceived as voluntary and intended than when it is perceived as compulsory or externally determined. 105 5 3 1975 Sahlins proposed a model of reciprocity for social interaction citing three forms drawn from observations of kinship systems. The model describes an altruistic form of reciprocity, a balanced or economic form and a negative form in which individuals try to outdo each other. This model was applied to a two person variation of the Prisoner §s Dilemma Game where Ss were presented with a confederate who responded over trials entirely generously, contingently generously or non generously. Half of the Ss were informed that there would be ten trials while the other half were uninformed. Basically, Ss tended to match the generosity level of the confederate and were less generous when trial number was known. Evidence for Sahlins §s model is provided by Ss reports of reasons for their choices in the game. Those in the generous condition gave reasons for reciprocating based on a general feeling of obligation, trust and desire to cooperate. Those in the contingently generous condition gave reasons for reciprocating based on economic exchange and a desire to maintain a balance of resources. Ss in the non generous condition gave reasons based on a desire to take what profits one could before the other got them. In addition, Ss indicated a significant tendency to exploit the other on the final trial under the informed condition for the contingently generous but not for the generous condition. 106 5 3 1975 " Two experiments are reported which examine the relationship between a person §s estimate of the likelihood of a future change in his environment and his assessment of its desirability. The first experiment showed a general tendency for probability and desirability ratings to be positively correlated. This correlation was higher when the desirability of a predicted change was seen, on average, as matching its probability of occurrence, e.g., if the change was seen as both desirable and probable rather than probable but undesirable. In the second experiment subjects wrote an essay arguing either that a predicted change was probable, improbable, desirable or undesirable. Arguing for desirability of the predicted change had as much effect on subjects §s probability estimates as arguing for its probability; similarly, arguing for its probability had as much effect on desirability ratings as arguing for its desirability. These results are taken to imply that individuals may seek to achieve greater cognitive simplicity by treating probability and desirability as a single dimension. " 107 5 3 1975 It has previously been suggested that there is a generic norm of conflict between groups so that when a differentiation is perceived between one group and another there is a predisposition to discriminate against the outgroup. The present study investigates whether this norm of conflict operates in social situations involving differentiation over real issues, or to what extent behaviour is modified by norms of fairness. The research examined English and Welsh groups and found that when there was an opportunity of giving equal rewards to both parties about one third of subjects acted in this fair way. Never as many as one third of subjects acted in the most discriminatory way possible, and the remainder modified or tempered their discrimination. Behaviour in this situation was felt to be the result of opposing internal norms for fairness and discrimination. Differences were found between the English and Welsh subjects. The Welsh showed more discrimination against the outgroup, while discrimination in favour of the outgroup was more common among the English. It is hypothesized that that effect may be characteristic of the behaviour of top dogs and underdogs. 108 5 3 1975 One hundred and twenty eight women read a transcript of an interview which described either an attractive or unattractive male interviewee who aggressed against another with either a good or bad intention and with mild or severe consequences for the victim. The results of a 2 × 2 × 2 analysis of variance yielded several significant effects. Aggression committed by an attractive person and also by one who had good intentions was judged more favourably than was aggression committed by an unattractive person and by one who had bad intentions. As predicted from an attribution framework, an unattractive aggressor was seen as more likely to aggress again when his intentions were bad rather than good, whereas little difference due to varying intentions was seen in the probability of an attractive person §s future aggression. However, the corresponding prediction that attractiveness would interact with intentions to affect moral judgments of aggression was not supported. The finding of an intention rather than consequence effect on judgments was discussed in terms of an attributional approach and Piaget §s notions concerning moral development. 109 5 3 1975 In a study designed to examine the nature of the relationship between personality similarity and established friendships amongst adolescents, three groups of frequently interacting subjects of different ages were given Reptests (Kelly, 1955) as a means of eliciting the content of their personal construct systems. In all three groups (early , mid and late adolescence), pairs of friends were found to have more similar constructs than nominal pairs of group members. However, there were age related differences in the kinds of construct on which the similarity was most significant (for example, similarity on constructs relating to factual description predicted friendship choices in early adolescence but failed to do so in later adolescence, where similarity of constructs concerning physical attributes was a relevant factor). Sex differences in the functional basis of friendship were also found, with mid and late adolescent girls §s friendship choices correlating with similarity of psychological description. Temporal and sex differences in the basis of friendship suggest that the concept of friendship must be seen as more differentiated and less unitary a concept. Adolescent friendship illuminates several dimensions along which this differentiation assumes both theoretical importance and functional relevance. 110 5 3 1975 " This paper presents two experiments to support the general hypothesis that the coordination of actions between individuals promotes the acquisition of cognitive coordinations. The first experiment shows that two children, working together, can successfully perform a task involving spatial coordinations; children of the same age, working alone, are not capable of performing the task. The second experiment shows that subjects who did not possess certain cognitive operations involved in Piaget §s conservation of liquids task acquire these operations after having actualized them in a social coordination task. " 111 5 3 1975 This paper attempts to describe how sharing behaviour develops. Subjects were pairs of children aged 4 to 15. The experimental situation follows the pattern of a rich sharing with a poor, that is, subjects do not possess the same amount at the beginning of the experiment. Three stages emerge: * Up to 6–7 years the subjects do not compare the different sets (initial belongings, set to be shared) and proceed often by alternating actions (give and take). * From 6–7 to 11–12 years they even out their final belongings (what they possess after sharing). Initial belongings and objects to be shared are considered in the same way. * From 11–12 years on, there is a distinction between initial belongings and the set that is to be shared, based on the assumption that they are dealing with two different 112 5 4 1975 " This study examines the relationship between the attribution of traits and the attribution of short term, situation specific intentions and probable behaviours, with particular reference to the perception of obese persons. College students performed one of four tasks: (1) Rating photographs of obese and normal weight female faces for likeability and attractiveness; (2) attributing short term intentions and probable behaviours to these stimulus persons within the context of briefly described social interactions; (3) judging the situationally determined demand characteristics of the intentions and probable behaviours; or (4) judging the meaning of the intentions or behaviours in terms of trait scales. The results demonstrate that although the obese faces were consistently rated significantly less likeable and less attractive than the normal weight faces, these judgments were paralleled by only a few differences in the situation specific intentions or behaviours attributed to the two groups of stimulus faces. It is suggested that impression formation measured in terms of global, dispositional characteristics such as traits cannot be assumed to directly predict many differences in behavioural expectations in specific interpersonal settings. On the basis of the few attributions of intention which did discriminate, an obese personality stereotype emerged, consisting either of socially undesirable traits or traits of ambiguous social desirability. The implications of the relationships among traits, intentions and situational demand characteristics for an interactive model of situational vs. personality determinants of expected behaviour are discussed. " 113 5 4 1975 Studied the effects of cognitive dissonance on pain perception and attitudes towards injections in 48 student subjects of both sexes (average age 20.5). In a forced compliance design, subjects received sets of painful radiant heat stimuli, projected to their inside forearms, which they rated for painfulness and to which their GSR amplitude was recorded. During these stimuli, they chose to receive an experimental (placebo) injection. The degree of justification for agreeing to be injected was varied. Subjects in the high justification (HJ) condition were paid for their compliance, while subjects in the low justification (LJ) condition were not paid. Two predictions were made from dissonance theory. The first prediction, that only LJ subjects would manifest significant post injection analgesia when compared to subjects in a no choice control condition, was confirmed, considering both pain ratings (p < 0.01) and GSR (p < 0.025). The second prediction, that only LJ subjects would rate injections more favourably than control subjects on a post experimental measure, was not confirmed. The relevance of these findings to explanation of the placebo effect is discussed. 114 5 4 1975 " In comparison processes between the self and others within a given social set, a marked tendency has been frequently observed for each person to present himself as more in conformity with the social norms prevailing in the set under consideration than others participating in this set generally are. This type of behaviour has been designated here as superior conformity of the self behaviour (also called PIP effect). This article sets out to synthesize twenty experimental investigations in which it was attempted to delimit and explain this behaviour. A first set of experiments deals with the observed scope of the superior conformity of the self behaviour. For this purpose, variations are systematically introduced in the characteristics of comparative situations: Types of sets of individuals (for instance, real groups or abstract sets social categories); types of norms under consideration (for instance, norms dealing with the concrete execution of a task, norms relating to forms of behaviour personality characteristics, etc.); manners of comparing oneself with others (for instance, a specifically defined other or generalized others; comparisons on past, present or future behaviour, etc.). Having tested the scope of the superior conformity of the self behaviour in various ways, we proceed to explain it theoretically and experimentally. Our explanation here is based on the existence of a fundamental conflict between two simultaneous processes that are both complementary and contradictory: The individual §s need, on the one hand, for social conformity, which tends toward standardization and de individualization; on the other hand, his simultaneous search for social differentiation and individualization. This explanation is tested in a second set of experiments. Our final purpose is to show the practical and theoretical importance of the study of the superior conformity of the self behaviour in social psychology. In this connection we have shown, in a third set of experiments, how such a behaviour can play a role in many phenomena studied by social psychology. " 115 6 1 1976 Analyzes observational learning of attitudes within the classical conditioning paradigm after reviewing the relevant theoretical formulations and empirical evidence. In this analysis an attitude is conceived of as a habit between an attitudinal stimulus and an attitudinal response, the attitudinal response being an internal emotional response. Thus vicarious emotional arousal is the basis of observational learning of attitudes. A model §s positive or negative emotional behaviour should normally lead to an arousal of a similar emotion in an observer because of the latter §s conditioning history. Given that the model §s emotional behaviour is in the context of a particular stimulus situation, this stimulus situation should be able to elicit the relevant emotion in the observer through higher order conditioning. Thus the specific stimulus situation, or another similar stimulus situation, comes to be a positive or negative attitudinal object for the observer, depending on the nature of the model §s emotional response. 116 6 1 1976 " Studied the degree to which 40 children (half boys, half girls) in each of three age groups of 5–6, 7–8 and 9–10 years would be affected by the qualities of the actors and the outcomes in perceiving certain acts as either intentional or accidental. Each subject was randomly assigned to either the liked actor or the disliked actor conditions and was then administered both the good and the bad outcome stories, represented by pictures. Upon listening to each story in which the motivation of the actor was left ambiguous, the subject was asked to specify whether the act was meant to be done or not. The results indicate that in general all children showed a significant tendency to interpret a bad outcome caused by a liked actor as being accidental and that caused by a disliked actor as being intentional; conversely, when the outcome was good, the behaviour of the disliked actor was interpreted as being accidental and that of the liked one as being intentional. Although there were no age differences within the experimental conditions, differences were observed between the conditions for different age groups. In general a developmental lag was revealed in the attributive behaviour with respect to the disliked actor condition. One important implication of the study is that children by 5 years of age seem to have learned the evaluative difference between causing something intentionally or accidentally, depending on the outcome quality. The results were interpreted in terms of Heider §s balance principles which were suggested to serve as a vehicle for making causal inferences. " 117 6 1 1976 When several items of information are combined to give an overall judgement, it is usually found that some kinds of item are given greater weight than others. This study examines the relations between three criteria which judges may use in deciding how to apportion these weights. The criteria of evaluative direction and extremity have of ten been studied within impression formation, while demonstrations of the influence of ambiguity have produced unclear findings. Simple models of the combination of these three criteria are shown to be inadequate and a more complex account is suggested. A study is reported in which divergence between the criteria of extremity and ambiguity results in a generally greater bias to negative. This effect is related to other studies of the influence of inconsistency, and range adjustment model of the judgement process is extended to take it into account. 118 6 1 1976 Negotiations were conducted to investigate the effects on settlement points andon the attitudes and perceptions of participants of (i) group participation and (ii)belief in own group §s point of view, in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Ninety six school children prepared cases in groups of four before representing their group §s position against an individual of a similarly prepared opposed group. Group participation was manipulated by groups either participating in preparatory discussions or observing video films of another group §s discussions. Belief was manipulated by systematically varying the composition of groups according to scores on a pre test of attitudes towards the raising of the school leaving age. In general the belief manipulation operated as expected, believers exhibiting less variability, more tit for tat agreements and less opinion change than the disbelievers. Group participation did not influence the measures as predicted, and measures of interpersonal perception did not conform to the pattern of findings in recent experiments on intergroup discrimination. The results are discussed in terms of (i) their relevance to the issue of the appropriate relationship of the representative to his group in a negotiation and (ii) their implications for intergroup relations theory. 119 6 1 1976 Studied the effect of linguistic development and social appropriateness of a language upon the meaningfulness of personal constructs articulated in this language. Subjects were 60 bilingual pupils from a boys secondary school in Tanzania. Linguistic development was manipulated by choosing pupils who had either 1½ years or 3½ years experience of instruction in English. For each subject constructs were elicited and grids administered in both English and Swahili. Two types of elements were used, for one of which Swahili was the socially more appropriate language and for the other, English. Results from the study indicate that rating polarization is a function of both linguistic development and appropriateness of language for construing the domain in question. These results are therefore interpreted as indicating that meaningfulness of personal constructs, as indicated by rating polarization, can have linguistic determinants. 120 6 1 1976 Studied the effects of distracting stimuli, presented simultaneously with a persuasive but counterattitudinal communication, on subvocal counterargumentation and attitude shift. All subjects were first year undergraduate male students at Birmingham University, England. The 80 experimental Ss who formed ten different treatment groups, responded to distracting sequences of numbers by performing visual, auditory, vocal and manual tasks, and combinations thereof, while listening to the message. The base line group of 28 Ss merely listened to the same communication, which advocated compulsory male sterilisation. After task completion, all Ss were given a six item Likert type attitude measurement questionnaire, a counterargumentation measurement similar to that devised by T. C. Brock (1967) and a three item comprehension test of the arguments used in the communication. The results suggest that distracting stimuli which are greater in intensity or which require a more active response from the recipient (up to a certain level of activity) are more likely to inhibit counterargumentation and thus elicit shift toward agreement with the message (while leaving comprehension levels unaffected) than those which are lower in intensity, or which require either a passive or a high active response. 121 6 2 1976 This experimental study was aimed at investigating the mechanisms of influence involved in the two functionally opposed phenomena of innovation and conformity. We have been concerned for several years with the former of these two phenomena because of its intrinsic importance and the limited amount of research devoted to it. In the present article we have attempted not only to analyse the position more thoroughly, but also to compare the effects of innovation with those of conformity. In particular, we have endeavoured to show that behavioural style acts as a general source of influence in the two phenomena under consideration, where manifest judgments are concerned. On the other hand, the latent effects of influence may be different in the two cases of innovation and conformity. To investigate these questions, we developed an experimental design consisting of three parts. The first part was intended to study manifest influence on a quasi physical judgment based on a cultural truism. The second part was aimed at the study of latent modifications in the perceptual cognitive code as a result of influence. The third, in the form of a postexperimental questionnaire, was intended to provide information about various aspects, including the perception of the agent of influence by subjects. The main function of the experimental manipulations was to vary the minority or majority relationship of the agent of influence within a group, and its behavioural style, consistent or inconsistent. Our main findings indicate that behavioural consistency is the main factor behind the influence exerted by both majority and minority. But whereas, in conformity, influence is limited to modifying manifest judgments, in innovation, it changes the perceptual cognitive code underlying such judgments. 122 6 2 1976 An experiment was devised which tested the classical theory of projection. Subjects completed a Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study form (RPFS) also rated themselves for aggressiveness on rating scales. Highly aggressive subjects were classified according to whether they rated themselves as high aggressive or tow aggressive. Subjects watched one of two full length commercial films, and the ratings which high aggressive, high self rating subjects and high aggressive, low self rating subjects gave to film characters were compared. It was found that aggressive film characters were rated as being more aggressive by the low self rating subjects than by the high self rating subjects. The possible explanation that this finding could be related to more general differences between subjects was not supported. It was therefore concluded that the results of this experiment were best explained by the predictions of classical projection theory, with the proviso that aggression was only projected onto those film characters whose behaviour provided appropriate cues. 123 6 2 1976 " Three schemata relevant to the inference of traits attributed to a and b from respectively reciprocal liking and disliking relations between a and b are derived from the research literature: (a) Homogeneity according to which likable traits would be attributed to a and b if they like each other, while dislikable traits if they dislike each other; (b) balance according to which more similarity would be attributed to a and b if they like each other than if they dislike each other, the relative similarity effect being localized on a likableness dimension; (c) positivity bias according to which favourable traits would be attributed irrespective of the stimulus information given. An experiment is reported which provides support for the three schemata with the exception that no unequivocal evidence is obtained for the restriction of the balance effect to a likableness dimension. Further, individual Ss are found not to have stable preferences for particular schemata but to switch readily from one schema to the other. " 124 6 2 1976 Humanist social thought is as a meadow in the forest of positivist science. Much of this space was cleared by Wilhelm Dilthey, not only through his attack on the fundamental assumptions of positivism, but also through his formulation of a critical method by which the works of free human consciousness could be understood. The first tenet of positivism is that the world is made up of out there objectively knowable facts. Dilthey undercut this notion by asserting that the subject matter of the human studies was not mere facts of nature, but rather objectified expressions of the human mind. The second central assumption of positivism is that these facts are explainable or determined by general causal laws. In contrast, Dilthey asserted that, while we can explain the natural world, human action must be understood through an interpretive rather than a causal logic. In demonstrating and specifically describing such an interpretive procedure, Dilthey provided an epistemological and methodological grounding fur a humanistic science of the person and of the social world. His ideas illuminate the works even of his critics and his influence, though largely unacknowledged, continues to be widespread in all the human studies. 125 6 2 1976 Discusses the current status of the controversy about the relationship between individual §s attitudes and subsequent behaviour. It is suggested that one step toward the resolution of the existing controversy is the construction of a formal theory, specifying and integrating variables other than attitude into the framework. To this end, a model (in propositional form) is advanced focusing on attitude, centrality and salience as determinants of action. The model was partially tested through reanalysis of survey data dealing with attitudes and behaviours of 221 individuals with regard to halting air pollution. The data confirmed that subjects for whom the attitude object was central exhibited a higher level of attitude behaviour consistency than subjects for whom the attitude object was of low centrality. It is argued that the use of the proposed model clarifies relationships which otherwise might incorrectly be interpreted and provides a practical logic for determining when a comparison may be reliable and when one should beware of probable measurement difficulties. 126 6 3 1976 This paper first reviews material dealing with the question of whether possession and related behaviours are innately determined or secondary. It is considered that the significance of property related behaviour can best be understood by reference to its ontogenesis, and to the social context, and to the intentions of the actor. Some relevant material is reviewed, and it is proposed that some forms of acquisition and possession of property may be limited to societies with a high degree of role flexibility and mobility and have to do with the building and maintenance of self respect. 127 6 3 1976 Suspiciousness of deception threatens the internal validity of the conformity experiment, and analyses suggest it is becoming more widespread. After being led to believe their own ability in a visual judgment task was higher, lower, or the same as the ability of the other group members, 65 undergraduate women made visual and informational judgments in the Crutchfield apparatus. Major findings include treatment effects on suspiciousness, less conformity by suspicious Ss, and significant treatment effects on conformity only when suspicious Ss were removed from the analyses. Measures of self confidence and confidence in others were significantly related to and likely determinants of suspiciousness. Implications for improving deception in conformity research are discussed. 128 6 3 1976 Under the guise of an experiment on gambling decisions, subjects briefly met a confederate of the experimenter, whom they later evaluated. The major hypothesis was that the confederate would be evaluated more favourably by subjects who were told that she had received a fortuitous reward than by control subjects. The hypothesis was confirmed for female subjects only. 129 6 4 1976 The present article relates some of the conclusions obtained from a series of studies on the relation between normative climate and polarization. Emphasis is put on the fact that the introduction of norms in social psychology experiments must be linked to the place of norms in society. Similarly, styles of behaviour and their consistency are only effective in terms of their contents, which are socially determined. Those are the hypotheses confirmed by our experimental design: a confederate is introduced into group discussions, the experimental variables being defined by means of his role: radicalism, position with respect to the norms, and consistent or inconsistent styles of behaviour. The results shed some light on the conditions of the appearance of polarization. 130 6 4 1976 Sixty three subjects judged the behaviour of one of two fictitious stimulus persons by means of five different types of explanation which corresponded with specific psychological theories. These types of explanation based behaviour on adaptation to external conditions, reward/punishment, fulfilment of role expectations, effects of unconscious motives and the imitation of models. The explanations were evaluated on graphic rating scales as to their truth and convincingness. Two way analyses of variance with repeated measures on one factor showed significant main effects for type of explanation and interaction effects of stimulus person × type of explanation for both dependent variables. The results are discussed in the light of studies done so far in implicit personality theory. 131 6 4 1976 This study was concerned with the popular impression that Near Easterners will give directions to a place even if they do not know its whereabouts. It confirmed the hypothesis that significantly more Iranians than English people will give directions to a fictional place, and offered experimental evidence to show that this cultural difference could not be explained in terms of the greater mischievousness of Iranians. Instead, it was suggested that the difference in behaviour between Iranians and English people could be traced to a difference in value systems. The study examined direction giving, avoidance of the experimenters, and time spent with experimenters in relation to nationality, sex and social class. 132 6 4 1976 Studied the effects of decentration as a self control process to reduce the aggression subsequent to exposure to filmed violence. 48 Belgian French speaking military recruits were run in four groups of subjects. Two saw either aggressive or neutral slides without special instructions. The other two groups saw only aggressive slides but one underwent the decentration training while the fourth one performed a subsidiary task instead. The famous weapons effect is replicated for those subjects who did not receive the special instructions (<.025 one tailed test) and decentration significantly reduces aggression (<.05 one tailed test). The absence of a change in the meaning of the slides is interpreted in terms of reappraisal of the stimuli. Besides practical questions, theoretical implications are raised concerning the social context of viewing filmed violence. 133 6 4 1976 The purpose of the present study was to show the effects of the method of leader selection, leader §s personality characteristics and styles of leadership and the combined effects of these variables on selected behaviours of leaders and members in discussion groups. One hundred and forty four Ss selected from a pretested subject pool of 306 male participated in the experiment. The methods of leadership selection done on the basis of experimental manipulation were varied in one of three ways, i.e., appointment, election, and rotation. The findings suggest that the relatiomhip oriented style leader were more effective than the taskoriented style leaders in making the discussion group to generate more ideas. The rotational and elected leaders showed more democratic and accommodative attitudes and behaviours in comparison to appointed leaders. Significant interactions among the variables indicated that predictions of leaders §s and members §s behaviours are most accurate when the joint effects of such factors are considered. 134 7 1 1977 " In a preceding article we discussed the links between norm and attitude change: a particular phenomenon in this relation will be developed in the present article. During a group discussion, and in the presence of a consistent confederate defending positions which follow the trend of the norms on the global level of society, subjects tend to polarize their attitudes much more than in control groups. In the opposite situation, we observe a division of the group: a number of subjects are sensitive to the confederate §s reactionary positions; these subjects are initially, that is, before the interaction, moderate. The other subjects, with firmer initial positions, resist the consistent confederate, thus resigning themselves to not reaching the consensus demanded of them by the experimenter, and enduring the conflict resulting from the standstill in the group negotiation. " 135 7 1 1977 Both folklore and much of the social psychological literature suggest that influence and numbers go hand in hand. The more the people espousing a particular position, the more they are presumed to be correct, and the more influence they will exert. Such a contention has received support in the conformity literature (Asch, 1955). However, recent work in minority influence demonstrates that a few people, provided they show particular consistency and confidence, are able to exert influence on a majority. We have hypothesized that such perceptions of consistency and confidence bear an inverse relationship to size of the minority. Combining these two findings, we predicted that, as size of the minority increases, their presumed competence increases but their presumed confidence in their position decreases. We further predicted that a combination of the two perceptions is the best predictor of influence exerted by that minority. These predictions received support in the present study. 136 7 1 1977 Previous research on visual interaction has indicated that Looking1 may serve a number of important functions in social interaction. In particular, the apparent relationship between the timing of Looks and the patterning of speech has led to the suggestion that visual communication serves to regulate the flow of conversation and to synchronise transitions from speaker to speaker. This was tested in the present experiment by comparing face to face dyadic encounters with similar discussions which took place over an audio intercom link which precluded visual communication. Simultaneous speech, which resulted generally from interruptions, occurred more frequently and for longer in total face to face than in the audio condition, while the length of utterances and the incidence of speech disturbance were both greater in the audio condition. This pattern of findings was quite different from that predicted, and suggests that the role of visual communication is to allow participants to converse spontaneously and interrupt freely by enabling them to send and receive nonverbal signals which maintain the interaction and prevent the breakdown which interruption might otherwise threaten. Suggestions for testing this interpretation further are outlined. 137 7 1 1977 " Representative samples were drawn from particular areas of five countries: New York, U.S.A.; Orani, Italy; Teheran, Iran; Djakarta, Indonesia; and Belgrade, Jugoslavia. Descriptions of behaviour ranging from criminal through deviant to nondeviant acts were presented to the respondents who were asked to indicate to which agencies of social control they would refer the act. The social institutions of religion, party politics or education were rarely chosen. All country samples invoked the police and family, but the more industrialized countries also reported to government bureaucracy and the medical system. Less developed countries favoured the family and village level of social control. Results were interpreted to suggest that the current view of labelling theory, that all social institutions are agencies of social control, needs to be reassessed. A distinction between socializing institutions and controlling institutions is suggested. " 138 7 1 1977 The research investigated the relationship between managerial decision making and a set of specified contingent situational factors: decision type, perceived skill requirements and objective skill inputs. The study was based on 663 German and British managers in two interlocking senior management levels of 37 large enterprises. The data were collected by means of Group Feedback Analysis as part of a large study of managerial decision making in eight countries. The results show a significant (p <.05) relationship between the choice of decision styles and the postulated contingency variables. Only 1 % of 615 senior managers consistently use a single decision style, more than two thirds use four or five different styles. Very large variations occur as a function of different decision tasks, perceived skill requirements and objective skill availability. There are differences between the relatively well matched samples of German and British managers, but they are less significant than the broadly similar way in which both samples respond to the particular contingencies under investigation. The results are interpreted in the context of an open systems contingency framework. Their action implications are seen to suggest a link with sociotechnical theory on job design and wider issues of organisational and social policy. 139 7 1 1977 Argues that the comparative neglect of the cognitive component and social origins of social attitudes has produced serious inadequacies in social psychology and limited its social relevance. Discusses critically the question of how far social change can be brought about by changing attitudes. The argument is exemplified with reference to the literature on authoritarianism and recent British research on racial prejudice and mass communication. Concludes that the psychology of social attitudes needs to take greater account of the way the production and communication of culture are related to social structure and change. 140 7 1 1977 The role of three subject variables in the mediation of reactance to pro and anti LSD messages was investigated: sex, authoritarianism, and suspiciousness that the purpose of the experiment was to study persuasion. No reactance effect occurred reliably either overall or in any subgroup of subjects for the anti LSD message which supported the initial views of most subjects (evening division undergraduates). In the pro LSD case, reactance effects occurred among highly suspicious male subjects only. It was suggested that reactance could be a response to perceived threat from the experimenter rather than, or as well as the communicator, and that male and female subjects responded to such threat in accordance with their culturally prescribed roles. 141 7 2 1977 analysed social judgment theory of attitude change and studied placement of a communication and opinion shift in an experiment on visual perception. In a 3 × 3 design plus a control group, 110 undergraduate college students (50 men and 60 women) received a communication after estimating the number of dots on 14 slides. The communication varied at three levels of ambiguity and three levels of discrepancy. Ss gave estimates of the communication from memory (measuring assimilation) and gave a second set of their own estimates (measuring opinion shift). Assimilation varies directly with ambiguity (p < .00l) but is unrelated to discrepancy. Opinion shift varies significantly as a function of discrepancy (p < .00l) but is unrelated to ambiguity. Authors hypothesize assimilation and opinion change may be negatively correlated at small discrepancies but directly correlated at large discrepancies. 142 7 2 1977 Investigated associations between the questioning and answering behaviour of mothers and children in a design that allowed analyses within as well as between social classes. Thirty two six year old children volunteered their knowledge and asked questions of their mothers about a variety of objects in a natural context. Social class differences in the children were found in the quality of questioning and the amount of knowledge displayed, but for the latter there were differences between tasks, and the incidence of questioning confounded the predictions made. Class differences in mothers §s behaviour likewise differed by task. An index of the mothers §s provision of cognitive meaning and of feedback was shown to correlate highly with children §s rates of questioning and knowledge revealed both within and across classes. 143 7 2 1977 A multidimensional scaling procedure was used to explore the role of cultural background, language and geographical region in the process of Welsh identity. Welsh bilinguals and Welshmen who could speak only English made similarity judgments among stimulus people represented by all possible combinations of these three factors and the anchor stimulus MYSELF. The results showed that language spoken was the most important dimension of ethnic identity for both groups, with cultural background and geographical region playing subordinate roles. These findings were discussed in relation to similar research conducted in Canada. 144 7 2 1977 Studied the effects of group discussion on the extremity of person perception judgements with a view towards (a) evaluating the role of alternative modes of interaction in selectively inducing polarization or moderation of judgements, and (b) further extending the generality of the group polarization phenomenon. Two traditional theories of group shift (leadership theory, value theory) were also evaluated. Both the video taped stimuli and the subject, object and situation relevant measuring instrument were specially developed in a pilot study (N 90) in order to approximate real life conditions. The person stimuli were rated by subjects (N 72) in a traditional repeated measures design, with a control group for familiarization effects. Free exchange of opinions in group discussion was either encouraged or discouraged. A significant polarization effect with marked postdiscussion recidivism was found when spontaneous interaction was encouraged, while group consensus judgements were more moderate in the more formalized group interaction condition. Neither of the traditional theories examined were supported by the data. The results are discussed in term of their potential relevance to real life groups specializing in person perception judgements (juries, interviewing panels), and the connection between the mode of interaction formulation and other recent theories of the group shift are examined, with some suggestions for the further elaboration of the present model. 145 7 2 1977 It is shown that the notions of aggressive behaviour as intentional emission of noxious stimulation (Buss, 1961, 1963, 1966, 1971) and that of injuriating goal response (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mower and Sears, 1939) are identical. The usefulness of these theories to predict S §s reaction to the reception of a given noxious stimulation is questioned. It is suggested that S §s reactions to noxious stimulation may or may not be aggressive, depending on whether the noxious stimulation S receives is interpreted as being a behaviour justified by the nom in the situation, or as reflecting an aggressive intent of O. It is hypothesized that the norms established in the situation depend on (i) victim §s perception of the noxious stimulation received as being instrumental for O §s goal attainment, (ii) victim §s perception of the value of O §s goal, and (iii) the value of victim §s own goal. The establishment of norms regulating the exchange of noxious stimulation between Ss is operationalized in two experiments. Aggression, defined as an infringement of these norms, is measured. In Experiment I, participate 56 female students, and in Experiment 2, 80 male students. Subject is alternately victim (he performs a sensorimotor task and receives an electric shock) and aggressor (he shocks the other S). In Experiment I it is found that Ss counteraggress faster and more frequently if they interpret the shock received from the partner as an infringement of the norm. In Experiment 2, Ss do not counteraggress more frequently, but they do counteraggress faster and evaluate O more negatively. It is concluded that the results clearly contradict current positions and favour the authors §s cognitive reformulation of the determinants of aggressive behaviour. 146 7 2 1977 Investigated the effects of fear arousal and sidedness variables on compliance with a dietary regimen. Experiments involved 202 women volunteers who were 10 per cent or more overweight, and aged 20 60 years. Experiment 1 involved a 3 (low, medium, high fear) × 2 (single, multiple exposure to fear message) × 2 (one , two sided communication) design. The fear levels involved discussing the health hazards of obesity. Experiment 2 manipulated the fear message position relative to the recommendations (fear recommendations, recommendations fear, fear delay recommendations). Persuasive impact was measured via follow up weight checks at 2, 4, 8, and 16 weeks. Results indicate nonsignificant effects from sidedness and pre standardised fear levels. Using subjects §s fear arousal ratings medium fear is significantly better (p < .025), supporting Janis §s curvilinear hypothesis. A single exposure to the fear message is superior (p < .025) to multiple exposures, the interaction with time being highly significant (p < .001). Experiment 2 results indicate the optimum position for the fear message as immediately prior to recommendations (p < .025). Results support both cognitive and fear reduction hypotheses, but the latter is favoured. 147 7 3 1977 " Studied the effect of a person §s self esteem on his inferences about another person §s feelings toward him. Fifty six mule and female college student subjects of high or low chronic self esteem (median split; modified version of Janis and Field §s Feelings of Inadequacy Scale) received either a negative or a positive evaluation of themselves. They were told that the evaluation had been written by another subject who had acted either under sincere instructions, which allowed him to give his own opinion, or under role playing instructions, which assigned him to write either a positive or a negative evaluation. The subject §s take was to decide under which instruction his evaluation had been written. It was predicted from a self consistency logic that low self esteem subjects would attribute negative evaluations to sincere and positive evaluations to role playing instructions, while high self esteem subjects would make the reverse attributions. A significant self esteem × evaluation positivity interaction (p <.01) supported this prediction. " 148 7 3 1977 " Investigated how team success and failure are attributed to dispositional and situational factors as a function of immediate outcome of the group performance, past success of the team, and individual performance of team members within the group. 150 Little League baseball players §s attributions for the team §s outcome were taken separately with regard to team and self factors immediately after the conclusion of a game. The results reveal that success, independent of the margin of victory, is primarily assigned to effort and ability, while clear loss is attributed to both effort and task difficulty. Conversely, bare loss is seen to be mainly due to task difficulty and secondarily to low effort. The results are interpreted as supporting the notion of ego centered causal judgments, but not necessarily the motive to enhance one §s self, on the basis of the new proposition that effort has a different attributional meaning in the cases of success and failure; when losing effort is treated as an external factor, and when winning, effort tends to be interpreted as an internal factor. No differences with respect to attributions exist between individual players who perform poorly and those who excell within the team performance. " 149 7 3 1977 Studied the immediate and long term effects of modelling on adult altruism using a quasi field experiment in a naturalistic setting. Forty three female trainee occupational therapists aged 18 21 observed or did not observe a female model volunteer to donate blood. Modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who (a) also agreed to donate and (b) in turn actually gave their blood. The opportunity to donate blood occurred in a naturalistic situation on average six weeks after the commitment. It was concluded that observing a model could produce generalizable and durable behaviour change in adults using an altruistic behaviour of some cost to the individual. Personality and vicarious reinforcement effects however were not found. 150 7 3 1977 " Studied the effect of meaning and consequences on shifts toward extreme judgments (polarization) as a result of group discussion. Since it was hypothesized that high levels of both meaning and consequences would activate pressures to conform to the appropriate cultural norm, greater polarization was predicted under those conditions. Consequences were varied by asking subjects how willing they were to participate in another actual (high consequences) or hypothetical (low consequences) experiment. Meaning was varied by information that the proposed experiment would have high or low social and scientific significance. Sixty male college students discussed their preferences in three person groups. Prediscussion, consensus, and postdiscussion scores were obtained; the critical polarization scores were computed on the basis of individual §s movement away from the prediscussion mean of their group. Partial support for the hypotheses is provided by a cross over interaction (p < .05) in changes from the prediscussion to consensus scores, which indicate greater polarization in the high meaning, low consequence condition, and in the low meaning, high consequence condition. The results are discussed with respect to their implications for research in which subjects do not expect real consequences to follow from their statements of opinion. " 151 7 3 1977 Re examines Mulder §s Power Distance Reduction Theory (P.D.R.) and the related experiments using a model which distinguishes between structural and nonstructural parameters of a power system. The former defines the Vertical and Horizontal nature of the power relations between people in the system, while the latter specifies the power differential between two immediate ranks, and together they provide a more adequate and precise conception of the links between the power parameters and the tendencies of subordinate group members to seize super ordinate power. Several theoretical statements were generated on the bases of the P.D.R. literature and theories of social comparison and bureaucracy to hypothesize the individual effects of the three parameters on power distance reduction (p.d.r.) tendencies. Two experiments using 48 and 40 male college students respectively were conducted to test the hypotheses by systematically varying one parameter and holding constant the other two. The results indicate an inverse relationship between the p.d.r. tendencies and the size of the parameters, as predicted. The strength of the relationship increases from the nonstructural to the Vertical to the Horizontal parameter. An argument was developed which combined the three power parameters to form two ideal power conditions for further research. 152 7 3 1977 At first, it was demonstrated that social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) predicting a need for moderate (instead of maximal) superiority, could reconcile a number of disparate results of earlier Maximizing Difference Game (MDG) experiments. Using the same theory, it was then further predicted that high power players in an asymmetrical MDG would compete less than their inferior opponents or than equal power players in a symmetrical MDG and that the inferior and equal power players would not differ in competition. The data of an experiment, involving an asymmetrical (8/6) MDG matrix and two symmetrical MDG matrices (8/8 and 6/6), generally confirmed these predictions, but it was observed serendipitously that the high 8/8 symmetrical matrix yielded more competition than the lower 6/6 symmetrical matrix. An extended replication of this variable with five linearly related MDG matrices (4/4, 5/5, 6/6, 8/8 and 12/12) showed a similar result, namely most competition in the highest matrices and least in the lowest ones. The finding was interpreted in terms of the competitive motivation of the players and the low cost of competition in the highest matrices. 153 7 4 1977 This article examines the claims of ethnomethodologists, symbolic interactionists and ethogenists to provide an improved basis for social psychology. The basic assumptions of these approaches are outlined, especially their common emphasis upon language and meaning. However, differences between the approaches are also noted. The problem is how this new social psychology would be capable of dealing with important social issues, such as fascism. There are criticisms from the point of view of the new social psychology of previous approaches to the social psychology of fascism, i.e., the authoritarian personality and value analysis. A historiographical survey of fascism is made to show the sorts of problems which could be tackled by the new social psychology, particularly in relations to the concept of fascism itself. However, it is argued that the new perspectives are inappropriate for a serious examination of a social issue like fascism, because they lack clear political commitment. They are based upon attitudes of either disassociation or sympathetic understanding, both of which are unsatisfactory for an examination of fascism. A return to a socially committed social psychology is urged. 154 7 4 1977 Fifty four subjects rated sixteen hypothetical situations on four evaluative and four probability scales. The situations were of the P O X type, consisting of two persons and an issue. A2×2×2×2 factorial design was used to test the relative importance of attitude (P to × relation), issue (marijuana or premarital sex), agreement (P to × and O to × relations), attraction (P to O relation), and balance (agreement × attraction interaction) on the evaluation and probability variables. As predicted from a critical review of past research on balance theory, balance was the main determinant of perceived probability. Attraction was the main determinant of evolution. In light of a review of past balance research and of the present data, we propose to restrict the balance hypothesis to cognitive variables, i.e., expectancy and perceived probability. In addition, support was obtained for the hypothesis that the more dogmatic a person is, the more frequently he will perceive balanced relationships as occurring and the more positively he will evaluate balanced situations. 155 7 4 1977 " Presented 120 males and 300 females with a summary of arguments concerning a court case. The information varied in the proportion and strength of arguments for either the defence or the prosecution. Based on the relevant arguments version of the cultural value hypothesis, it was predicted that: (a) proportion of arguments is directly related to subjects §s ratings of probability of guilt; (b) fewer arguments are needed to move subjects toward innocence than toward guilt; (c) strong minority defence arguments ate more effective than weak ones in allowing subjects to adhere to their initial value; and (d) strong prosecution arguments result in higher probability of guilt ratings than do weak prosecution arguments. Data supported each of these hypotheses. " 156 7 4 1977 Studied attitude change following counter attitudinal advocacy where there was little incentive for subject compliance in an attempt to compare dissonance and self perception theory predictions. The extent of attitude change was determined either by self report or by having subjects predict their own true attitudes purportedly monitored by the experimenter using a bogus pipeline. Forty eight male and female subjects, students from an introductory Psychology course, were invited to take part in a study of Current Campus Issues. They wrote a short statement that argued against an issue for which they had previously held a positive attitude. Results indicate that there was a significant attitude change in both conditions (p < .003). Attitude change under these circumstances is more successfully explained by the self perception theory than dissonance theory. 157 7 4 1977 In an experiment to study the effects of attitudes and immediacy of verbal expression of requiring subjects to emply evaluatively biased language, 28 male und felmale college students wrote essays on the topic of capital punishment. They were not forced to write either for or against the issue, but were required to incorporate a list of either 15 pro bias words, which implied a negative evaluation of abolition, or 15 anti bias words which implied a negative evaluation of capital punishment. It was predicted that subjects §s final attitudes would be more pro capital punishment after using pro bias words, and this was confirmed for subjects §s final self ratings (p<.05). However, alternative measures of subjects §s final attitudes implied that the bias manipulation had a consistent effect in the predicted direction only for subjects whose initial attitudes were congruent with the words they used (i.e., pro subjects in the pro bias condition and anti subjects in the anti bias condition) incorporated more of the words provided (p<.01) and employed more immediate forms of expression (p<.025) than subjects required to use words incongruent with their intial attitudes. These results were not replicated when 19 further subjects were required to incorporate comparable lists of statements rather than words, suggesting that the effects of the word lists were not due to their providing subjects with ready made persuasive arguments. 158 7 4 1977 Heider §s notions of attribution are presented as a theoretical underpinning for the empirical findings of Herzlich concerning health and illness. Her methodology is treated as a good example of the new methods advocated by Harré and Secord: the collection of naive unnegotiated accounts. It is suggested that the potential for attributional artifacts is present when an investigator invites laymen to discuss issues which have favourable as well as issues which have unfavourable outcomes and then accepts their accounts at face value. Favourable outcomes tend to be attributed to the self and unfavourable to the environment. The self is seen as the source of health and the environment as the source of illness. Evidence, from other areas of research, supporting this interpretation is presented. In conclusion it is argued that Herzlich §s data more neatly exemplify the structure of Lewin §s Psychological life space than they do that of Durkheim §s representations collectives. 159 8 1 1978 In this paper three experimental studies are reported in which leaders were given a choice between intergroup competition or cooperation under the threat of being deposed or not by their followers. Consistent with our predictions, threatened leaders were more likely to opt for intergroup competition, especially when their group was internally divided and when they had a strong bargaining position. However, they only chose intergroup competition, regardless of their chances of bringing the intergroup conflict to a successful conclusion, when their tenure of power was very precarious. 160 8 1 1978 Investigated the effect of the verb on inferences in reasoning tasks with conditionals. Subjects were 60 pupils, both male and female, aged 17 to 18 years. Six verbs (buy, have, understand, ignore, hate, avoid) served as independent variables in conditional tasks consisting of two premises. The results which are statistically, highly significant, show an effect due to the verb depending upon the logical form of the task (2Î 86.1, df 30). indicate that certain semantic characteristics implicit in verbs determine the way in which a reasoning task is interpreted. A second experiment investigated why verbs differ in this way. Interviews were carried out with subjects using the verbs buy and ignore. It is suggested that implicit meanings acquired through processes of social attribution play an essential role in verbal reasoning. In the present case, such attributions concern the depositional and episodic character of verbs and appear to be responsible for the interpretation of the premises of our tasks. It is concluded that any logical model aiming at an adequate representation of language in reasoning must take these implicit social attributions into account. 161 8 1 1978 Compared choices among solutions of problem by individuals and groups from two populations: 251 university students, aged 18 to 25 years, and 364 trade school students, aged 15 to 18 years. All subjects gave first their solution of Maiers horsetrading problem. Discussing groups were composed of one individual holding the correct answer while other members held each a different wrong solution. In one of the further individual conditions, single subjects were provided with all solutions without comment, and in the other, together with a brief summary of supportive arguments. As predicted, in the population of university students, the proportion of correct answers increases in all experimental conditions (p < .05). No significant difference is observed between individual and group choices. Group members defending the correct answer are more certain of their solution, talk more and are perceived as more confident than supporters of wrong solutions. In groups of trade school students, the reverse is true, and the proportion of correct answers decreases following both discussion (p < .01) and exposure to all solutions (p < .02). In this population, performance improves only when single subjects are provided with written arguments in favour of various solutions (p < .01). Results are analysed in terms of low solution verifiability depending on task, situational, and population factors. 162 8 1 1978 Female undergraduates, in groups of four, voted several times on appropriate treatment for a delinquent, using an electrical signalling device. Two simulated group members consistently agreed with subjects §s initial position. A third simulated member (target) exhibited one of nine response patterns. In six movement conditions (which formed a 2 × 3 design), the target (a) gradually moved a short distance toward or away from modal group opinion and (b) manifested high, medium, or low net agreement with the majority position. In three stable conditions, the target consistently (a) agreed with modal opinion, (b) disagreed, or (c) took a neutral position. In movement conditions, the target was evaluated significantly more favourably in the toward than in the away condition and in the high agreement than in the medium and low agreement conditions. In stable conditions, the agreeing target was liked significantly better than the neutral and disagreeing targets. The target §s response pattern also affected subjects §s attributions about the target §s motives, communication to the target (in notes interspersed between votes), and opinion change. Results were discussed in terms of previous research dealing with majority reaction to moving and stable attitudinal deviates. 163 8 1 1978 " This study was designed to test hypotheses concerning the influence of sex roles and social status on future orientation (FO). The latter was measured in various categories (spheres of life),on the dimensions of density (number of hopes and fears cited by the subject), extension, and optimism pessimism. Also included was a measure of internal vs. external control (the subject §s assessment as to whether the realization of his hopes and fears is dependent more on himself or more on external factors). Subjects were 100 employed men and women of the lower and middle class. It was found that, in comparison with women, men voiced more hopes/fears in the public sphere (economy, politics, environment) and fewer in the private sphere uamily, occupation, personal development). Men had a more extended FO in the occupational and economic spheres; women, in contrast, in the private sphere. (These results contradicted the assumption of earlier studies that FO is a general orientation, not varying across different domains of life.) Middle class (in comparison to lowerclass) persons manifested a, wore extended FO, envisioned the distant future more optimistically, and believed more markedly that the realization of their hopes and fears depended on themselves. " 164 8 1 1978 Studied the effect of a normative model (maximization of expected value) upon group and individual choice. 109 MBA students in a Lain square research design chose between two alternatives differing in expected value and in range of outcomes. Group choices were significantly (p < .05) closer to those predicted by the normative model than were individual choices. This difference was not due only to information about the presence and applicability of the normative model but rather it was due to the persuasiveness of the model in a group as a cogent and correct solution to the choice dilemma. Task instructions emphasizing the rewards from risk taking produced significantly more choices (p < .05) of the riskier alternative, particularly by individuals as opposed to groups, than did instructions emphasizing the penalties of risk taking. Risky and conservative shifts in choice between groups and individuals were explicable through knowledge of the influence of the normative model in individual and group choice. 165 8 1 1978 Demonstrated in two studies ( N 64, N 79) that information about a hypothetical stimulus person that appears to be 3 hold is judged more positively than information that appears to be 45 min old (p < .03, p < .007 respectively). In both instances, the information was received 1½ hago, but by unobtrusively manipulating the speeds of a clock by a factor of two, subjects were led to believe that they received the information either 45 min or 3 hago. The implications of thefindings for theories of attribution and social judgment are pointed out. 166 8 2 1978 Investigated the effects of subjects §s self concept and the attractiveness of the other on subjects §s estimates of how much the other liked them. The use of a signal detection paradigm allowed the measurement of both the criteria and discriminability of subjects §s decisions. Eighty mule and 80 female subjects participated in a computer match where they received either somewhat positive or somewhat negative feedback from their match. Besides sex and type of feedback, the factorial design included dating self concept (high vs. low) and other attractiveness (high vs. low). Results indicate that high dating self concept subjects had a lower criterion than low dating self concept subjects for saying that another liked them (p < .0l), and that the former group was superior to the latter at discriminating between the two types of feedback (p < .03). Also, males were more willing to say that the attractive match liked them than that the unattractive match liked them, while among females the direction of these differences reversed (p < .03). fie results were explained in terms of differential attention to pay off matrices and prior odds. 167 8 2 1978 " Similar samples of English, Italian and Japanese subjects were asked to identify 8 emotional states and 4 interpersonal attitudes from video taped expressions of 2 performers from each of these cultures. AN sets of judgements were above chance, except Italians judging Japanese. The Japanese subjects were no different from English and Italian subjects in recognition ability but the Japanese performances were harder to recognize supporting Ekman §s theory of display rules; in fact all Japanese expressions were difficult to recognize, with the exception of happy friendly. The Japanese (performers) make a clearer distinction between sad and depressed than other cultural groups, but did not distinguish between happy and friendly, or between angry and hostile. " 168 8 2 1978 A previous experiment (Doise, Mugny and Perret Clermont, 1975) has shown that pairs of subjects perform better on a spatial representation task than subjects alone. As a conclusion the hypothesis was put forward that conflicts of cognitive centrations, embedded in a social situation, lead children to coordinate their centrations. The present research was planned to verify several predictions following from this general hypothesis. Results show that indeed more progress takes place when children with different cognitive strategies work together than when children with the same strategies do so, and that not only the less advanced but also the more advanced child progresses when they interact with each other. 169 8 2 1978 Data from college students in North and South India tend to support our earlier findings of a positive relationship between the educational level and the degree of liberalism (Anant, 1972). With few exceptions a higher percentage of students than respondents from the general population gave liberal responses to most of the items in our questionnaire. A higher percentage of North and South Indian students gave liberal responses to items dealing with general attitudes toward caste system and toward interaction with Harijans (former untouchables), but the differences were reversed in the responses to items dealing with special privileges for the depressed castes. 170 8 2 1978 The effects of behavioural and cultural expectation cues on the perception of a dyadic encounter were studied, using realistic videotaped interactions as stimuli. Intimate and non intimate non verbal interactions and intimate and non intimate episode definitions were combined in a 2 × 2 design and presented to subjects who rated both information sources separately (N 20) as well as in congruent and incongruent combinations (N 48). The contribution of each of these two cues to ratings of the combined episodes was analysed by Frijda §s (1969) average relative shift technique, and a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) procedure. Results indicated that behavioural cues dominate perceptions, but this dominance is reduced in incongruent cue combinations, suggesting a weighted averaging strategy. Perceptions of the relationship between the interactants were more resistant to behaviour cue dominance than perceptions of the interaction. An analysis of open ended accounts by subjects substantiated these findings. The results suggest that cultural expectations of interaction episodes have a salient and non obvious effect on social perception. 171 8 2 1978 This study tested the relative plausibility of three, main theories and/or hypotheses concerning the relationship between intolerance of ambiguity and socio politico ideology: (a) authoritarian personality theory, (b) the extremism hypothesis and (c) the context hypothesis. The sample consisted of 195 Swedish high school students randomly selected from five different high schools from greater Stockholm in the spring of 1974. Separate factor analyses of the Budner Intolerance of Ambiguity Scale and the S4 Conservatism Scale generated seven factors of ambiguity intolerance and five factors of socio politico ideology, Scattergram, correlation and trend analyses disclosed a number of statistically significant relationships between the various dimensions of ambiguity intolerance and socio politico ideology. The main trend of the results tended to confirm authoritarian personality theory concerning the relationship between intolerance of ambiguity and racism or ethnic prejudice. Furthermore, some support was found for the context hypothesis, with regards to the relationship between general intolerance of ambiguity and general conservatism, among other things. No support could be found for the extremism hypothesis. 172 8 2 1978 The purpose of the present research was to assess the relative influence of instigation or inhibition in mediating retaliation after arbitrary or non arbitrary frustration. Sixty four men were asked to learn a concept that was being taught by a peer. Although all men were frustrated, half were deliberately frustrated while the other half were not deliberately frustrated by the teacher. Following the task, the learner was given the opportunity to prevent the teacher from gaining employment under conditions where his evaluation was either anonymous or to be made public. The results of a 2 × 2 analysis of variance yielded several significant effects. The data revealed that subjects rejected the teacher more when the frustration was arbitrary than when it was non arbitrary. Moreover, when the evaluation was anonymous, subjects rejected the teacher more than when the evaluation was to be made public. Furthermore, the difference in the amount of rejection expressed between arbitrary and non arbitrary conditions was greater when the evaluation was anonymous than when it was public. These results were interpreted as demonstrating the greater contribution of instigatory rather than inhibitory factors in expressing aggression following deliberate or non deliberate frustration. 173 8 2 1978 " In this study 2 theories have been tested: Minimum Range theory (de Swaan, 1970; Leierson, 1970) and Minimal Resource theory (Caplow, 1956; Riker, 1962; Gamson, 1964). In an experimental simulation (Runkel and McGrath, 1972)political attitudes (left, centre and right) and power differences (40 seats in parliament, 30 seats and 20 seats) have been induced. The results suggest that in the beginning of the bargaining process people communicate about the composition of the coalition programme. The minimal range theory may explain this behaviour: parties with more similar ideological interests do coalesce. Later on, one more often bargains about the division of the outcomes, i.e. portfolios. Minimum Resource theory only partly explains the formed coalitions. Minimal winning coalitions, which are predicted by Minimum Resource theory, are formed more often within centre left coalitions. This is not the case for centre right coalitions. It is discussed that the link between the parity norm and minimal winning coalitions, which is assumed by Minimum Resource theory, possibly does not hold in this experiment. The parity norm being used by right together with centres strong position leads to the frequent occurrence of minimal winning centre left coalitions. " 174 8 3 1978 " This experiment studied the effect of an individual §s response style on different issues over a long period of time. A hypothetical situation depicted the repeated responses given by one person on a target issue and on four other issues for one year. The 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design varied consistency of the stimulus person §s position on the target issue during the year (consistent or variable); his consistency on other issues during the year (consistent or variable); and social context (alone or dissenting group). Subjects were 155 college students. Results showed an interaction between consistency on the target issue and consistency on other issues for the three dependent measures (p < .001). That is, significantly greater persuasiveness, confidence, and dis positional causality were attributed to stimulus persons whose opinions were either completely consistent or completely variable on all issues during the year. Results suggest that the consistency of response style across issues and not the constant advocacy of a specific position–is the crucial factor in the effectiveness of a long term minority influence. " 175 8 3 1978 Twelve hundred Maori and Pakeha (White, European) children in New Zealand ranging from five to twelve years of age, have been tested for intergroup preferences in a series of studies. These investigations spanned the years 1961–1970, and were conducted in four different regions, Previous analysis of these results had concentrated on the ontogeny of ethnic awareness and attitude development, and has not succeeded in relating distinct regional differences to population characteristics such as density or contact rate. The present study re examines available data, following Tajfe §s recent theoretical developments relating social identity to the process of social change, Two judges independently rated the four New Zealand regions in question in terms of perceived status relationships between Maori and Pakeha, ranging from relatively static to relatively fluid. Both resorted to two major variables in the judging: rural versus urban, and year of study. Inter judge agreement for ratings was total across the four regions. The resulting dimension was conceived as one which could reflect a restructuring of intergroup choices as a consequence of social change. It was found that Maori children have shown a clear shift away from out group preference as a function of urbanism and of time. While the rural context may have offered a form of security via a more classical Maori identity, the collapse of this system in an urban context reveals Maori/Pakeha social inequity for what it is, particularly in the eyes of older children. This trend has been accelerated in the seventies by a knowledge of minority group assertions elsewhere, particularly in the United States. There is some evidence of a shift in Pakeha behaviour too. Blatant in group preference has diminished as a facet of social change, though Pakehas could retrench if a militant pattern appeared in Maori behaviour. 176 8 3 1978 " Studied the reaction to facial deformities and the evaluation of physical and social handicap in connection with rehabilitation. Threshold and latency time of 40 male and 40 female normal subjects, reaction to male and female deformed and non deformed faces (Jive of each) was measured by tachistoscopic procedure. In test 1 subjects responded man/woman, in test 11 deject/ normal. In test 111 seven additional and the pictures of the ten deformities of rests I, II were scored on degree of handicap. Results by use of a quasi four way analysis of variance (tests 1, 11) and factor analysis (III) show significant differences in reaction to deformity versus nondeformity (p < .01). Sex takes longer to report with deformed females (p < .05), deformity with females (p < .01); deformitylnormality is reported differently with own versus other sex (p < .05). Increasing degree of deformity does not correspond to increase in reaction time; slight deficiencies cause reactions indicating confusion. Several levels of discrimination autonomic and social psychological and the possible use of evaluation scales to reveal psychological problems of facial deformities are discussed. " 177 8 3 1978 " This study is concerned with attitude polarization as a function of two properties of a persuasive message: (a) its validity or acceptability and (b) its novelty. The latter is defined as the extent to which the message contains new arguments unlikely to have been already considered by the individual. Acceptability is assumed to be a necessary condition for inducing attitude change; the impact of novelty, therefore, was expected to be most pronounced for arguments of high validity. This hypothesis was tested in two related studies using arguments produced in response to choice dilemma items, widely used in research on polarization. First, it was shown that arguments rated as both valid and novel were perceived as more persuasive than arguments rated either as highly valid but obvious (non novel) or as low in validity (non valid) but novel. Second, when subjects read samples of valid arguments, their attitudes polarized in the direction advocated by the novel arguments rather than by the non novel ones. These findings are considered relevant to the polarization of attitudes in groups. Other research demonstrates that this phenomenon is the result of persuasive arguments raised during group discussion, The present study suggests why such arguments may be persuasive. " 178 8 3 1978 This research was devoted to the study of minority influence in a context of originality of judgments. It was stimulated by a consideration of the role played by the normative context in influence processes. In most research, this implicitly underlies the phenomena studied. Thus, studies of social control have naturally appealed to the objectivity context. Innovation, in the social milieu in which it is involved, frequently implies an originality context. We hoped to study experimentally its effects on the process of social change. To this end, five experimental conditions were created, in which the originality norm was introduced in different ways – by experimental instructions, by influencing the perception of his own creativity by each individual and by using the time factor to encourage the fuller acceptance of this norm. In each condition, a consistent minority defended a deviant response in a colour perception task (the experimental paradigm used in our previous research using an objectivity context). The originality context affected the development of minority influence. Judgment based on perceptual evidence was abandoned to a significant degree, and new influence behaviours appeared. Individuals followed the minority or avoided the conflict by apparently original compromise responses. They were able to adopt several modes of response in the destructured way during the experiment, as they could oppose the minority by adopting a counter norm. Although these reactions depended on the way in which the originality norm was introduced, theprimary role in this process was nevertheless played by the minority, which provided the pole of attraction and persuasion in the group. 179 8 3 1978 Physical aggression of members of a powerful majority ethnic group against an opponent either from a powerless and discriminated against minority or from their own group was tested as a function of aggression directionality and aggressor §s attitudes. It was hypothesized that under bidirectional aggression where the opponent could aggress as well, members of the powerful majority group would adjust their aggressive responses to that of their opponent §s regardless of his ethnic origin and regardless of aggressor §s attitudes. However. under unidirectional aggression where the opponent was powerless, it was expected that those subjects who held unfavourable attitudes toward members of the minority group would be more aggressive against an opponent of that group than against an opponent of his own ethnic group. Subjects who had neutral attitudes would be equally aggressive toward all opponents. Ninety six 11th grade vocational high school male students of Western origin, were given the opportunity to administer electric shocks to an opponent who was either of Western or Oriental origin in a competitive situation, Subjects were selected according to their attitudes toward Oriental Jews. Half expressed negative attitudes, the other half neutral attitudes. Half of the subjects expected their opponent to reciprocate shocks, the others did not. Contrary to expectations it was found that the attitudes of subjects of Western origin towards Orientals did not effect their aggressive behaviour. When aggression could not be reciprocated, all subjects were more aggressive toward an opponent of Oriental than of Western origin. The findings showed that when aggression was bidirectional, all subjects adjusted their aggressive behaviour, to their opponents §s . However, they were less aggressive towards an opponent of Oriental than of Western origin. 180 8 4 1978 Reviews, compares and evaluates a self justijication and a decision theoretical conceptualization of equity. It is argued that the latter approach reveals an important and often neglected distinction between equity as a goal of social interaction and equity as an interpersonal strategy employed in rhe pursuit of other valued goals. Associated problems of definition and measurement are discussed. After a review of relevant research it is concluded that equity serves predominantly as an accommodative interpersonal strategy, and that future research should focus on analysing the various functional bases of equity, their relationships, and their effects on behaviour. 181 8 4 1978 Studied performance on a multiple solution anagrams task by two member nominal, pseudo, quasi, and real groups in relation to task conditions (set versus nonset) and school grades (10th, 11th, and 12th). Nominal groups were made up of individuals working alone. Pseudo groups were made up of members sitting together but working independently for individual scores. Quasi groups were made up of members who were working together for a common or shared goal but were not allowed to communicate with each other. Real groups were the usual teams of freely interacting and mutually consulting members. Five words were presented to the subjects in the set condition (unlike in the nonset condition) in order to channelize their problem solving activity in particular directions. The subjects were 192 male American high school students. The most important finding was that both nominal and pseudo groups produced more errors than real groups. Also the set condition generated more errors than the nonset condition. These and other findings were discussed and interpreted in the context of previous research. 182 8 4 1978 " This study investigated the role of perception in the victim §s behaviour following a verbal attack. It was expected that the victim §s counterattack and evaluation of attacker would be influenced by: (a) the victim §s level of aggressiveness; (b) the attacker §s perceived level of aggressiveness; (c) the attacker §s status (prestige in the classroom); and (d) retaliation threat for counterattack. High and low aggressive subjects (victim's) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions differing in the attacker §s attributed level of aggression and status. Half of the subjects in each condition received a retaliation threat treatment. The victims were interacting with an assumed partner (attacker) in a guessing game during which they were insulted. After each insult the victim could counterattack by withholding a monetary reward from the attacker. At the end, the victim rated his attacker on aggressiveness, potency and social desirability. The results indicated that there were significant main effects of the victims level of aggressiveness, the attacker §s status and retaliation threat. There was also a significant interaction between victim §s and attacker §s aggressiveness, for the two dependent variables. In addition, victim §s behaviour was influenced by the interaction between attacker §s status and his aggressiveness. " 183 8 4 1978 Investigated the process of personality inference from voice quality using 24 male American stimulus persons who served as subjects in simulated jury discussions. Applying a Brunswikian lens model of the inference process, criteria, distal cues, proximal cues and attributions were measured by independent groups of judges: personality criteria by three peers of each stimulus person and, on the basis of content masked voice samples, distal voice quality indicator cues by six phoneticians, proximal voice percept by ten naive judges, personality attributions by nine naive judges. Only extroversion attributions correlate significantly with the criterion, replicating earlier findings. For the inference of extroversion, contrary to other traits which apparently cannot be inferred accurately from voice quality, the following conditions are met: (a) the criterion is associated with ecologically valid voice energy cues (vocal effort and dynamic range), (b) these indicator cues are adequately represented as proximal voice percepts (particularly loudness and sharpness), and(c) percept utilization in the judges §s inferential strategy corresponds to the association between criterion and distal indicator cues. Path analytic procedures are used to test empirically the adequacy of the inference model to (a) account for the variance in the attributions, and (b) explain significant correlations between criteria and attributions in terms of mediating variables. 184 8 4 1978 The influences of two determinants of aggression were investigated by means of a two by two factorial design. Aggression was operationally defined in terms of the amount and intensity of obnoxious sounds which the subject delivered to the confederate while the latter was trying to perform a task involving estimation of distances. In order to manipulate the first independent variable one half of the group of subjects were led to believe that the victim was someone who had many attitudes similar to their own. The other subjects thought they had to cope with a partner whose attitudes were dissimilar. The second independent variable was manipulated by suggesting to one half of the group of subjects that they would be able to earn increasing sums of money (up to a fixed maximum) depending on the loudness of sounds they were prepared to deliver to their partner. In the non reward condition money was not mentioned. The subjects were young policemen. The data showed a strong effect of the similarity variable, with significantly more aggression being shown to a dissimilar partner. However, external reward did not lead to a clear increase of aggression. In the discussion attention is given to the relevance of these data to the problem of control of violence in our society. 185 8 4 1978 Psychological inquiry into social phenomena has become virtually indistinguishable from controlled experimentation. Although the assets and liabilities of psychological experiments have been subject to periodic debate, a continued increase in the reliance placed experiments is evidenced. The present paper re examines the adequacy of experimentation in light of major features of social interaction. Significant failures of the experiment emerge when the following characteristics of social events are considered: their imbeddedness in broader cultural patterns, their position within extended sequences, their open competition within real life settings, their reliance on psychological confluences, and their complex determination. The additional consideration of social phenomena within historical context indicates that all reasonable hypotheses are valid and that critical testing between hypotheses about social behaviour is fruitless. Criteria for the productive usage of experiments are detailed. 186 9 1 1979 The hypothesis that distraction during a persuasive communication enhances the resulting attitude change by disrupting counterarguing was critically examined. Although previous research using Brock §s postcommunication counterarguing index has shown that distraction inhibits counterarguing, the relationship was re evaluated in the present experiments with a more direct measure of counterarguing. In these experiments, the direct measure of counterarguing was shown to increase with distraction, contradicting hypotheses that attribute the distraction effect to counterarguing disruption. Furthermore, with a wide range of distraction, Brock §s measure was nonmonotonically related to distraction. Since observed attitude change is also predicted to be nonmonotonically related to distraction, Brock §s index was interpreted us a correlate rather than a mediator of measured attitude change. The results suggested that distraction actually inhibits the internalization of the message and that the apparently enhancing effects of distraction are a result of the demand characteristics and/or evaluation apprehension created by the experimental task of paying attention to both a message and a distractor. The implications of the results for the theoretical role of counterarguing in mediating the internalization of persuasive communications were discussed. 187 9 1 1979 All published experiments using false autonomic feedback are reviewed and four sets of necessary conditions mediating its effects are proposed. These conditions convern (a) search for an explanation of the feedback, (b) availability of potentially explanatory context features, (c) causal attribution of the feedback, and (d) salience of the perceived causes. Conflicting results, including outcomes of cognitive desensitization, are explicable by reference to these conditions. Evidence supports the attributional theory of emotional behaviour and the assumed equivalence of actual and fictitious arousal although the boundary conditions of the latter postulate need still be explored. 188 9 1 1979 In an experiment to study the effects on attitudes of requiring subjects to use evaluatively biased language, 84 schoolchildren aged 13–14 years completed a questionnaire to measure their attitudes on the issue of adult authority over teenagers, before and after writing an essay on this issue in which they were either required to incorporate words from a list all of which implied a positive evaluation of a pro authority position or a negative evaluation of an anti authority position (pro bias condition), or required to incorporate words where the implied evaluations were reversed (anti bias condition), or were given no words to incorporate (control condition). Relative to controls, pro bias subjects showed as a shift towards a more pro position and anti bias subjects became more anti irrespective of their initial attitudes (pro bias versus anti bias comparison, p<.01). However, when tested 6 days later most of this effect had disappeared, particularly in the case of subjects whose initial attitudes were least pro. At this final session, subjects also rated attitude statements on the issue in terms of scales constructed from the pro bias and anti bias word lists. In accordance with previous research, the more pro subjects §s attitudes, the more they showed greater polarization of judgement on the pro bias than the anti bias scales (p<.000l). It is concluded that a person §s attitude may be related to the kind of evaluative language he will apply to an issue, and that when a person is induced to use language implying a particular evaluation of an issue, he may change his attitude, at least in the short term, so as to be more congruent with the language he has used. 189 9 1 1979 " Studied experimentally the influence of norms and sex of subjects on aggressive behaviour in same sex dyads. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) subjects will react aggressively to an unpleasant state of affairs, if they interpret it as being the result of violation of a norm on the part of another; (2) female subjects will display more aggression than male subjects under conditions of repeated provocation while male subjects will be more aggressive under conditions of infrequent or no provocation. In a 2 × 2 × 2 complete factorial design (norm violation versus norm enforcement; male versus female; low versus high reward for performance) 20 same sex pairs of students performed alternatively a sensory motor task (victim) and a shock delivery task (aggressor). As predicted, subjects who consider other §s behaviour to be a norm violation aggress more often (p <.0001). A significant interaction between sex of subject and norm violation is found in support for the second hypothesis (p <.05). It is concluded that positions grounded on the S R paradigm are misleading for the understanding of sex differences in aggression. " 190 9 1 1979 Two studies are reported which demonstrate the influence of perceptual or perspective variables in mediating attribution processes. In both studies subjects first observed a re enactment of Milgram §s (1963) experiment of obedience in which a teacher obeys an experimenter §s request to deliver dangerously high levels of shock. They were then asked to make judgements concerning the magnitude of situational forces acting upon the teacher and also to make inferences about his personality dispositions. Study I showed that passage of time can lead observers to assume more situational control when they were required to think and write about the witnessed re enactment of the Milgram situation compared with observers who had no time to contemplate or who were prevented from doing so. Study II did not support the notion that focus of attribution is a simple function of what one pays attention to, or a function of the differing perspectives which actors and observers employ. Both of these results seriously challenge Jones and Nisbett §s (1972) contention that the differences in attribution tendencies between actors and observers arise from the difference in perspective, Moreover, considerable evidence suggests that changes in situational and dispositional attributions may not follow a simple zero sum model, and that subjects seem to be unwilling to treat the two sources of control as if they were inversely correlated. 191 9 1 1979 The present research involves both the relationship between norms and polarization hence the utilization of the same experimental paradigm and the investigation of intergroup relations. The homogeneity heterogeneity variable is determined by the composition of the discussion groups: all male, all female, and mixed groups. Confederates of both sexes, defending different normative positions were introduced in the groups. The polarization effect, confirmed in the homogeneous groups, does not appear following the discussion in the heterogeneous groups, but arises as soon as the subjects are confronted with one another. This variation is interpreted as a process of resolution of differences within the subjects §s own group as well as in relation to the norms. The norms also determine the variations of influence of the confederates according to their sex and role. In short, in the discussion on male female relations, more radicalism is expected of the women, and more traditionalism of the men. 192 9 2 1979 " Studied the development of the understanding of elementary economic systems in 120 working class children of both sexes aged between 6 and 12. Methods employed included a procedure whereby children had to detect absurdities, a task in which the children played the role of shopkeeper, and semi structured interviews. It was shown that the youngest children already had the basic idea of the wage system, i.e. selling one §s labour, but were confused about the monetary transactions in a shop and failed to appreciate that a shopkeeper has himself to pay for goods. When this began to be understood children thought that goods were bought and sold at the same price; hence they conceived of two parallel but unconnected systems, which led them to believe that the payment for shop assistants came from some external source. Grasp of the way the two systems intermesh was not reached until about 11, unless direct questioning triggered off earlier insight. Findings are discussed in the light of the modified Piagetian approach put forward by Furth et al. (1976). " 193 9 2 1979 " This review considers experiments which have tested triadic balance in POX and POQ structures. It is pointed out that balance is only one bias which affects subjects §s responses to these structures. Of the others the most important are agreement and P/O positivity; these three biases act independently of each other and therefore should be considered as separate influences on subjects §s responses. In addition, because they act independently, Newcomb §s (1968) theory of interpersonal balance cannot be an adequate explanation of their operation. In an attempt to discover the different influences on balance, agreement, and positivity biases, experiments concerned with balance theory are reviewed in three sections: (1) a classification based on experimental task, (2) a classification based on characteristics of the triad, and (3) personality variables. It is concluded that there are different influences on the different biases, and that any attempt to assess their relative strength must consider the influences upon them. Finally, it is suggested that the view of biases as methods of encoding information about social structures should consider that such methods can be varied by subjects §s knowledge or assumptions about that social structure. " 194 9 2 1979 " Research on intergroup relations by Tafel and others (e.g. Tafel et al., 1971; Billig and Taifel, 1973) has indicated that there are two opposing norms governing intergroup behaviour norm for discrimination and a norm for fairness. The behaviour that results from social categorization represents a compromise between these opposing norms. The norm for discrimination is explained in terms of social comparison processes and the need to achieve a positive ingroup identity (Turner, 1975). Along similar lines, another study suggests that discrimination is strongest on the part of the self perceived underdog in order to assert its independent and individual identity (Branthwaite and Jones, 1975). The origin of the norm for fairness has received less attention but may be attributed to general moral judgements. Since there are opposing norms for discrimination and fairness and the observed behaviour is a resultant of the two, an explanation of intergroup behaviour cannot focus on fairness or discrimination alone, but it must take into account the balance between these forces. The relative strength of the two norms is a question of some importance, together with the factors which influence the relative strengths. This paper examines this issue and presents evidence from two studies that the status of the groups is an influence on the strength of the norm for discrimination. Both studies employed the Taifel matrix method: one in an experimental situation where the status of the groups was manipulated by the research procedures; the other in a more natural setting. " 195 9 2 1979 Subjects played a game and were told they had the high score, low score, or were not informed which score was their own. They were previously led to like or dislike the other. Relative performance was generally considered in allocating rewards, indicating the use of an equity principle. Performance was not used as a criteria for allocation, however, by subjects who were uncertain of their score in positive social relationships and poor performers in negative social relationships. When given a chance to increase the total group reward by deviating from the distribution ratio believed most equitable, most subjects did so. This finding indicated that a utilitarian type of principle was clearly used in conjunction with the equity principle. Few subjects, however, followed the Rawlsian principle that inequality is only tolerable when an unequal allocation gives more to each person than an equal allocation. 196 9 2 1979 Retaliatory aggression in individuals and groups was compared. Physically and verbally attacked males in group or individual conditions were given the opportunity to retaliate against their tormentor by administering him electric shocks in the context of a bogus learning experiment. Groups retaliated much more severely than did individuals. Analysis of the group decision making dynamics suggested the process of social modelling as a mediator of group aggression. Additional data suggested the mediating influence of diffusion of responsibility as well. 197 9 2 1979 " Studied the effects of reward magnitude and comparability of the outgroup on minimal intergroup discrimination where self interest was related to ingroup profit. Favouritism towards own group is hypothesized to arise from intergroup comparisons to enhance self esteem as well as instrumental rivalry for group and self interest. Sixty two fourteen to fifteen years §s old school boys and girls were randomly assigned to a high or low reward condition in which they distributed monetary rewards, via choice matrices, to the ingroup and a relevant comparison outgroup, and the ingroup and an irrelevant comparison outgroup. Monetary self interest was explicitly and directly linked to ingroup §s absolute profit. Ss sacrificed group and personal gain to achieve intergroup differences in monetary outcomes favouring the ingroup; and were less fair and more discriminatory towards the relevant than irrelevant outgroup. especially with High Rewards. " 198 9 2 1979 " Studied the value systems of political extremists and potential extremists, comparing them with the value systems of centrist activists and supporters. Samples of political activists from the Labour, Conservative, Communist and National Front parties were obtained, as well as samples of non active supporters. The non active supporters were defined as Potential Extremists, if they supported a centrist party as first choice, but either Communist or National Front as second choice. All subjects completed the Rokeach Value Survey. Discriminant analysis showed that the four groups of activists could be clearly distinguished on the bask of their values. However the values of the Potential Extremists did not especially resemble the values of actual National Front or Communist activists. There were value differences between the Potential Extremists and the centrist supporters; nevertheless these two groups tended to be distinguished by very different values from those which distinguished between the activists. The appeal of value symbols for different types of political involvement was discussed. " 199 9 3 1979 Studied how value connotations of the response language affect the relationship between judges §s attitudes and polarization of judgment. Subjects (military conscripts, n 105) rated 28 statements concerning drug use on 2 types of rating scales. Results indicate that subjects show more polarization on rating scales where their own evaluation of the statement is congruent with the value connotations of the scale labels. In a second experiment 82 subjects (male and female university students) were asked to rank adjectives in order of their suitability to characterize attitude statements. Results imply that value connotations also mediate the relationship between judges §s attitude and preference for verbal labels in attributing adjectives to attitude statements. Subsequent analysis suggests that this preference for adjectives that are evaluatively congruent with own attitude, persists even when the adjectives are less correct from a descriptive point of view. 200 9 3 1979 In a study of factors influencing recognition memory for the sources of attitude statements, a final sample of 107 subjects, aged 15–16, first rated their agreement with 24 statements concerning drug use, 12 of which were attributed to one, and 12 to another, fictitiously named newspaper. Later, the statements were re shown to subjects with half the names altered, and subjects had to indicate which names were correct (i.e., unaltered). Discrimination sensitivity was very significantly higher in a condition where the initial relationship between the sources and the statements was systematic, so that the 12 most pro drug statements were attributed to one newspaper and the 12 most anti drug statements to the other, than in two conditions where the initial relationship was random, in which discrimination was at chance level. In the first of these conditions, subjects were also more likely to claim that the attributed source was correct if they had previously agreed with the statement. overall, subjects were more accurate in discriminating correct and incorrect sources for statements to which they had previously given a more moderate, or a more negative response on the agreement scale. 201 9 3 1979 In Fiedler §s contingency theory, situation favourableness for leader depends upon three situational variables Group Atmosphere, Task Structure and Position Power. Each variable is dichotomized as high or low to define a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial cube with eight octants, and correlations between leadership style and effectiveness are plotted against the octants. To place these octants along a one dimensional scale of favourableness, Fiedler assumes that Group Atmosphere is most important and Position Power is least important, and that the situational variables combine according to an adding rule. In four judgmental experiments conducted during different periods of national emergency in India, favourableness of leadership situations was studied with the methods of Anderson §s information integration theory. Results indicated (a) that relative importance of situational variables changed across situations, (b) that situational variables were averaged in judgment of situation favourableness, and (c) that spacing of octants on the horizontal axis according to their functional measurement values generated a considerably better bow shaped curve for correlation between leadership style and effectiveness than was obtained with Fiedler §s octant scale. Judgmental experiments seemed to have great potential for providing a more analytic approach to further work on contingency theory and leadership behaviour. 202 9 3 1979 Studied the socio political attitudes and political party preferences of 532 Swedish high school students as a function of seven background variables: (I) the mother §s political party preference, (2) the father §s political party preference, (3) the mother §s education, (4) the father §s education, (5) the mother §s income, (6) the father §s income and (7) social class identification. Multiple classification analysis and multivariate nominal analysis were used to uncover the most important possible determinants of political socialization of the youth in both bivariate and multivariate aspects. The results showed that, of the seven predictor or background variables studied, only three had any substantial relationship with socio political attitudes and political party preferences of the youth: (a) the mother §s political party preference, (b) class identification and (c) the father §s political party preference in that general order of importance. Furthermore, the superiority of the mother §s political party preference over the father §s political party preference was especially marked for girls. Among other things, the results also disclosed that left wing youth tended to be more loyal to parental political beliefs than moderate and right wing youth. Several alternative explanations were proposed for these findings. 203 9 3 1979 Studied the effects of status and treatment differentials on in group bias in an intergroup comparison experiment. The status differential conditions were formed by alleged differences in performance on a prior task between in and out group. The treatment differential conditions were formed by experimenter §s manipulation of a points differential between the in and out groups. One hundred and fourteen undergraduates were each assigned to one of nine conditions in a 3 × 3 design of high equal low status and favour no favour disfavour. Results indicate a significant status effect (p < 0.01), with in group bias increasing with status, and a significant favour effect (p < 0.01), with in group bias decreasing with favour. There is no significant interaction (F < 1). Particular conjunctions of status and treatment represented three conditions oft equity, inequitable advantage, inequitable disadvantage. Contrary to predictions from equity theory, but in accord with predictions from social comparison theory, results indicate in group bias in all three conditions. 204 9 3 1979 Subjects in this study were asked to infer an attribute of a target person on the basis of his report about himself: Two informational determinants of such inferences were varied: (a) reliability of the report, i.e. the belief that the target person would correctly report events that had actually occurred and (b) diagnosticity of the actual events, i.e. the belief that the actual events are indicative of the attribute. Normative considerations require that the effect of diagnosticity be dependent on reliability so that as reliability increases, judgment should become less regressive, i.e. vary more as a function of events §s diagnosticity. The results indicate that subjects employed a simple but inappropriate averaging rule in combining reliability and diagnosticity information. This rule, like many other simplifying judgmental heuristics, resulted in inferences that were more extreme than warranted by normative models. The inappropriate combination of reliability and diagnosticity information may thus contribute to observers §s tendency to over attribute personal characteristics to others. 205 9 3 1979 This article discusses the implications for social psychology of recent developments in the neighbouring fields of cognitive and ecological psychology. The authors stress the importance of studying the cognitive processes directly instead of inferring them as hypothetical constructs from aggregate responses. This paradigmatic shift implies a change in the conduct of research from the traditional nomothetic perspective to a neo idiographic one. A method of representational contextualization is offred to generate the affective and cognitive deep structure from surface, first order data. This structure identified as the internal environment, reflects simultaneously the construction of reality by a situated individual and the recoding rules operating in such a construction. 206 9 4 1979 Eight quartets of subjects each played eight different versions of a 4 person apex game twice, in a computer controlled coalition formation experiment. The eight games were cast into a 2 × 2 factorial mold in which (i) the central apex player was either weak or strong in terms of the outcomes available to Apex coalitions, and (ii) the outcomes to players not in coalitions varied, such that the outside opportunities of the Base players were not necessarily equal. The data were analysed from the point of view of coalition frequencies, payoff allocations, and a bargaining process examination of the computer recorded protocols. The H?1(i) competitive bargaining set is shown to be a first order predictor of payoff allocations, but differences not accountable by that model are also manifest. The manipulation of the strength of the Apex player affected coalition frequencies such that strong Apex players were in more coalitions than weak Apex players. Somewhat contrary to expectation, no effect for differential outside opportunities of Base players were shown. The analysis of the bargaining protocols revealed structural and psychological factors not considered in present mathematical models that must be incorporated into any model aspiring to provide a coherent description of coalition formation processes. 207 9 4 1979 The data of two experiments of dyadic group discussion have been reanalysed. An extended proportional change model was designed to explain the actual process of attitude change. The model is defined by two parameters. The first represents the impact of single pro arguments and single con arguments on the attitude or decision preference. The second describes the resistance to further change that increases with the distance from the initial position. It was hypothesized that the first parameter should be higher and the second lower, with a similar partner than with a dissimilar one. The prediction was confirmed for the first parameter only. A comparison of the extended proportional change model to related models concludes the report. 208 9 4 1979 Behavioural style and group cohesiveness were tested as sources of minority influence under conditions in which rejection of the minority from the group was possible and under conditions in which it was not. Female subjects (N 120) were led to believe that they were interacting as a group and that they held a majority position on a relevant issue. The influence agent, ostensibly one of the group members, advocated a minority position throughout their interaction. Three variables were manipulated: group cohesiveness (high or low), behavioural style of the deviate (high or low consistency) and opportunity for rejection of the deviate from the group (possible or not possible). It was predicted that the deviate would be more influential under high cohesive than under low cohesive conditions and that she would be most influential when she was highly consistent and there was no opportunity to reject her. Although both hypotheses were confirmed, unexpected minority influence effects were also found. 209 9 4 1979 Ethogeny, supposedly patterned on ethology, differs as an approach to human social behaviour in obvious respects. Ethogenists follow an emic research strategy, whereas human ethologists have strongly favoured etic research options. However, recent trends to a broader, evolutionary approach in human ethology suggest that an avoidance or rejection of verbal reports and ethogenic methods merits reconsideration, The distinctions involved in the eticlemic contrast are examined, and compared to Richer §s distinction between D and N type agreements. It is argued that none of the distinctions are dichotomous. The useful aspects of the distinctions refer to the generality of findings, and the validity of evidence. Bearing these in mind, ethogenic methods have a place in a broader human ethology. So far as validity is concerned, the value of a comparison of information from different sources, such as verbal and non verbal data, is stressed. So far as generality is concerned, ethogenists may consider this to be very limited because of idiosyncratic cultural factors in the causation of human social action. A reconsideration of the biology/culture dimension in terms of function rather than causation may lead to more optimism in this respect, and be more productive scientifically. 210 10 1 1980 " Although the concept of relevance (or weight) of inputs plays a central role in equity theory, it has not been clearly defined. The present investigation attempts to answer the question of when, and which, inputs are taken into account in allocation decisions. Subjects were given a stimulus story in which two fictitious persons had, through joint work, produced a monetary gain or loss; further, information was provided on the relative effort (amount of time worked intensively) and /or ability (as determined by a test) that each stimulus person had contributed. Subjects were asked how they would allocate the gain or loss. Empirical evidence for the following three codeterminants of allocation decisions was obtained: (1) the type of input personal and behavioural characteristics are [relevant] for allocation if they are perceived as (a) causally important for outcome production, (b) variable, and (c) under the person §s volitional control; (2) the type of outcome to be allocated more equal allocations are observed when loss as opposed to gain must be allocated; and (3) the constellation of individual inputs on given dimensions information is given on several input dimensions, a dimension which should be [irrelevant] according to criteria (a), (b), and (c) does codetermine allocations when recipients have contributed equally with respect to this dimension. The latter finding is discussed from the perspective of [cognitive algebra]. " 211 10 1 1980 The [ethogenic] analysis of human social behaviour proposed by Harré and Secord is based on the idea of man as a freely choosing purposeful agent, contrasted with the mechanistic, or deterministic, conception of man which is the basis of most traditional research and theory in social psychology. The idea that a person §s social behaviour is governed by social rules is central in the ethogenic scheme. But the same idea is also implicit in much traditional research and theory. A consideration of the concept of social rule in the study of social behaviour helps to clarify the relation in which ethogenics stands to traditional social psychology and highlights a fundamental difference between them in their respective fields of enquiry. Harré and Secord §s claim that the ethogenic paradigm should replace traditional models is misplaced because the two approaches are demonstrably compatible. Indeed, the necessity of a causal mechanistic account can actually be derived from certain assumptions of the ethogenic paradigm itself. It is shown that important headway may be made in social psychology, particularly in relation to the study of physical and mental illness, by acknowledging the compatibility of the two approaches. 212 10 1 1980 Studied the impact of individualization and psychologization of minorities upon their influence. In Experiment I, 72 Swiss male and female 15 year old students read a text on pollution prepared in a 2 × 2 ANOVA design (one/ two sources, rigid/flexible style) and reported their impression of the content. As below, attitude was measured before and after reading. In Experiment II, 24 second year Swiss psychology students judged the presumed author of an anti militaristic tract by adjectives with either merely political or political and psychological connotations. Results indicate that the strong difference between flexible and rigid style appears with one source only, but that independent of the number of sources, a rigid style obtains a less positive image. Change of attitude in moderate subjects judging with political adjectives only vanished in those using psychological adjectives in addition. As a rigid minority only tacks influence when individualized and as psychologization constitutes an ideological functioning of resistance to social change, psychological research, by its current strategies, might be participating in such resistance. 213 10 1 1980 Simple models of information integration focus essentially on the combination of the components of information. This research investigated whether cognitive variables in the constructs of intelligence and cognitive complexity, as well as concentration, could predict the conditions of simple models of judgement. As additional predictors, the two qualitative variables [type of information] and [experience of the judgement task] were introduced. Subjects judged three types of stimuli using the pair comparison method. The conditions of the judgement models were analysed in the framework of the conjoint measurement approach. Five different regression functions provided mediocre approximations to the 10 conditions of the models, when the 9 cognitive variables were considered. The small differences did not favour one of the five functions. The introduction of the qualitative predictor [type of information] improved the estimations more clearly than the experience of the judgement task, the effect of which was small. 214 10 1 1980 This paper outlines and initially tests a conceptual model of social norms, within the context of a general research framework for examining how deviant behaviour is identified and responded to. Norms are examined vis a vis (a) the structure of beliefs and expectancies toward one §s own and [deviant] individual §s behaviour, and (b) normative focus, representing the social context of behaviour and the nature of the group the norm is shared within. The results showed both of these constituents to be salient to the application of the model to the identification of alcohol abuse, particularly in terms of (i) the relationship between normative structure and the recognition of and evaluation of deviant drinking, (ii) a strong influence of social context on norms and (iii) the finding of powerful differences in normative structure in socio economically different communities. This latter effect is discussed in terms of the [social ecology] of norms. It is hoped that this model will have heuristic value in expediting theory based studies of both normative regulation, and perceptions of abnormal behaviour. 215 10 2 1980 Reactions to an equal or equitable allocator working with a partner in a team situation were investigated using a 5 factor design with Sex of Subject, Sex of Allocator, Nature of Expectation (high or low expectation of success based upon either consensus or consistency information), Input of Allocator (high or low performance), and Type of Distribution (equal or equitable) as the 5 factors. Judgments concerning the fairness of the allocation, impressions of the allocator §s personality, liking for the allocator, and the importance of possible causes of the allocator §s performance were obtained from 339 male and female subjects for each hypothetical situation involving one of the combinations of the 5 factors. Rankings of the relative importance of the Rokeach terminal and instrumental values were also available for most of these subjects. Results were consistent with hypotheses and indicated that subjects use a range of cues and engage in a complex attributional process in making judgments about an allocator. In addition to replicating and extending past findings on the effects of allocator input, the results also indicated that confirmation and disconfirmation of expectancies affected subjects §s judgments. Protestant ethic values, competence values, and the value assigned to wisdom also influenced reactions to the allocator, as did an Australian concern with [mateship]. Results were discussed in relation to the view that social justice may take different forms depending upon both situational context and task demands. The importance of further research into the effects of personal and cultural values on allocator decisions and reactions to them was emphasized. 216 10 2 1980 Branthwaite, Doyle and Lightbown (1979) argue that minimal intergroup behaviour represents a compromise or balance between fairness and discrimination, that fairness and discrimination are opposed, generic norms of intergroup relations and that one factor affecting their relative weight is status position since, apparently, different status groups attempt to equalize their positions by varying the degree to which they are fair or discriminatory. This reply reviews evidence to show that minimal groups are never fair but always discriminatory to varying degrees and that a generic norm of intergroup fairness is unnecessary to explain why that discrimination rarely approaches maximum. It also argues that the concept of opposed, generic norms has neither empirical nor theoretical value. Finally, it cites findings that the basic tendency in intergroup behaviour is not to equalize but to accentuate evaluative differences between groups (whether of similar or different status) in favour of the ingroup. 217 10 2 1980 Seventy eight dyads of male university students participated in a bargaining experiment. The bargaining situation was asymmetrical insofar as the two players had different payoff possibilities. Experimental instructions did not provide information about the opponent §s payoff possibilities but players could ask each other for such information (except in the control condition). It was found that the players in the advantaged position (with better payoff possibilities) bluffed more frequently and communicated less with the opponent than their disadvantaged opponents. But there were no differences in the frequency of refusing to give requested information, nor in the frequency of requesting information. Verbal communication opportunities reduced the frequency of bluffing (false information) but did not by themselves lead to smaller payoff differences between the two players. Payoff differences were smallest when information exchange was obligatory and truthful and they were greatest when neither information exchange nor communication was possible. 218 10 2 1980 Investigated in a long term study the effects of daily newspapers. A field experiment was carried out in which newspapers with different political standpoints were allocated to the 760 subjects (male students). The effect criteria measured were both specific and general political attitudes, images of politicians, and judgmental tendencies. The analysis of media effect extended to both differential and general effects. Clear attitude changes consistent with the opinions presented in the newspapers could be established in attitude spheres where the arguments presented were of a more controversial nature. Analogous effects could only partially be observed as regards the image of well known politicians. If features of the subjects §s judgmental process are taken as effect criteria (use of dimensions), no newspaper related effects can be observed. In spite of considerable devaluation of one newspaper by the subjects, there were no boomerang effects. This ties in with the fact that practically no differential attitude changes (e.g. relating to dogmatism or political interest) could be established. Taking into account the historical background to our study, we conclude that the effect of the daily newspapers examined here was more or less confined to attitudes towards more salient issues. Finally, we have outlined general hypotheses which can be the starting point for the analysis of long term cumulative media effects. 219 10 3 1980 The nature of explanation in experimental social psychology is the subject of much controversy. To advance the debate, the present article provides a grid of analysis allowing a more [thorough study of experimental social psychologists] work. Four levels of explanation are distinguished as works can be seen as studying intra individual processes (level 1), interindividual but intra situational dynamics (level 2), effects of social position in a situational interaction (level 3) and intervention of general beliefs (level 4). An important characteristic of experimental work is the possibility of combining different levels of analysis in the same study, and of surpassing, in this way, the old dichotomy between [psychologizing] and [sociologizing] explanations. Experiments published in the first seven volumes of the European Journal of Social Psychology were explored within this framework. 220 10 3 1980 Compared the validity and reliability of 2 value measurement techniques. 296 Ss (161 females and 135 males) in introductory psychology filled out the 2 measurement techniques and an attitude survey. The Rokeach Value Survey instructed Ss to separately rank 2 sets of 18 values in order of importance. A rating version of the Value Survey instructed Ss to rate the same 36 values from 1 to 99. 236 Sreturned 6 weeks later and again filled out both measurement techniques. Results of the multimethod factor analysis indicate very good convergent validity among the 4 measures of a given value (2 techniques × 2 sessions) and very good discriminant validity between measures of different values. Probably due to the ipsative nature of the ranking procedure, the test retest reliabilities were higher for the ranked measurements than for the rated measurements. The construct validity of both measurement techniques, as determined by multiple regression and analysis of variance, were similar. Despite criticisms of ranking procedures, both the ranked and the rated versions were of equal reliability and validity. 221 10 3 1980 The present study is an analysis of the relationship between delinquency, institutionalization and future orientation, based on a social learning theoretical framework. Two hundred and forty male adolescents (institutionalized and noninstitutionalized delinquents and nondelinquents) answered open and structured questions concerning their anticipations and evaluations of the future. The data were analysed by analyses of variance and t tests and partly confirm the hypotheses: Delinquents structure their future in a less differentiated, less extended, and more internal way than nondelinquents. This was especially true for the institutionalized delinquents. However, delinquents structured their fears concerning their personal development more extensively than nondelinquents. Future orientation varied according to the length of institutionalization in different domains of life. These results do not support the dominant assumption of the literature that delinquents have an unrealistic future orientation. Rather, it is shown here that institutionalized delinquents anticipate rather negative future events which they expect to occur shortly after the time of their release. However, the present results have to be cautiously interpreted on account of the special selection of the sample and the rather short duration of institutionalization. Also, the method of a differentiated measurement of future orientation used here is hardly practiced in the literature though such a conceptualization as a multidimensional construct seems to be theoretically fruitful. 222 10 3 1980 " Studied the effects of attitudinal similarity between two males on reactions to social rejection by a female. Sixty five male undergraduate students had met an attitudinally similar or dissimilar male confederate. Later a female confederate either chose or did not choose the male confederate as a work partner. Following that, measures designed to tap subjects affective state and self evaluations were administered. Two way interactions for affect and self evaluations (p < 0.01 and p 7lt; 0.05 respectively) indicate that, relative to a control group, only subjects whose similar male partner was chosen expressed unfavorable affect and self evaluations. The relevance of these findings for the affective consequences of social comparison processes is discussed. " 223 10 4 1980 Studied the development of a student protest movement which, after an initial success, rapidly declined. Opinion surveys were conducted simultaneously with an analysis of the social representations which our population (i.e. male and female university students) held about itself, its potential partners and the proposed strategies. For this latter method, different words related to the protest movement were used as stimuli for a free association task. Similarities between dictionaries were analysed according to Johnson §s clustering method and Kruskal §s multidimensional scaling method. The structure of social representations allows us to explain the lack of success of the protest movement in terms of intergroup differentiation: the students refused an alliance with the leaders of the movement and rejected their strategies because they progressively defined them and their culture as foreign to and incompatible with themselves. The concept of social representation is discussed in light of the findings. 224 10 4 1980 An empirical method for analysing the goal structure within and between persons in different social situations is described. The method involves establishing the main goals of occupants of situational roles and then finding out how the different goals inter relate in terms of degree and type/direction of conflict and compatibility. Principal components analyses were carried out on ratings of importance of goals of those in different situational roles. Criteria of high factor loadings combined with high mean importance ratings were used to produce the main higher order goals for each of the roles. The goals for the six roles studied were, in each case except one: social acceptance/developing relationships, own well being and achieving a specific situational task goal. However, the precise nature of these goals is rather different in the different situations. Inter relationship of goals was studied using ratings of conflict or compatibility between pairs of goals within and across roles of each situation. The results were used to describe the goal structures of the different situations. The situation with the most conflict between goals was, as expected, the complaint. Ways were suggested in which knowledge of the goal structure, particularly the points of conflict, could help with skilful handling of potentially difficult social situations. 225 10 4 1980 A number of studies have supported a model of attitudes and belie ft in which the attitude toward a given issue is viewed as a function of both the belie ft about that issue and their evaluative components (Fishbein, 1965a). The present study tested the predicative ability of this model against alternative models and its applicability to changes in attitudes and beliefs resulting from the interaction of disagreeing peers. Two attitudinal issues and two types of beliefs for each, instrumental and attributive, were used. Pairs of subjects who disagreed on an issue according to their pretest responses were asked to reach a consensus and then to complete a post test questionnaire. Pretest responses indicated that the predictions of the Fishbein model were supported for each type of belief considered separately and for both combined for both issues. The predictions of most of the alternative models were also significantly related to actual attitudes. Although some of these predictions closely approximated those of the Fishbein model, this model was, overall, the best predictor. When changes in pretest post test responses for experimental subjects were considered, the predictions of the model were supported for both issues when both types of belie ft were considered together and when attributive beliefs were considered alone, but only for one issue when instrumental beliefs were considered alone. 226 10 4 1980 Snyder and Swann (1978) advance an argument that individuals display a cognitive bias in testing hypotheses about the personal attributes of other people, i.e. they seek out information which is supportive of their hypothesis (hypothesis confirming strategy). It is argued here that these authors confound the hypothesis a person might entertain (belief) with a hypothesis the person is asked to test (assigned task). The findings of two experimental studies in which task and belief were manipulated independently suggest that Snyder and Swann §s (1978) results are due to the task manipulation and not to an hypothesis confirming bias. 227 11 1 1981 " Studied differences in verbal, nonverbal, and physiological responses during a confrontation with a male confederate role playing either a physically handicapped (PH), homosexual (HS), or normal (NOR) person. One hundred and eight males from colleges of economics and engineering listened in a laboratory experiment to personal introductions by two confederates in succession. Whereas the first confederate always appeared normal, the second took one of the three roles mentioned. A further informal meeting with this confederate was arranged outside the laboratory; all subjects had taken a stereotype test before. Normative differences between PH and HS (p ? 0.05) are found on verbal measures including the stereotype test, self rated emotion and consent to a further contact. General effects of deviance separating PH and HS from NOR (p ? 0.05) emerge on observed emotion, interpersonal distance during the informal meeting, and skin resistance responses. The results largely confirm the hypotheses. They are interpreted as supporting a distinction between intended (action type) components of behaviour which are strongly influenced by subjective norms, and unintended (reaction type) components reflecting undifferentiated reactions to deviance. " 228 11 1 1981 " Studied the behaviour of subjects in a normalization experiment: when a consistent confederate adopts the subject §s norms (adoption situation); when the consistent response of the confederate deviates from the subject §s norm (distance situation). We had three conditions for each of these two modes of response: we manipulated the C §s image (C was always similar to the subject), and the image of a reference population: C and S were both either very similar (C and S in the majority) or very dissimilar (C and S in the minority) to the population. Or there was no image manipulation. Sixty male subjects participated in this experiment: 10 subjects in each of the six experimental conditions. In two adoption conditions (no image, C and S in the majority) the subjects changed their responses when the confederate adopted their norm. Our hypothesis on the resistance to influence in one of the distance condition (C and S in the minority) was not verified. Thus we have shown that a phenomenon of differential dissimilation exists, but our previous results on differential assimilation are not replicated. These results are coherent with the social differentiation and originality theory which stresses the quest for social identity and distinctiveness by actors who do not react but who, in certains situations, elaborate strategies. " 229 11 1 1981 The applicability of Tajfel §s social identity theory of intergroup relations was tested within a field situation of nursing, where high and low status trainee nursing groups are undergoing social change in status relations through a merger. The status relations of the two groups were assessed by examining advantages, disadvantages and subjective characteristics attributed to the groups. Close contact between groups may account for the unexpected reduction in intergroup differentiation when explicit comparisons were made. No greater illegitimacy in perceived status relations was reported by the low status group, although more dissatisfactions were evidenced in terms of attributed disadvantages, a less positive ingroup identification, and a high proportion of the low status group who want change either through movement into the superior group, or by dissolving status relations through the merging of the two groups. Attempts to merge are geared towards increasing similarity between groups by gaining recognition for those high status characteristics the group believes it has acquired. With a view to social change, the non mobile low status subgroup are evolving a new and positive social identity for the group, perceiving little difference between groups. Strong intergroup differentiation by the high status group reflects the perceived threat of social change to the high status group. 230 11 1 1981 In a series of seven different studies, the author attempted to test Piaget §s theoretical position of social factors as primary contributors to the development of moral judgment. Populations of American and Swiss subjects were presented with moral dilemmas stories opposing adult child and child child situations and classified into three moral levels (heteronomous, intermediate, autonomous). The influence of school was studied by camparing moral levels of subjects who had never attended school to moral levels of kindergarten and first grade students. Questionnaires sent to Swiss and American parents provided information about their attitude toward the children §s socialization. Effect of interaction was measured by interviewing subjects individually, then in pairs and on an individual post test three weeks later. Results demonstrate the role of social factors such as dynamic exchanges, discussions and oppositions in the learning of moral values. Cognitive conflicts are seen as fostering decentration and achievement of higher level responses through the equilibration process. 231 11 1 1981 From research on the organization of implicit personality theory, and on the fakability of psychometrically sophisticated scales a general argument about the conceptual overlap between implicit personality theory and scientific theories of personality is developed. This is tested in the case of the common sense conception of extroversion introversion, and that of Eysenck. The convergent validity of these two conceptions are found to be high enough to support the argument. The implications of the argument are discussed in relation to the correspondences between implicit personality theory and personality theory, and the functions of personality theory in psychology and implicit personality theory in everyday life. 232 11 1 1981 Studied the effects of formal and informal interaction styles on the extremity of responsibility attribution judgements by groups. The stimuli were eight scenarios describing typical life dilemmas, incorporating the manipulation of the following two variables in a 2 × 2 design: (a) the risky cautious decision taken by the actor in response to the dilemma, and (b) the outcome of the decision (success failure). Subjects (N 233 11 2 1981 " Studied the effect of social support and increased self attention on the ways of dealing with information of subjects who were suspicious about the influence of the experiment. All 48 subjects were students from psychology classes who had previously been informed of the processes of social influence. The experimental design was based on two variables: on the one hand, the social support variable, ranging from a strong, medium, weak, to one with no reference at all to social support; the focus of selfattention variable, on the other hand, materialized in the videotaping of half of the subjects. Subjects were asked to make estimates on a number of points. During some of the trials, subjects were given a piece of information consisting of answers supposedly made by other subjects which were in fact their own estimates with a constant number added to them. The experiment has shown that as the social support given to videotaped subjects increased, the subject §s confidence in his own estimate increased. This result is partly at variance with the objective self awareness theory and shows the importance of the subject §s artitude towards the experimental situation (emprise experimentale). 130) provided judgements about the attributed responsibility of the actor, and their perception of the actor and the situation first as individuals, followed by (a) formal or (b) informal group discussion, leading to consensus judgements. Results showed that group attributions were significantly more extreme than individual attributions, but only following the informal group interaction. The actors §s riskiness and success were also significantly related to the size of the extremity shift. The findings are discussed in terms of the importance of the social context and the specific interaction episode in attribution judgements, and the possible implications of the results for such real life decision making groups as committees and interviewing panels are considered. " 234 11 2 1981 Data from the 1976 American National Election Study were used to assess the effects of one outgroup characteristic, belief similarity dissimilarity, on the enhancement of women §s feminist consciousness. Women were focused on as the ingroup and men as the outgroup. The sample consisted of 677 women who believed that women should have an equal role with men. Outgroup belief similarity referred to women §s perception that most men supported an equal role for women and outgroup dissimilarity to the perception that men did not support an equal role. Results indicated that outgroup belief similarity significantly enhanced women §s feminist consciousness. Women who supported an equal role and perceived outgroup belief dissimilarity scored higher on cognitive and behavioural measures of feminist consciousness than those who supported an equal role but did not perceive outgroup dissimilarity. Secondary analyses were undertaken assessing the effect of ingroup belief similarity dissimilarity on the enhancement of sympathetic feminist consciousness among men. 235 11 2 1981 Studied the dimensionality of judgments made by groups of persons evaluating described face to face social interactions. In these interactions, three situational elements are varied systematically, to wit: topic of conversation, partner status, and purpose of interaction. Twenty female and 20 male British social studies students compared the similarity of 12 such descriptions of dyadic interaction. A Principal Component Factor Analyses indicates that two dimensions (constraint, involvement) are significant, by providing a two subset partition of the set of adjective pairs used by the judging groups. Furthermore, a Multiple Regression Analysis identifies the situational elements which account most for the two dimensions (partner §s status for constraint, topic of conversation for involvement). The results are discussed in terms of social categorization and social order rheories. Conclusions are drawn as 10 further research on the relationship between perception of social situations and patterns of behaviour. 236 11 2 1981 Tested several social decision models or problem solving models on groups of different sizes working on a disjunctive task, that is, anagrams of two levels of difficulty. The subjects were 300 ten and eleven year old Swedish boys and girls from Grades 4 and 5, a 2 × 5 × 2 (ability levels high and low × group sizes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 × task difficulties hard and easy) design was used. Support was found for the truth wins model as an explanation of the underlying processes in very small groups (2 and 3), while reasonable explanations for larger groups (4 and 5) were given by the truth supported wins and the majority if correct, equiprobability otherwise model. Slightly different group processes were inferred on the hard as compared to the easy tasks. The results also extend previous research on the generality of the models, especially the truth wins model. 237 11 2 1981 This study investigates the possibility that results of within subjects studies tend to be design specific. In a study of impression formation 3×3 row by column designs were presented to two groups of judges. The first design (standard design) included high. Medium, and low levels of the independent variables. The second design (comparison design) included a high/medium/low variation of one independent variable and a high/medium/high variation of the second variable. The judges were asked to reproduce informations. They received relevant informations (which should be reproduced) and additional informations (which were irrelevant for their task). The pattern of results is different within the two designs. While the standard design reveals a significant main effect for the relevant information, the comparison design reveals an additional interaction effect between relevant and irrelevant information. The results are attributed to the fact that the design itself is a stimulus. 238 11 2 1981 Tested the hypothesis that explicit identification of message ambiguity as a reason for failure in referential communication could help young children to gain understanding about the need for unique reference in communicative acts, in both experimental and natural settings. In the experiment each of 47 children aged 5 2 to 6 5 selected and then described clothes for a doll so that the experimenter could choose matching items. Ambiguous instructions from the children were consistently responded to with one of three reactions by the experimenter: (1) she guessed an item, (2) she asked Which one? waited and chose or (3) she made explicit why she could not make a unique choice on the basis of the child §s message. Both before and after this manipulation children were assessed for their understanding that messages can be ambiguous and can cause communication failure. Children accorded the third treatment improved most both in understanding and in reducing the ambiguity of their messages. A similar assessment of understanding was made of 36 6 year old children of whom recordings of interaction in the home had been made over several previous years. Children whose mothers had made explicit their lack of understanding of their child §s utterances were more advanced than those whose mothers had not. 239 11 2 1981 The aim of the present study was to obtain some insight in how children structure and organize their knowledge about other people. Ten short descriptions of social situations (i.e., interactions) illustrated by pictures were presented to 48 children from four different age groups (mean ages 5.4, 6.7, 8.6, and 10.7 years). The situations were accompanied by questions pertaining to the story characters as individuals, their thoughts, their (re)actions, and the immediate causes of their behaviour. The results showed that the knowledge about each concept is highly age related. Partial correlations indicated that concepts about individuals and concepts about the immediate causes of behaviour are related to concepts about how people will (re)act in particular situations. In addition, the concepts about individuals are related to concepts about the thoughts and concepts about the immediate causes of behaviour. It appeared that the better the children seem to know other people the less certain they were in regard to their inferences about others. 240 11 3 1981 The excitatory potential (low, high), the hedonic valence (negative, positive), and the type of content (erotic, non erotic) of visual stimuli were varied in a factorial design. Male subjects were provoked by a same sex peer, exposed to communication or, in a no exposure control, made to wait for a period of time equal to that of communication exposure, and then provided with an opportunity to retaliate against their annoyer. High excitatory potential and negative hedonic valence were found to combine additively in a facilitative effect on retaliatory aggression. No appreciable differences were found in the effect of excitationally and hedonically matched erotica and non erotica. Exposure to either arousing and displeasing erotica or non erotica produced levels of aggression significantly above the level associated with the no exposure control. Exposure to comparatively non arousing and pleasing erotica or non erotica failed to reduce aggression, however. The findings were considered to support a model that projects the effect of erotica on retaliatory aggression as a joint function of their excitatory potential and their hedonic valence. 241 11 3 1981 " The study reported in this paper is concerned with social emotions. These are defined as states which are experienced either exclusively or more intensively before a real or imagined audience. It is argued that when social emotions arise as a consequence of disrupting social rules, this is because the actor in question is aware of a discrepancy between his or her self image, which is assumed to be neutral, and the image which he or she assumes to have conveyed to those who witness the incident, in a role playing experiment, subjects were presented with four situations depicting disruptions of routine activity, two of which involved rule disruption. These situations were described from one of two perspectives (actor or observer) and set in one of two social contexts (public or private). Results confirmed the main predictions, which were (1) that in the case of rule disruptions, the emotionality attributed to the actor would be greater in public than in private; (2) that dispositional ratings of the actor would reveal a discrepancy between self image and public image, and that this discrepancy would covary with the actor §s emotionality; and (3) that dispositional ratings of the actor would reveal a discrepancy between public image and subjective public image. " 242 11 3 1981 In this experiment social comparison on two task dimensions has been studied. The subjects received bogus feedback on their performance on two tests, one allegedly measuring creativity, the other alertness. By means of this feedback four relative position conditions were induced: scoring high on both tests, scoring low on both tests, scoring high on creativity and low on alertness, and vice versa. Anticipating either a cooperative or a competitive game, the subjects indicated their preference for one or the other task dimension and also expressed their preference for a comparison person. It was found that, as predicted, the subjects preferred and valued comparison dimensions on which they occupied a favourable position. With respect to preference for a comparison person, compensatory choices were obtained: on the dimension on which the subject performed well, they preferred an inferior other. On the dimension on which they performed poorly, they preferred a superior other. This pattern of choices was found in cooperation as well as in competition. Finally, upward preference was stronger in cooperative than in competitive conditions, particularly on the dimension on which the subject §s own score was low. These and other results were discussed in relation to theoretical social comparison notions. 243 11 3 1981 Most existing models of coalition formation and payoff distribution in groups rest upon normative considerations and are ambiguous in their predictions insofar as they do not determine which of several coalitions will most probably result. The paper sketches the basic features of a model derived from social psychological exchange and equity theory which predicts coalitions and payoff distributions for a variety of situations. The evaluation of the model by the results of several experiments indicates that it provides a reasonable starting point for further theoretical developments that are based empirical studies. 244 11 4 1981 " Critical and epistemological reflections on the use of experimental methods in social psychology are often made to distinguish between two types of settings where these methods are used: The laboratory and the social field. But it is by no means certain that such a division has, from the start and at its own level, real significance: for one thing, because in social psychology, laboratory work is probably never merely laboratory work; and for another, because an analysis of what happens in practice would show that much experimental research work carried out in the social field merely transfers into that setting tools, concepts and a theoretical intention derived from the laboratory. If that is so, it follows that it is not at its own level that the laboratory social field distinction has a heuristic and epistemological significance, nor is that the real location of the breaking point between the methodologies. Perhaps the real dividing line is one which separates experimental work which, whether in the laboratory or in the social field, concentrates on social interactions which are miniaturized or able to be so, from work which, in the social field, aims to concentrcte on processes which cannot be simulated or miniaturized without becoming distorted and seeks to reach social systems which are relatively complete and essentially intact. " 245 11 4 1981 Examined the dimensional structure of identity among neopentecostal Anglicans, applying an analogy between glossolalia and ethnic languages, based on intergroup theory. Similarity data obatined from a card sorting task performed by 29 non glossolalic and 49 glossolalic members of Church of England congregations were multidimensionally scaled. The resulting dimensional structures indicate that neopentecostalists define themselves mainly in terms of conventional religious markers: rebirth experience, belief in scriptural authority, and, for non glossolalists, regular prayer. Glossolalia plays only a limited role, and does so only for those who practise it, while denominational affiliation appears to have no significance in religious identity at all. It is suggested that neopentecostalists regard themselves as having marginal status in mainstream churches and aim to distinguish themselves from nominal Christians, thus identibing with all devout believers, in preference to emphasizing neopentecostal distinctiveness which does not afford favourable enough social comparisons. 246 11 4 1981 Schachter §s two factor theory of emotion and the misattribution of arousal paradigm have been applied to perceptions of euphoria, anger, humour, fear, erotica, discomfort, and love. This paper attempts to review this research and assess both the theory and the misattribution paradigm. The classic Schachter and Singer (1962) study is reviewed, along with criticisms and later attempted replications. Other early research on Schachter §s theory is also critqued. The reduction of fear through the misattribution of arousal is examined and its limitations noted. A plausible alternative explanation for many effects of the misattribution paradigm is presented. Research concerning the misattribution of arousal and cognitive dissonance, interpersonal attraction, helping behaviour, and aggression are reviewed and discussed. An overall assessment of Schachter §s two factor theory and the misattribution paradigm is also presented. Schachter §s (1964a, b) theory is not well supported by the research, but the available evidence has not necessarily disproven the theory either. The misattribution paradigm has proven to be very effective, yet the theoretical basis for this effect is still in doubt. Surprisingly, the most widely cited research is generally of limited value, while little known research has been of much greater significance. 247 11 4 1981 This research examined the influence of task difficulty and diagnosticity (ability information) on task choice and preference. It was found that males preferred diagnostic over non diagnostic tasks, but among females significant preferences along this variable were not exhibited. Furthermore, the desire to obtain ability relevant information decreased as a function of prior knowledge about one §s ability. Both high and low ability self perceptions, induced through prior experiences of success and failure, decreased the attraction toward diagnostic in formation. There was no indication that individuals with high ability self concepts are especially avoidant of further ability relevant information, as recent literature has suggested. In addition, and contrary to prior findings, difficult tasks were most preferred rather than easy or intermediate tasks, given that diagnosticity is held constant. 248 11 4 1981 Predictions concerning the formation of impressions on the visual of the visual behaviour of an observed person are tested in two experiments. Observers were shown a video recording of a conversation between two persons in which person (A) looked at his partner (B) or not depending upon the experimental conditions. In addition, the observers were told whether or not the persons were acquainted with one another before this conversation. It was found, as predicted, that a was rated higher with regard to friendliness und openness if he looked at his conversation partner. Equally in agreement with prediction it was found that the significance of visual behaviour for the formation of impressions is greater if it is known that the observed persons are well acquainted. Ratings of A §s dominance and activity are only dependent on the visual behaviour shown if it is known that the observed persons know eath other. In the case in which the partners are not acquainted, there is no such effect. These results show that the communicative function of visual behaviour over and above the ascription of friendliness and openness is increased if contextual information is given concerning the interpersonal relationship between the persons observed. The formation of impressions concerning the second person involved in the conversation is not influenced by the visual behaviour of his conversation partner. 249 12 1 1982 " Studied the effect of group discussion and racial group membership on attributions concerning the causes of racial discrimination. Twenty four Black (mostly West Indian) and 24 White adolescents (age 16 19) were assigned in pairs to each cell of a 2 (Race of subject: Black/White) × 2 (Discussion/No Discussion) mixed design. Each subject read four items exemplifying types of racial discrimination and attributed each to negative dispositions of Black people and/or discrimination by White authority figures (the system). Subjects in the Discussion condition spent two minutes discussing each item prior to making their judgements. Ratings of ingroup and outgroup on eight attitudinal dimensions were also elicited, followed by a social distance measure. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed effects for racial group membership (p < 0.05) and group discussion (p < 0.05) on attributions. Further examination of the data by means of discriminant analyses indicated which items differentiate between the groups. Data based on the attitudinal ratings were also subjected to multivariate analyses and point to the positive group image of the Black respondents and a lack of intergroup discrimination by the White subjects; the social distance scores of the latter subjects are, however, higher. Results are discussed in terms of the literature on group polarization and intergroup differentiation. " 250 12 1 1982 " The study investigated the effect of the expectancies a perceiver holds about the occurrence of a particular behaviour and his or her familiarity with the situation in which the behaviour occurs, for the way in which an event is explained. Subjects were presented with brief descriptions of hypothetical events which varied in terms of the familiarity of the situation. Dependent variables included ratings of causality to personal and situational causes as well as open ended explanations which were content analysed to distinguish between four different types of person and four different types of situation elements. The results showed that explanations for unexpected behaviour are more complex than for expected behaviour; that if the situation is familiar to the subject, unexpected behaviour is explained by introducing more person elements while if it is unfamiliar, unexpected behaviour is explained by introducing more situation elements; and that the distribution of different types of person and situation elements is affected by familiarity and expectancy. " 251 12 1 1982 Self awareness theory proposes that behavioural and cognitive changes following self focused attention result from a comparison between a salient behavioural or cognitive aspect of the person and a relevant internal standard of correctness. Generalized drive has been offered as an alternative interpretation not requiring the assumption of a mediating cognitive process. The notion was tested that an internal standard of correctness, and not response dominance, guides behaviour following self focused attention. The internal standard used, originality, was to be contrary to dominance. Subjects high or low on this standard were assigned to either a self awareness, an arousal, or a control condition. First, response dominance was clearly established on a paired associates task. Then subjects §s own associations to the stimulus words were obtained. In the self awareness condition, the originality of responses corresponded to internal standards. Responses in the arousal condition were not as predicted, but could be interpreted through the presumption that the particular operationalization of arousal raised not only drive level but also provided self related stimuli. The data imply that internal standards of correctness and not response dominance influence the behaviour of those whose attention is self focused. 252 12 1 1982 " The present study investigated (i) the relationship between blame and perceived causality; (ii) the effect of the nature of causes on causal inference. Seventy two persons from three age groups (5, 9 years and adults) responded to behavioural events which varied in outcome intensity, the nature of the cause (internal/external) and its presence (present/absent). The latter two factors had a marked effect on attributed blame and inferred causes as an age × nature × presence of cause interaction was found in both cases. However, inferred causes were not systematically related to attributed blame. Outcome severity led to more extreme blame ratings in all groups but only affected the causal scheme used by adults. The results are discussed in terms of over attribution to persons and a more precise criterion for the use of the multiple sufficient cause scheme is evaluated. " 253 12 1 1982 Investigated the effects of comparisons with similar and dissimilar performances on estimates of relative ability. Male and female undergraduates (n 162) took a test of analogy making ability, and received veridical feedback about their own performance and manipulated feedback about the scores of other college students. Supporting Festinger §s similarity hypothesis, variations within a range of small discrepancies between self and others §s scores produced significant changes in ability estimates, while variations within a range of large discrepancies had no significant impact. This pattern of results only held for discrepancies relative to the modal score of others, and not relative to their highest or lowest scores. There were also indications that subjects with average performances were less influenced by the comparison feedback than were subjects with low or high scores. The discussion focused on the similarities and contrasts between seeking comparison information versus being influenced by it. 254 12 1 1982 " Studied how level of education and degree of contact with target groups affect stereotypes held by different occupational groups in post revolutionary Iran. Male university lecturers, taxi drivers and factory workers from Isfahan 25 of each rated target groups (Americans, English, Arabs, Iranians) on 22 seven point trait scales. Fifteen subjects rated trait favourability. Results were analysed descriptively and by Spearman rank correlations of trait ratings across targets and trait assignments across subject groups. Stereotypes of Americans tend to be high in clarity and favourable across all three occupational groups (particularly progressive and industrious), with the English somewhat less so. In contrast, Arabs are viewed highly unfavourable (lazy, happy go lucky, not industrious). Autostereotypes are less consistent; the lecturers educated in the West are most unfavourable. It was concluded that low education and little personal contact lead to more extreme hetero stereotype, the reverse being true for (negative) autostereotype. Also, it seems that saturated media coverage does not necessarily have much effect on social stereotypes. " 255 12 1 1982 Investigated how either perceived competency or self interest and Zeitgeist affect minority influence, or: how Moscovici §s theory does apply to actual social minorities. The self interest notion predicts that single minorities (deviating only in terms of beliefs) are more influential than double minorities (deviating also in category membership) while the competency notion predicts the reverse. Further, either minority is expected to be influential only when the Zeitgeist is in favour of the minority position. In a 2 (pro/anti Zeitgeist) × 3 (single/double minority/control) factorial design, 120 conservative male American undergraduates discussed in groups of six including two either male (single minority) or female (double minority) consistently liberal con federates one of two issues: abortion (pro ) or death penalty (anti Zeitgeist). The results support the self interest notion: double minorities are perceived as having a stronger self interest and exerted less influence than single minorities. The Zeitgeist hypothesis is confirmed, too. The underlying attributional processes and the ecological validity of previous studies are discussed. 256 12 2 1982 The study intended to test a number of implications of the alleged communicative functions of nonverbal behaviours. Four sets of specific hypotheses were defined under the general expectation of important effects of the suppression of visible behaviours from a channel of communication. Pairs of subjects were requested to interact either face to face or through a wooden screen depriving them of reciprocal visibility. Dependent variables comprised nonverbal behaviours, indices of paralinguistic, syntactic, grammatical and content aspects of the speech, and ratings of the partner and of the interpersonal situation. In spite of the number and variety of measurements, differences in line with the predictions were extremely rare. It is concluded that, better than the communicative ones, other functions such as assistance to the speech encoding processes, probably account for the abundance of nonverbal behaviours among speaking subjects. 257 12 2 1982 In order to examine audience effects when viewing firmed violence, 5 to 6 year old pre school boys who had been rated as submissive by their teachers watched an aggressive or a neutral movie either alone, accompanied by another submissive classmate, or a dominant one. Subsequent aggression against a frustrating, unknown and unseen boy was delivered via a modified Buss machine, especially adapted for children. Subjects accompanied by a dominant peer were more aggressive than the others but did not react differentially to the movies. Subjects tested alone were more aggressive after the violent film than after the neutral one and the opposite pattern occurred for the boys accompanied by a submissive classmate. These findings stress the importance of the social context when viewing filmed violence. It is suggested that the quality of the audience can have different directional (e.g. fear and aggression) as well as energizing properties. Links with the literature on social facilitation and audience effects are underlined. 258 12 2 1982 Investigated the effect of three different variables on agreement effects in p o x triads. The subjects were 740 male and female undergraduates at the University of North Carolina. Experiment 1 found that assumed similarity modified the agreement effect but only on cognitive rating scales (expectancy, consistency, stability). Experiment 2 found that assumed knowledgeability of o regarding × modified the agreement effect on both affective (pleasantness, harmony) and cognitive (expectancy, consistency, stability) scales. Experiment 3 found that a manipulation of o to p liking that was either consistent or inconsistent with p and o agreement modified the agreement effect primarily on the affective scales. 259 12 3 1982 Investigated the child §s social ideas, namely notions about production means (factory, public transportation, farmland) and family influence on notion acquisition. 120 children of jive age groups (4 to 13 years) were clinically interviewed (sensu Piaget). Children §s parents, workers and housewives of an Italian industrial centre, answered to questionnaires inquiring background information on parents and child and appraisal of child §s level of understanding. Interview answers were classified on ten level sequences concerning father §s job, home ownership, function and ownership of production means and produce. Correlational analyses and separate ANOVAs [5(age) × 2(sex) × 3(production mean)] in three subject areas (owner of production mean, of produce, and produce use) of interview answers reveal that children §s ideas about different production means develop with differing rhythms through the same level sequences, which are clearly related to the general characterstics of intelligence described by Piaget. Questionnaires show that parents tend to furnish their children with the degree of information concerning jobs appropriate to the level of development at which the parents believe their children to be. 260 12 3 1982 " Investigated the relationship between social representations, intergroup causal attributions and the search for a positive social identity in two rival groups from British secondary education. Part I studied the shared social beliefs 0f 20 Public (PS) and 20 Comprehensive (CS) schoolboys (age 16 years) concerning similarities and differences between the two types of schoolboy. Each subject wrote a short essay on the topic and these essays were content analysed into 13 differences and 4 similarities between the two types of school. The two groups agreed on a number of points, but consensus within each group on a number of beliefs revealed distinct social representations. Part II studied the effect of group membership and social categorization on causal attributions for success and failure in examinations. Twenty four PS and 24 CS boys {age 16–17 years) were used in a 2 (school of subjects) × 2 (school of stimuli) × 2 (success/failure) design, with one between and two within subject factors. Each subject read four background descriptions of candidates for university entrance, then made a number of ratings. On the page following each description, subjects attributed the candidate §s performance to ability, effort, task difficulty and luck; a confidence rating was also made. Analyses of variance suggested that second order interactions between group membership of the subjects, social categorization of the stimuli and achievement outcome were most important. Public schoolboys differentiated themselves from the CS boys by means of ability (p < 0.08 and effort (p < 0.0005) attributions; CS boys differentiated in tern of luck (p < 0.06). Part III studied social identity processes in the same 48 subjects. Each subject read a 20 item questionnaire based on Part I, with 10 traits classified as Public and 10 as Comprehensive; within each set of traits half were autostereotype and half heterostereotype traits. Subjects made group ratings, evaluations and self ratings on each trait. Analyses of variance [2 (schools) × 2 (items) × 2 (stereotype)] were computed on each dependent measure. For the group ratings a main effect of items (p < 0.0001) revealed that PS and CS items were differentially ascribed to the two groups. In addition, CS boys valued CS autostereotype items most highly (p < 0.05) and rated themselves higher on CS items (p < 0.0001). Results are discussed in terms of the influence of social representations on both causal attributions and intergroup differentiation; the existence of intergroup biases in achievement attributions; and the different modes of differentiation chosen by the different status groups. Social Identity Theory is seen as a valuable framework with which to consider these findings. " 261 12 3 1982 Studied within the framework of accentuation theory the effects of three categorization conditions on attribution memory. Using the experimental approach proposed by Taylor et al (1978) we have tested the hypothesis that subject §s discriminative accuracy in associating the sentences to the pictures of the person who produced them depends on the use of categorical criteria. On the basis of TajteL §s model, it is plausible to expect the number of intercategorical errors to be smaller than the number of intercategorical errors. If a relation holds between the number of intercategorical errors and strength of categorization criteria, then comparing the data of simple categorization situation with those of a situation of superimposed categorization we should expect a decrease of intercategorical errors in the latter. In the case of crossed categorizations, an increase of this type of errors should be expected. The results support this hypothesis. The data in the crossed categorizations condition are discussed in relation to explanation proposed by Brown and Turner (1979). 262 12 3 1982 This study was designed to test a number of hypotheses about the use of FAV and other strategies as measured by the intergroup matrices in four long term relationships with spouse, child, friend and workmate. Forty subjects filled in matrices giving three measures of self favouritism (FAV), and one each of fairness (F) and maximum joint profit (MJP), in relation to the allocation of money and time. It was found that FAV was not used for spouse, and was used less for child than for the non family relationships (p < 0.01, p < 0.05). There was also an influence of altruism (A) against FAV, when time was distributed between spouse (p < 0.01) or child (p < 0.001) and the self. F was used most for spouse, followed by child, friend and workmate (p < 0.001), and was used more by females in distributing money (p < 0.01). MJP was not used at all for money, but was used to some extent for time. 263 12 4 1982 Psychological studies on unemployment in the 1930 §s and the 1970 §s and 1980 §s have concentrated on the psychological impact of unemployment on such things as people §s health, self esteem and social interaction. Furthermore studies have, not unnaturally, concentrated almost exclusively on the unemployed neglecting the employed altogether. Very few studies have concerned the range and determinants of lay explanations or attributions about the causes of unemployment. This study set out to examine differences in the explanations for unemployment as a function of whether people were employed or unemployed, as well as their age, sex, education and voting pattern, The results showed a predictable pattern of differences between the employed and unemployed, the former believing more in individualistic explanations and less in societal explanations than the latter. Whereas there were few sex and age differences, education and vote revealed numerous differences in explanations for unemployment. As in the case with explanations for poverty, Conservatives found individualistic explanations for unemployment more important than Labour voters who in turn found societal explanations more important than Conservative voters. Results were discussed in terms of the psychology of explanations, political socialization and the experience of unemployment. Problems in this study as well as the limitations and difficulties in research of the kind were also discussed. 264 12 4 1982 The theory of social categorization assumes that the social behaviour of people can be explained as a result of cognitive differentiation of social objects into dichotomous categories (in group, out group). An argument can be put forth that social Categorization is a specific instance of functioning of a cognitive system that operates as multidimensional psychological space. Distances between representations of objects in the space influence the process of application of judgements to the given object and to the degree of involvement instigated by a state of an object and tendency lo produce specific behavioural acts toward the object. Typically, the relationship has a characteristic of an exponential function. There are conditions (social and psychological) that foster a discontinuity in a functioning of a cognitive system and therefore, lead to a dichotomous classification of social phenomena, while in some other conditions a continuity may prevail. Data that seem to support the above conjecture are described. 265 12 4 1982 The present study examines the evaluative consequences of two kinds of reaction to committing a social transgression. In an experimental study, embarrassment display and restitution behaviour were manipulated orthogonally in the context of a videotaped incident in which an actor was seen to upset a sales display in a store. Subjects were shown one of the four versions of this incident and asked to rate the actor responsible for the mishap. It was reasoned that both appearing embarrassed and engaging in restitution would have positive, but distinct, effects on social evaluation, and that the beneficial effect of restitution would be mitigated by embarrassment display. Results were consistent with these expectations. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for the social function of embarrassment displays. 266 12 4 1982 Social influence mechanisms are considered as also relevant to intergroup dynamics. In a social influence situation, approaching or retreating from the source §s position also involves accepting or rejecting psycho social identification with the source, implicating self attribution of the set of characteristics stereotypical of the category or categories to which the source belongs. This conception allows one to account for some of the difficulties encountered by minorities in their attempts to diffuse innovations. An experiment illustrates this conception of influence. It is shown that the influence of a minority is greater when subjects are led to believe that they have in common with the minority numerous category memberships (five out of eight presented) than when they think they share fewer (one out of eight). The difference between these two inductions is, as expected, revealed to be most marked when the source is rigid and for those subjects displaying opinions already relatively close to those of the source and for whom therefore the matter of psycho social identification is more salient. 267 12 4 1982 The present study was designed to map out the area of research in experimental social psychology during the past decade. First of all, we found a broad range of topics that can be grouped info 21 general content domains. Theories in Social Psychology, Group Processes and Social Interaction, Social Judgement, Personality Variables and Specific Social Behaviour as well as Attitudes were the jive most widely researched fields of study. During the ten year period 1971–1980 Attribution Theory showed a significant increase in the number of articles published. Cooperation and Conflict as well as Risky Ship are lines of research which have nearly been abandoned. Finally, in rigorous experimental social psychology the analysis of Social Problems is evidently underrepresented. But a survey of the literature on Social Problems in the Psychological Abstracts from 1971 to 1980 revealed that social psychologists are currently serving both theoretical and practical ends. 268 13 1 1983 " Currently prevalent views of human inference are contrasted with an integrated theory of the epistemic process. The prevailing views are characterized by the following orienting assumptions: (1) There exist reliable criteria of inferential validity based on objectively veridical or optimal modes of information processing. (2) Motivational and cognitive factors bias inferences away from these criteria and thus enhance the likelihood of judgmental error. (3) The layperson §s epistemic process is pluralistic; it consists of a diverse repertory of information processing strategies (heuristics, schemas) selectively invoked under various circumstances. By contrast, the present analysis yields the following conclusions: (1) There exist no secure criteria of validity. (2) Psychological factors that bias inferences away from any currently accepted criteria need not enhance the likelihood of error. (3) The inference process may be considered unitary rather than pluralistic. The various strategies and biases discussed in the literature typically confound universal epistemic process with specific examples (or contents) of such processes. Empirical support for the present analysis is presented, including evidence refuting proposals that specific contents of inference are of universal applicability; evidence suggesting that people do not, because of a reliance on subnormative heuristics, underutilize nonnative statistical information rather, people seem unlikely to utilize any information if it is nonsalient or (subjectively) irrelevant; and evidence demonstrating that the tendency of beliefs to persevere despite discrediting information can be heightened or lowered by introducting appropriate motivational orientations. " 269 13 1 1983 A comparison of influence processes exerted by a majority versus a minority is made, both theoretically and empirically. In this study, comparing the two processes in the same experimental setting, it was hypothesized that subjects would follow the majority more than the minority, that is, they would be more influenced to adopt the exact same position. However, it was predicted that subjects exposed to the minority would be stimulated to find new solutions to the problem, solutions that were not offered by the minority but that the subjects would not have found by themselves. Further, these solutions would tend to be correct rather than incorrect. Results support these predictions. 270 13 1 1983 " When people are interested in how common one or more of their attributes is in a reference population, they must often generate their own comparison information based on a limited sample of acquaintances and experiences. Subjects in the present research were asked to describe themselves in terms of a variety of attributes, and were also asked to estimate the percentage of other college students who would indicate possession of each attribute. For each attribute, subjects were assigned a majority or minority status, depending on whether the majority of the population did or did not share their attribute. The principle findings were (1) the majority subjects generated more accurate comparison information than did the minority; (2) the majority subjects were better than chance and better than minority subjects in distinguishing between attributes for which there was high versus moderate consensus; and (3) the minority subjects tended to overestimate the consensus for their attributes, while the majority subjects tended to err in the direction of underestimation of their Consensus. The discussion focused on possible causes of these tendencies, and on research implications involving attributional biases and intergroup conflict. " 271 13 1 1983 Women who thought about rape prior to answering questions about themselves reported lower self esteem, stronger belief in traditional sex roles, and lower trust in other persons than women who were not induced to think about rape. Achievement motivation and locus of control, on the other hand, were not affected by the salience of rape. The data suggest that rape has an intimidating effect on non raped women as previously suspected in feminist literature, although not all variables suspected may be affected. 272 13 1 1983 The current status of dialectic theory in social psychology is critically examined. Its basic and interdependent assumptions are discussed and recent misconceptions analysed. An attempt is made to clarify major confusions and misinterpretations of dialectics regarding such issues as dialectics as a conceptual versus a methodological tool, dialectics as a form of cognitive process, dialectics as a firm of interactionism, and dialectical contradictions as semantic opposites. To illustrate the relevance of dialectic theory to current issues a major dualism in social psychology is examined, namely that of individual versus social theorizing. Drawing liberally from Marxist social theory it is shown how the traditional dualism is resolved through dialectics. Finally, a response is firmed to criticisms addressed to the current status of social psychology. It is shown that dialectics not only incorporates most of the demands raised by these criticisms, but also enhances the field by pointing toward new perspectives and directions. 273 13 1 1983 " An experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of evaluative factors upon preference for situational and dispositional attributions. Subjects listened to a tape recording of a group discussion on smoking, two actors presenting arguments in favour of smoking and two actors arguing against smoking. Subjects were then asked to explain in attributional terms the actors §s behaviour and their own smoking behaviour, their evaluation of smoking being separately assessed. Results provided no support for a general self other attributional difference; subjects did not explain their own behaviour in more situational terms while explaining the behaviour of others in more dispositional terms. Findings indicated that individuals generally attributed positively evaluated behaviour to dispositional factors and negatively evaluated behaviour to situational factors, regardless of attributor role (actor or observer). The results are interpreted as offering support for a positivity bias in attributional preference. " 274 13 1 1983 Compared the effects of intergroup and within group comparison on attitudes differentiating two well defined student groups. Social work students (n 48) expressed attitudes either before or after estimating ingroup or outgroup (commerce students) norms. Subjects adopted more extreme attitudes following outgroup comparison, but were unaffected by comparison within the group. 275 13 2 1983 This paper is concerned with the range, structure and determinants of lay people §s implicit theories of delinquency. The different explicit psychological and sociological theories were reviewed as were studies on lay beliefs about crime and delinquency. After pilot interviews in which people were asked to list what they believed to be the major causes of delinquency, over 350 people completed a questionnaire in which they rated 30 explanations for their importance in explaining delinquency. The results showed numerous sex, age and voting differences. Conservatives tended to blame a person §s poor education for his or her delinquency, while Labour voters tended to explain delinquency in terms of societal factors. A factor analysis revealed six clear explanation types for delinquency some of which were clearly related to explicit theories. Results were discussed in terms of the psychology of explanations and the relationship between explicit and implicit theories. Implications of this research were also noted. 276 13 2 1983 " Subjects were asked to make justice judgments based on different comparison standards intrapersonal and interpersonal standards. The intrapersonal standard of entitlement was induced through a promise. Subjects were either given more than ($4.00), less than ($1.00), or exactly ($2.50) the reward promised for completion of an assigned task. By providing subjects access to information pertaining to a confederate co worker §s outcomes, subjects were able to evaluate the equitableness (an interpersonal standard) of the distribution. Confederates also received one of three levels of reward (i.e. $1.00, $2.50, or $4.00). It was found that evaluations of fairness depend on the criteria used in making the assessment; if intrapersonal comparisons are employed, subjects produce justice judgments quite different from those grounded on an interpersonal referent. A main effect for subject outcome was obtained when the prevailing standard was intrapersonal and an interaction between subject and confederate outcomes was found when the prevailing standard was interpersonal. One implication of these results is that it is possible for an equitable distribution to still be considered unjust. " 277 13 2 1983 Two studies are reported in which judges rated statements concerning the non medical use of drugs before rating their own attitude on the issue. In study 1,185 school and 73 university students rated their own attitude on four scales chosen to manipulate the value connotations of the response language, as well as a fifth scale labelled 'extremely opposed to/extremely in favour of the non medical use of drugs §s . As predicted by accentuation theory, judges were more prepared to describe their own position in evaluatively positive than evaluatively negative terms: thus, pro drug judges gave more extreme self ratings on a scale (P+) where the pro drug end was positive and the anti drug end was negative, whereas anti drug subjects gave more extreme self ratings on a scale (A+) where the pro drug end was negative and the anti drug end was positive. Judges overall gave more extreme self ratings on a scale (EP) where both ends were positively labelled than on a scale (EN) where both ends were negatively labelled. Predictions of the variable perspective model were not supported, manipulation of the range of statements presented for judgement (through exclusion of either extremely pro drug or extremely anti drug statements) had no effect on self rating. Study 2 generalized the findings of the first experiment. Self ratings obtained from 48 school students were again found to be more extreme on EP than on EN scales. 278 13 2 1983 " This paper is concerned with the conditions under which an effort k made to reconcile inconsistent arguments in a message. It assumes, first, that reconciliation requires additional processing; and second, that it does not occur automatically but only when the set of inconsistent arguments are informative and must be integrated in the representation of the judgment. Subjects were given trait descriptions that varied in consistency as well as in informativeness. Their task was to use these descriptions in forming a judgement about a hypothetical person. It was found that the impact of consistency on the ease with which the judgement was made, as indicated by its latency, was more pronounced when the descriptions were highly informative than when they were relatively uninformative: It took much longer for an inconsistent set of trait descriptions to give rise to a judgement than a consistent set if the set was informative; if the descriptions were uninformative, the difference in the latency of judgement diminished considerably. These effects support the hypothesis that the amount of processing invested in reconciling inconsistencies among arguments is determined by the informativeness of these arguments. After making their judgement, subjects were given a surprise recognition memory test. The results provided further support for the notion that highly informative arguments are elaborated to a larger extent than uninformative arguments, namely, recognition memory for the former was superior to that for the latter. " 279 13 2 1983 A review of the literature pertaining to Rokeach, Smith, and Evans §s (1960) belief congruence theory provided a context for discussion of some methodological and theoretical issues relating to conceptualization of the dependent variables, beliefcontent, belief discrepancy, meaningfulness of the race belief comparison, attitude belief feedback loops, attitude structure, and the relation between self and ideal similarity. The literature was judged supportive of a weak version of belief congruence theory which states that in those contexts in which social pressure is nonexistent or ineffective, belief is more important than race as a determinant of racial or ethnic discrimination. Evidence for a strong version of belief congruence theory (which states that in those contexts in which social pressure is nonexistent, or ineffective, belief is the only determinant of racial or ethnic discrimination) and was judged much more problematic. 280 13 2 1983 Sixty adults from the city of Linz took part in this experiment. They read a story The War of the Ghosts in pairs, and were required to reproduce it either jointly, in dyads, or singly, and either immediately following or one week later. In addition they were asked a number of specific questions about the story, and gave various ratings of confidence and completeness. As predicted, social (dyadic) performance increased confidence, completeness and the incidence of implicational errors (errors which do not contradict the original). Delay significantly diminished confidence. Analyses of confidence for right and wrong answers indicated that subjective testimonial validity was substantial in all conditions. Analyses of objective testimonial validity showed that dyads are more trustworthy than individuals when they are correct, but are less trustworthy when they happen to be wrong. They overall conjidence I accuracy correlation across conditions of +0.6 masks the fact that the greatest obstacle to valid testimony is inappropriate confidence in wrong answers, especially in dyads, and especially immediately after the event. The incidence of implicational errors was highly related positively to measures of confidence and accuracy, whereas confusional errors were independent. Implicational errors are regarded as an especially important element in schematic recall, and are an important aspect of the superiority of social performance. 281 13 2 1983 The number of newspaper articles about various diseases and the amount of attention given to these diseases by 7 British national daily newspapers were compared with the actual mortality statistics for these diseases. Spearman rank correlations showed that there was no correspondence between the press §s coverage of disease and mortality statistics. 282 13 2 1983 Subjects judged the relationship between two diners who either divided their restaurant check equally, or who paid for exactly what they ordered (i.e. divided it equitably). Relative to persons dividing the check equitably, those making equal divisions were perceived as liking each other more, having a closer relationship, being better friends, and being more likely to see each other again. 283 13 3 1983 Two experiments investigated whether minority influence and conformity operate by the same or by different processes. It was predicted that subjects who were simultaneously exposed to a majority and a minority opinion would move towards the minority in private but towards the majority in public. The results of Experiment 1 supported this hypothesis. Experiment 2 investigated three hypotheses predicting that (1) the above interaction would be replicated, (2) minorities would trigger more arguments and counter arguments, and (3) cognitive activity would mediate internalization but not compliance. Hypotheses 1 and 3 were supported. The second hypothesis was not supported. However, minorities were found to trigger more arguments and fewer counter arguments than majorities. The results were interpreted as supporting the dual process model. 284 13 3 1983 " The theorizing of Asch and Moscovici was used as a framework for exploring the relationships among social pressure, attention to the stimulus, doubt about one §s own judgment, and conformity. Male and female subjects (N 185) were confronted either with one (low social pressure) or three (high social pressure) others who judged 12 critical pairs of noises as equal in loudness. The noises within each pair actually varied in how similar they were in loudness. High social pressure resulted in most subjects paying either little or much attention to the stimulus; low social pressure resulted in most subjects paying a moderate amount of attention to the stimulus. When social pressure was high, greater self doubt was associated with less attention to the stimulus; when social pressure was low, greater self doubt was associated with more attention to the stimulus. Conformity was positively associated with self doubt and negatively associated with attention to the stimulus. Social pressure increased conformity, particularly when subjects paid little attention to the stimulus. Although the results are interpreted as partially consistent with both the Asch and the Moscovici perspectives, they are not totally consistent with either. " 285 13 3 1983 It is argued that the efficacy of role playing as an experimental strategy should be assessed in terms of its ability to resolve the problems of experimentation in social psychology. Via an epistemological and methodological analysis of the laboratory experiment in social psychology, it is argued that active experimental role playing constitutes a promising experimental strategy, because it can potentially overcome the fundamental experimental problem that arise in virtue of the relational nature of social psychological phenomena. It is stressed that in the end the question of the efficacy of role playing as an experimental strategy is an empirical one, but also that most empirical evaluations are inadequate for two reasons. Most of the role playing groups lack realism and involvement, and the congruence of results in role playing studies of deception experiments (whose validity is questionable) is uncritically taken as both the standard and the criterion for the efficacy of role playing. Both role playing and deception techniques should be assessed in terms of their capacity to achieve experimental realism. 286 13 3 1983 The preponderance of empirical research in social psychology has ofren been a central issue in the crisis literature. However, no extensive empirical study has ever been undertaken vis a vis the crisis in social psychology. In two studies, factors effecting the perceptions of social psychologists of their discipline were investigated. Although in the first study, among Dutch social psychologists, four hypotheses were tested and confirmed, a large part of the total variance in the perception of the crisis remained unexplained. In the second study, both a worldwide sample of active social psychological researchers as well as a sample of authors of the crisis literature were surveyed. The stances of both groups differed considerably. Although a majority of the active researchers did not agree that a crisis is at hand in social psychology, a large minority did. The active researchers agreed with many of the criticisms of social psychological research and theorizing. Attitudes on nine central issues, including the functioning of the editor/reviewer publishing system, predicted a large percentage of the total variance in the subjects §s attitude toward the existence of a crisis in their discipline. 287 13 3 1983 The present study compares the effects of two different socialization environments the Israeli kibbutz and the city on the social values held by 16 17 year olds. A total of 352 boys and girls, 195 porn the city and 157 porn the kibbutz, filled out a specially prepared thirteen item questionnaire on social values. The results revealed the existence of four factors underlying these values: self oriented concerns (factor 1), other oriented concerns (factor 2), reliance on innate spiritual capacities (factor 3), reliance on physical and productive capacities (factor 4). Significant differences on factors 1 and 3 were uncovered for the kibbutz and the city subjects, while boys and girls differed significantly on factors 2 and 4. The findings were discussed in light of the differences in educational systems between the kibbutz and the city, and in light of sex role differences characteristic of Western society in general. 288 13 3 1983 " A critical appraisal of the existing motivational versus cognitive controversies in the area of attributional research led to the formulation of a model which contains the dimension of Evaluation conceptualized independently from Locus of causality. The model was tested, with Nigerian undergraduate students serving as subjects, in an experiment on self versus other attributions for success and failure outcomes. The data revealed two major findings: (1) Positive evaluation, and not attributional asymmetry, is the pattern of self perception in the achievement related contexts; (2) The pattern of positive evaluation in other perception is self outcome mediated, it shows a high level of generalization in the co shared experience and an egotistic reversal if opposite outcomes occur. " 289 13 3 1983 In the context of a comparative review of four recently published books on justice, the author provides an assessment of the current state of the field. He specifically discusses the role of equity theory, the variety of distributive principles, the role of justice in social behaviour, the broadening of perspectives in the field, and some remaining gaps and weaknesses in the literature. In concluding, the work of the leading theorists in the area is evaluated. 290 13 4 1983 Four procedures for measuring between group orientations were described and evaluated. These include the procedures developed by Tajfel and his associates, Brewer and Silver, Locksley et al., Ng, and a revised procedure. The revised procedure was designed to measure seven between group Orientations. Use of the new measure and the Tajfel measure with college sophomores revealed somewhat different results. The Tajfel measure revealed evidence for the typically found pulls, but the new measure revealed only evidence for equality between groups and maximizing joint rewards with an advantage to own group. Use of the new meausure with 15 year old boys and girls revealed evidence for maximizing own group reward for both sexes, equality for girls only, and maximizing relative advantage to own group for boys only. For neither sex was maximizing own relative advantage (analogous to Tajfel §s MD) the largest orientation. 291 13 4 1983 Bornstein et al.(1983) employ both argument and evidence to suggest that the Tajfel matrices are an inadequate measure of intergroup behaviour in the social categorization paradigm. These comments reject their criticisms, point out the potentially misleading confoundings between strategies embodied in their own measurement technique, and show that once these confoundings are taken into account, the results of their two experiments are comparable to those normally obtained by the Tajfel matrices. Some misunderstandings about the role of the MD strategy are also corrected. 292 13 4 1983 In response to Turner it was argued that the maximizing outcomes assumption is plausible, his continuous variable assumption is implausible, and his assertion that sets of pull scores yield unconfounded measures is incorrect. In addition to considering still further matters, such as the reduction of Tajfel matrices to simplified binary matrices, data from two new experiments were presented. One experiment reveals that, contrary to Turner §s reservations, the allocution of points (or money) to one own group and one other group member versus different own group and different other group members has no differential effect. The second experiment found that Turner §s assertion that Bornstein et al. §s cover story created a sense of precedence that reduced fairness is incorrect. In view of the existence of a clearly superior alternative it was concluded that further use of the Tajfel matrices would be unwise. 293 13 4 1983 It is argued in response to Bornstein et al. (1983a) that most preferreed outcomes are not restricted to the maximal values of strategies, that the revised matrices are conpromise between maximal discrimination and exact fairness, that strategies can and should be measured as variables, and that their further criticisms of the Taifel matrices again fail to withstand careful examination. Their new data are irrelevant to the measurement issue. It is concluded that the Tajfel matrices are superior to the revised matrices if one wishes to measure strategies as unconfounded variables and without defining subjects §s most preferred outcomes a priori. 294 13 4 1983 The object of this study is to explore to what degree the question of ingroup favouritism, brought to light in the framework of social identity theory, is dependent upon the methods used for measuring this variable. The influence of this factor on ingroup bias was tested under the following three conditions: complementary assessment, separate assessment and choice of dimensions. This last condition gave the subjects the opportunity to choose which dimensions would be used for assessment. It was found that the degree of ingroup bias is different for each of the three conditions. The results indicate that it is only under certain circumstances that the ingroup distinguishes itself as better at the expense of the outgroup. This occurs only if the subjects are not given the opportunity to assess both groups on non corresponding dimensions, and therefore do not have the possibility to rate them equally good but different. 295 13 4 1983 Besides Rotter §s hypothesis that internals are more likely to participate in sociopolitical action than externals, in this paper the hypothesis is formulated that externals are more likely to participate in socio political action than internals. Both hypotheses can be justified from a value expectancy theoretical point of view. These hypotheses are called the efficacy hypothesis and the power formation hypothesis respectively. The assumption is made that the power formation hypothesis holds true for people who are convinced that they are powerless, on objective and for ideological grounds, and that the efficacy hypothesis holds true for people who do not have that conviction. Conditions under which a relationship between I. E. and socio political action taking can be expected were derived from both hypotheses. Thirty one studies on I. E. and action taking were reviewed. Five studies confirmed the efficacy hypothesis, four studies confirmed the power formation hypothesis. Nineteen studies revealed no relationship between I. E. scores and action taking. The explanations that various authors give for the absence of a relationship were examined. It was investigated whether explanations that held true for studies other than the ones for which they were formulated would fit into the theoretical framework developed in this article. This appeared to be the case. The implications for further research are discussed. 296 13 4 1983 In a field study, models for magnitude estimation and for category ratings are applied to the scaling of occupational prestige. The two respective models provide sufficient conditions for magnitude estimates to yield logarithmic interval scales and for category ratings to lead to interval scales. Both models are found to hold reasonably well for the majority of respondents. As implied by a third model, the relation between magnitude estimation and category rating scales can well be described by a generalized power function. Although overall results do not favour one method over the other individual data analyses reveal substantial interindividual differences with respect to the capability of performing magnitude estimates and category ratings, respectively. The findings are compared to results recently found in psychophysical laboratory experiments, and it is concluded that the individual scale properties the two methods provide do not differ across the attitudinal and the sensory domains. 297 13 4 1983 Effects of the dimensionality of responsibility and causality attributions were investigated. An accident was described. Subjects cued to respond with causality attributions increased their attributions with event severity. Subjects cued to respond with moral responsibility attributions decreased attributional levels with increasing severity. Assignments of guilt varied specifically with the cued attributional concept. 298 13 4 1983 Studied the effects of attitude extremity on perceived consensus and willingness to ascribe trait terms to others with either pro or anti nuclear attitudes. Results showed that attitude extremity affected consensus estimates. Trait attributions revealed a clear effect for valence, especially for the extreme attitude groups. Subjects with extreme attitudes also ascribed more traits to both pro and anti others than subjects with relatively moderate attitudes. 299 14 1 1984 The paper contains a detailed study of the St. Pauls §s riots of April 1980. Particular attention is paid to the limits of participation in the event and the limits of crowd action. It is argued that these limits show clear social form and cannot be explained in terms of the individualistic theories that dominate crowd psychology. Instead a model of crowd behaviour based on the social identity model is advanced to account for the observations. It is concluded that crowd behaviour is more sophisticated and creative than hitherto allowed and that the neglect of this field should be remedied. 300 14 1 1984 " Studied the effect of social categorization, strength of influence and predisposition to influence on social influence concerning musical preferences. One hundred and sixty eight French adolescents (age 15 years) were assigned to the eight conditions of a 2 (social categorization: majority/minority) × 2 (strength of influence: strong/weak) × 2 (predisposition to influence: pervious/impervious) design. Influence source was an opinion poll based on pupils from two types of secondary school. Direct influence was exerted from hard rock to new wave music; indirect influence was measured by subjects §s preferences for hard rock versus contemporary music. Ratings of the source were also elicited. Analyses of variance revealed indirect influence to be significantly greater with the minority than the majority source (p < 0.02). Indirect influence was especially high for subjects with a clear predisposition to influence and when the influence was weak (p < 0.0005). Further analyses confirmed the effect to be due to the actual numbers of subjects influenced. The study thus demonstrated the generalizability of the conversion notion (minority influence on an indirect level) from numerical to social minorities." 301 14 1 1984 This study is one of a series of experiments designed to examine how sociostructural factors such as group numbers, power and status affect intergroup behaviour. Using a variant of Tajfel §s minimal group paradigm the present study investigated the intergroup behaviour of college students categorized as numerical minority, majority or equal group members. The effects of salient (S) versus non salient (S?) group categorizations were also examined. These manipulations yielded a 3 × 2 design matrix consisting of majority/equal/minority × salient (S)/non salient (S?) group conditions. Unlike most previous studies using this paradigm, subjects §s responses on Tajfel §s point distribution matrices were supplemented with subjects §s report of their own and outgroup §s point distribution strategies. As expected, minimal group results were replicated in the equal group (S?) condition such that mere categorization into ingroup/outgroup was sufficient to foster intergroup discrimination. However salient (S) equal group members were more fair than discriminatory in their responses. Minorities (S/S?) were generally less fair than equal groups, showed high levels of absolute ingroup favouritism (S?) while simultaneously attempting to establish positive distinctiveness from majorities. Though majorities were generally fair (S/S?), they also appeared to be more concerned than minorities about maintaining positive differentials between themselves and minorities. Although, majority (S/S?) and equal group (S?) members accurately reported their actual distribution strategies, minorities (S/S?) and equal (S) group members were not as accurate in their self reports. Overall the present results are consistent with hypotheses derived from Social Identity Theory. But the results also show that sociostructural variables such as group numbers can have an important impact on intergroup behaviours. 302 14 1 1984 Investigating the notion that belief in afrerlife (BA) serves the function of helping the individual to deal with fear of death, a study was designed to explore the effect of public commitment to religion, repression sensitization, and anticipatory concern with death and dying on BA, and examine the relationship between BA and state anxiety. Fifty students of theology and fifty students of various other subjects responded to a German version of Byrne §s R S scale, and then were randomly assigned to two conditions: they either worked through Thanatos Questionnaire, and thereby were confronted with death and dying for about 15 to 20 minutes, or filled out a questionnaire unrelated to the topic. Thereupon, a BA scale was administered, and at last, subjects responded to a scale measuring state anxiety. The findings of Osarchuk and Tatz (1973) that religiously committed persons are strengthening BA after being confronted with death and dying could not be replicated. However, among subjects with no public commitment, those concerned with death and dying scored significantly lower on BA than those not concerned. This effect was especially observed among students classified as sensitizers. Because changes of BA did not correspond with changes of within cell correlations between BA and state anxiety, an alternative explanation of the findings in terms of dissonance theory is put forward. 303 14 1 1984 " It is shown that Fishbein §s theory of reasoned action can be used to explain people §s intentions to wear seat belts. As Bentler and Speckart (1979) have proposed, a self report measure of past behaviour is shown to significantly improve the model §s power; this extended Fishbein model being capable of accounting for the majority of the effects that extraneous variables, which are known to influence seat belt use, have upon a person §s behavioural intentions. In addition, it is shown that the model §s motivation to comply term is, as Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) have proposed, a unipolar rather than a bi polar construct, but that even when this construct is scored as unipolar, it does not significantly add to the model §s predictive power." 304 14 1 1984 To investigate the relationship between implicit psychological hypotheses and explicit empirical findings, summaries of twenty published studies on attitude behaviour consistency were presented to a sample of forty eight psychology undergraduates. Subjects were asked to estimate the percentage of agreement between attitudes and behaviour obtained by each study. Correlations between subjects §s covariation judgements and empirically obtained attitude behaviour consistencies were minimal and nonsignificant. Results are discussed in the light of more recent research on attitude behaviour relationship. 305 14 1 1984 " Despite criticism of Weber §s thesis concerning the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) and the rise of Capitalism, few have challenged the specification of the behaviour patterns, goals and values of those adhering to this ethic. Whereas psychologists have not been very interested in the nature of the historical, political and sociological arguments concerning the PWE, they have devoted a great deal of research to its measurement and correlates. In this paper the concept of the PWE; the literature on the instruments devised to measure the PWE; studies on the relationship between the PWE and work and unemployment; as well as research on the PWE and individual differences is reviewed. Despite great heterogeneity in aims, methodology and instruments used in different studies, a coherent picture of PWE beliefs emerges. Finally an elaboration of a new perspective on PWE research is suggested." 306 14 1 1984 Subjects acted in a social dilemma situation. Two variables were experimentally manipulated: use and variance. One third of the subjects thought that the others in their group were overusing the common resource, one third thought that the others were underusing it, and the remaining third were led to believe that the others were using the resource optimally. Moreover, half of the subjects thought that the others took relatively similar harvests (low variance) while the other half thought the others differed greatly (high variance). Support was found for Homans §s assumption that the internal function of leaders is to allocate outcomes equitably over group members, whereas their external function is to deal efficiently with the external environment. The results indicated that more subjects in the overuse condition voted to give up free access to the resource and to hand over the management of the resource to a leader than in the other me conditions. Moreover, more subjects in the high variance condition voted for a leader than in the low variance condition. Over all conditions, furthermore, subjects preferred themselves most as prospective leader. In addition, group members who were similar to the subject, competent at the task and concerned for the group were preferred as Leader. When subjects acted as leader they were more moderate in withdrawing harvests from the resource than as regular group member. Moreover, leaders allocated outcomes equitably to the group members. 307 14 2 1984 Recent critical attempts to modify or replace attribution theory have focused particularly on two issues: the relationship of the reason cause distinction to attribution theories and actor/observer differences in attribution, and the emphasis in attribution theories on inferential, as opposed to self presentational, processes. In dealing with these two issues, some critics also point out ethnocentric and ideological influences on attribution theories. The issues raised are important, as both intentional (reason) explanations and self presentational factors have been under represented in attribution theories. But the new attempts to build these factors into theories of lay explanation are not wholly satisfactory. Authors make several stipulations about reasons and causes that are unsupportable, and they employ arguments about differences between actors and observers that are unsatisfactory in other respects. Nonetheless a number of their claims can be reconceptualised and supported by using definitions and parameters that do not confound the variables being examined. Claims that attribution theories have ignored self presentational factors underestimate the extent to which self presentational factors are being examined in attribution studies, but the proposition that self presentational factors account for most aspects of explanations is unconvincing. Authors are also mistaken to assume that ethnocentric or ideological factors are particular to attribution theories. The errors, exaggerations and other difficulties in the authors §s arguments do not nullify the attempt to expand or transcend attribution theory. Where flaws in the arguments are pointed out, alternative ways of tackling the same issues are referred to or proposed. 308 14 2 1984 Perceptions of social group membership are crucial both to social behaviour generally, and to social conflict: The basis for ingroup versus outgroup distinctions and the personal and social significance of such judgments are thus important areas of study. This paper describes a model of social norms as it applies to speech use and, in particular, the role of speech in perceptions of social groups. The context of this discussion is a general research and conceptual framework for studying perceptions of and reactions to social group differences. The framework is in three stages, consisting of the recognition of group differences, the definition or evaluative interpretation of a given speech act, and the development of a problem resolution or social change strategy. Social group distinctions are hypothesized to be based on shared norms, modelled here as structured expectancies regarding the behaviour appropriate to specific social contexts. Norms are seen as varying in their content, i.e. the specific behaviours that are socially evaluated, in their clarity, which controls the strength and certainty of social judgments based on norms, and in the size and nature of the social group sharing a given norm. The specific components of the norm model are discussed in light of existing data on language behaviour. The second stage of the model is briefly discussed via social psychological judgments that are hypothesized to control responses to a given speech event. This framework is hoped to have heuristic value in studying language use and social processes. 309 14 2 1984 Shyness is one of a class of psychological terms that have their roots in ordinary, everyday language. Accordingly, researchers are obliged either to base their definitions of shyness on a thoroughgoing analysis of the conditions prescribed socially for the use of the term and its derivatives, or to otherwise maintain a rigorous distinction between their use and the lay person §s use of the term. Unfortunately, however, they have failed to do this. The consequences of this are outlined, including the doubtful practice of Psychological Imperialism, in which psychologists effectively superimpose their professional definitions of psychological constructs upon those developed by the lay person. The implications of this argument for the conduct of future research into shyness are discussed, and it is suggested that researchers dealing with like terms in other areas of psychology should also be alert to these dangers. 310 14 2 1984 The early social experiences of firstborn, laterborn, and only children were analysed from the viewpoint of how those experiences influence the child §s general image of human nature. It was hypothesized that there are some differences in the centrality of an evaluative dimension, that are related to birth order. Subjects in Poland and in the United States rated 20 known stimulus persons on 25 trait dimensions. The results supported the hypotheses and seem to point to some origins of individual differences in certain person perception processes. 311 14 2 1984 Empirical attempts to explain the genesis of illusory correlations have been largely confined to the demonstration of biased recall processes, although it has been acknowledged that perception and encoding processes may also contribute to the illusion. In the present research, illusory correlations between person types (a student versus a clerk) and educational attitudes (liberal versus authoritarian statements) are demonstrated under conditions where selective recall processes are highly unlikely. The cognitive bias that gives rise to the illusion is shown to already be effective when the stimulus information is perceived. Interestingly, there are marked interindividual differences between experimental participants. The results are discussed in the context of the literature on illusory correlations. 312 14 2 1984 The hypothesis that individuals §s memory for their past behaviours may be biased toward apparent consistency with their current attitudes was tested by exposing subjects to a message that argued against frequent toothbrushing. Some subjects believed that the source of this message was an expert (high credibility condition), whereas other subjects learned after the message that the speaker was misinformed (low credibility condition). Subjects in the high credibility condition expressed less favourable attitudes toward toothbrushing and reported that they had brushed their teeth less often in the preceding four weeks than did subjects in the low credibility condition. A three week follow up showed that the attitudinal difference was still significant but that estimates of past toothbrushing did not differ reliably between the two conditions. The results suggest that when attitudes are very salient, they increase the accessibility of consistent behaviours in memory. 313 14 2 1984 This study examines the importance of evaluation and description in attributional inference. Sets of trait attributes were selected to remove the usual confounding of descriptive and evaluative aspects of trait attribution. Results demonstrated that both evaluative and descriptive aspects play an important role in attributional inference. Furthermore, results suggest that extremity of own attitude leads to an increasing influence of evaluative factors in the ascription of personality traits. When subjects were forced to choose between evaluative congruity and descriptive consistency, more extreme subjects tended to ignore the descriptive properties of the trait attributes. This finding suggests that more extreme subjects §s trait inferences primarily reflect their evaluation of the target. Implications of these findings for attributional inference research are discussed. 314 14 2 1984 Nogami and Streufert §s (1983) thesis, that the distinction between causal and moral responsibility accounts for contradictory data in the defensive attribution literature, is criticized on empirical and conceptual grounds. It is argued that the results reported may be idiosyncratic to their study given the procedures they used. Moreover, close examination reveals several problems in using their results to account for previous contradictory research findings. 315 14 2 1984 Fincham (1984) has argued that Nogami and Streufert (1983) advanced a thesis which (1) attempts to empirically demonstrate that attributions for an accident are lower with severe as opposed to less severe outcomes and (2) applies these data to account for previous contradictory findings of the defensive attribution literature. The present authors show that Fincham §s attribution of intent to Nogami and Streufert is in error and that the divergent views of Nogami and Streufert versus those of Fincham and associates reflect legitimate but different approaches toward the problem of attribution theory and research. 316 14 2 1984 Studied the effects of different kinds of similarity between social groups on ingroup favouritism using a modified replication of an experiment by Turner (1978). Instead of replicating the results of Turner, the data showed just the opposite. They are discussed within the framework of social identity theory. 317 14 2 1984 This study explored the relationship between children §s sociometric status (SMS) and ability to recognize emotions from facial expressions. As expected, high SMS children obtained significantly higher emotion recognition scores than did low SMS children. However, there was an unanticipated inverse correlation between low SMS children §s recognition scores from adult photgraphs and child photographs. Possible reasons for the observed relationships are discussed. 318 14 3 1984 Two experiments investigated the impact of social motives or individuals §s preferences for specific self other outcome distributions, on behaviour in an n person game. Subjects §s social motives (altruistic, cooperative, individualistic, competitive) were assessed prior to the decision making in either 7 person games (Experiment 1) or 20 person games (Experiment 2). A modification of the n person game format normally employed is introduced in this research to permit the choices made by players on a given trial to modify the payoff matrix available to self and others on subsequent trials. The game format, a simulated social dilemma, was presented in terms of a conservation of resources problem. In Experiment 1 communication opportunities were manipulated. As predicted, there were consistent differences between the four classes of social motivation in the amount of the resources taken for self competitive subjects took the most, individualistic subjects took less than the competitive ones but more than the average, while cooperative and altruistic subjects took the smallest amount of the resources for themselves. Moreover, competitive subjects expected the others to take fewer resources than they intended to themselves, and altruistic subjects expected the others to take more resources than they intended to themselves. These findings are only partly consistent with existing theories concerning the relationship between behaviour and expected behaviour of others. In addition, when communication was allowed, significantly fewer resources were taken for self Contrary to the predictions based on previous research findings, subjects in the 20 person groups did not take more resources for self than subjects in the 7 person groups. 319 14 3 1984 Results from 680 plays, gathered in four different 3 person characteristic function game experiments, are summarized to show that there is considerable inter group variability in payoff disbursement in coalition formation experiments that does not decrease with practice. This Variability is inconsistent with models predicting unique payoff vectors, one for each coalition structure. Data from a 3 person game experiment by Komorita and Kravitz are then employed to test and corroborate a recently proposed model, which predicts a range of payoff vectors in which each point depends on a single parameter interpretable as a standard of fairness. 320 14 3 1984 Based on a social psychological concept of aggression, in which the processes of definition and judgement of acts of behaviour are credited with central meaning, the situational context of aggressive interactions was systematized for a specific field (school). It is assumed that the particular circumstances of a situation provide information for the interpretation of a particular action, and that this interpretation varies depending on these circumstances. In the following study, norm deviation, intent and injury, are used as central criteria for judging on action as aggressive in order to establish a taxonomy of social situations, presented as verbal scenarios, that is both field and behaviour specific. 686 school children aged between 13 and 19 years participated in this study. By using a multivariate analysis procedure, groups of situations were identified in which similar judgements of a particular action emerged. Both typical judgement patterns and corresponding situation characteristics were used in the interpretation of the resulting situation taxonomy. 321 14 3 1984 The present study investigated the general assumption of perspective specific dissent between actor and victim in evaluating aggressive interactions. Four experimental designs were established to test the relation of evaluations between (a) actor versus victim when judging a single act, (b) initiator versus reactor when judging action and reaction, and (c) actor as well as recipient when judging own versus other §s behaviour. Results of 2 × 2 ANOVAs supported the hypotheses showing a consistently more favourable evaluation of identical actions by actors versus recipients with respect to the dependent variable appropriateness. For the second dependent variable aggressiveness differences were not significant. 322 14 3 1984 A study was conducted, according to a 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 design and using the Buss aggression machine paradigm, to investigate the aggression eliciting properties of slides of firearms. One hundred and twenty highly irritable and 120 low irritable subjects, equally divided between males and females, were given the opportunity to deliver electric shocks to an experimental confederate after having been randomly assigned to one of the six different conditions resulting from presence versus absence of previous instigation to aggress and from exposure to aggressive slides versus exposure to non aggressive slides versus non exposure to slides. It was found that aggressive cues, were sufficient per se to increase subsequent aggressive behaviours in observers, whether or not previously instigated to aggress. While sex differences did not seem to play any relevant role, the importance of irritability was stressed, especially where exposure to aggressive slides followed a previous instigation to aggress. 323 14 3 1984 This study tested the hypothesis that in situations, incorporating demands for opposing allocation rules, people will only compromise between the relevant rules if the allocational computation is fairly simple. Male secondary school pupils were given a description of one of three situations (an unambiguous equality, an unambiguous equity or an ambiguous equality and equity situation), and they were then asked to divide 100 units of reward over four persons in easy or in complex computation circumstances. Instead of the expected interaction between situational ambiguity and complexity the results showed a computational complexity main effect: compromising decreased with complexity. In addition, in the ambiguous conditions, the proportion of equitable distributions was greater in the simple and smaller in the complex condition than the proportion of equal distributions. It was concluded that greater computational complexity not only decreases the amount of compromising, but also induces a preference for equality over equity allocations, if situational demands for equity are not too strong. Both are considered expressions of the same tendency to switch to computationally easier allocations, as allocation computations become more complex. 324 14 3 1984 This study explored how group members perceived a fellow group member who made either group serving or group effacing attributions following success or failure. Forty male undergraduates from the Chinese University cooperated in pairs with a confederate on a demanding group task. After learning that their group §s performance had exceeded or failed to meet a standard, the subjects heard their confederate partner make group effacing or group serving attributions. As predicted, subjects evaluated the group serving partners more highly (p < 0.05). Preference for group enhancing members was discussed as a pancultural response arising from the interdependence of group members. Given the process of social categorization, group members rise or fall together and are therefore socialized to support their group. 325 14 3 1984 This article evaluates the present state of research on personal relationships on the basis of a selection of recently published books. After shortly sketching the historical development of socio psychological research on interpersonal attraction and relationships, eight volumes dealing with relationships are reviewed and salient conceptual, methodological, and theoretical trends in recent research are discussed. 326 14 4 1984 120 subjects took part in an Asch type experiment, using a material which was suitable for the measurement of indirect influence. The subjects were given the consistent incorrect response of a source which was either a majority (the response given by 88 per cent of a parent population of college students) or a minority (12 per cent). Part of the subjects were told that the experiment was investigating perceptual illusions and an example of such illusions was given. An authority condition was also introduced: the experimenter himself gave the incorrect response. A control condition did not involve any influence or illusion. The results show that direct influence increases when there is a stronger symbolic social pressure. They also show that an indirect influence may be induced by a numerical majority (provided that the subjects believe that there is an illusion) as well as a numerical minority (provided that an illusion does not invalidate its response). These results underline how important it is to control the exact significance of experimental situations that are supposed to represent the psychological conditions of majority or minority influence. 327 14 4 1984 Semin and Strack (1980) demonstrated that the findings obtained by Snyder and Swann (1978) with respect to an hypothesis confirming strategy in social interaction were due to the assigned task, and not to a person §s hypothesis. In our first experiment we replicated Semin and Strack §s results. In a second experiment, employing a more effective manipulation of the subject §s hypothesis, support was obtained for an effect of the hypothesis factor. It was concluded that both an assigned task effect and an hypothesis effect can be demonstrated in the laboratory and probably exist in reality. 328 14 4 1984 The present study investigated social consensual conceptions concerning the appropriateness relation between an initiative aggressive action and the reaction to it. To this end subjects were asked to choose between four configurations of mediatory information between B §s initial act and A §s reaction (i.e. A §s offence at B §s behaviour, inappropriateness of B §s behaviour, A §s personal standards, A §s fear of negative consequences), so as to combine identical initial acts with incompatible reactions (i.e. escalation, breaking of, and compensation) into meaningful episodes. The statistical procedure used, configural frequency analysis, shows that as compared with the number of theoretically possible configurations, very few were selected by subjects (with a high degree of unanimaty) as being specific to a particular type of reaction. Apparently subjects have definite and uniform conceptions about the appropriateness of incompatible reactions to certain aggressive actions in interpersonal conflicts. 329 14 4 1984 The influence of the factors norm deviation, intent, and injury, on the judgement of a critical act as aggressive and sanctionable was tested using a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design. Scenarios depicting aggressive interactions represented the experimental conditions. 859 school children rated these scenarios on bipolar rating scales. The results show that norm deviation, intent, and injury, are important criteria for the interpretation of aggressive behaviour. Judging an action as sanctionable proved to be more sensitive for the variation of factors than the interpretation of behaviour as aggressive. In addition, an analysis of how the scenarios representing the experimental conditions were subjectively interpreted by the subjects was carried out. This showed that all combinations of the three definition criteria are psychologically meaningful. However, preferences were observed for specific interpretation patterns. 330 14 4 1984 Two studies are reported indicating that changes in attractiveness induced by psychological reactance are eliminated by a restoration of freedom only if the restoration occurs immediately following the threat. When the restoration was delayed, changes in attractiveness were attenuated but were still significant, no matter whether the restoration occurred by chance or was under subjects §s vicarious control. A threat immediately followed by a restoration, however, may be perceived as one event, and thus may not be very threatening. Therefore, the absence of reactance effects after immediate restoration may be due to a weak induction of reactance rather than to a reduction of reactance. To this extent, the incomplete reduction of reactance effects found after delayed restoration, on the other hand, calls into question earlier conclusions (based on immediate restoration) that reactance is completely reduced by restoration of freedom and that reactance effects will no longer be obtained. 331 14 4 1984 The effects of occupational deviance and role overload on Fear of Success (FOS) scores were investigated following Bremer and Wittig §s (1980) finding that these inflate FOS scores when a story cue describing a female character is given to respondents of both sexes. This finding was replicated by the present study. However, stories were also given that described events involving a male character. In this condition occupational deviance and role overload produced no such effect upon the FOS scores. Bremer and Wittig §s suggestion that these two variables are independent of the sex of the cue character is therefore refuted and it is argued instead that these variables will be interpreted very differently depending on the sex of the cue character. The finding that male and female respondents produce very similar FOS scores to the same stories provides further evidence that such measurement techniques evoke sex role stereotypes rather than an indication of the individual §s motivation. The particular relevance to Parsons and Goff §s (1980) emphasis upon the incentive value component of the McClelland/Atkinson Motivational Model is also explored. 332 14 4 1984 Different attribution theories differ from each other less by their relation to different epistemic problems than by their taking account of different goals to which causal attributions can be functional. The process of causal attribution is influenced by the goals to which causal attributions are functional. A second criteria for differentiating attributions theories is that they proceed from different information bases. 333 14 4 1984 Effler §s recent criticisms of the lay epistemic model are considered. It is argued that various attributional models indeed address various attributional goals but this is because of (and not instead of) their concern with different attributional problems. Furthermore, while some attributional models deal with causal dimensions rather than with specific causes, and/or attend to the influences of important human needs this does not satisfactorily establish the non arbitrary character of goals featured in those models. Finally, while noncommon deducibility constitutes a principle applicable only to a multi propositional problem rather than universally, logic, motivation and cognitive contents enter conjunctively into the process of human inference. This view is juxtaposed to the suggestion that they represent disjunctive strategies of inference on which the knower may draw in various circumstances. 334 14 4 1984 In the present experiment subjects made a decision between two alternatives which was either reversible or irreversible. After the choice, subjects evaluated the attractiveness of both alternatives once more under different time levels. It was found that with increasing time level, re evaluation of alternatives increased under irreversible and decreased under reversible conditions. The results are discussed in the framework of dissonance theory. 335 14 4 1984 Prolonged deprivation and future orientation (FO) were studied in 200 Indian and Nepalese students of 14–16 and 18–20 years with verbal measures. In both cultures low deprived subjects were significantly more future oriented. In the development of FO both age and deprivation were significant with experiential aspect of socialization exerting greater influence than physico economic deprivation. 336 14 4 1984 This study examines the problem of why some motives are understood at an earlier age than others. Currently, the accepted explanation for this is that general cognitive level constrains children §s reasoning in the social domain. An alternative explanation is that an important process in understanding others is projection. To investigate this young boys and girls from two age groups were presented with cartoon stories depicting situations involving altruistic deception and self centred deception. Pairs of matched cartoon stories, each of which came in two versions, differing only in motive type were constructed. As predicted, self centred deception was understood earlier than altruistic deception. These results are congruent with the idea that the underlying process in understanding others is projection. 337 15 1 1985 Two studies are reported. The first one is concerned with an examination of the degree to which higher order models of personality differ from everyday social representations of personality. The second study consists in an analysis of intersubjective variations in the organization of everyday personality theories through an examination of the semantic field in which trait terms are represented. It is argued that hypothetico deductive models of personality rely primarily on ordinary language descriptions of persons and do not constitute higher order models. Further, it is suggested that the development of such models relies primarily on a linguistic context, rather than extralinguistic considerations to social interaction in which person terms feature centrally. The two studies provide empirical support for both contentions. Finally, a cross cultural comparison of the semantic representation of trait terms is provided. 338 15 1 1985 "Within the literature, in theoretical discussions individuals are conceptualized as agents, capable of choosing and planning their actions. Situations are open to definition and may be construed differently by different individuals. On the other hand, the majority of studies of situations treat them as concrete givens with specific properties merely waiting to be discovered. The present paper attempts to explore the possibility of empirically treating individuals as agents, capable of choosing and planning their actions and of treating situations as being open to definition. It focuses on the choice of settings to fulfil different goals and on aspects of the setting considered salient once the goal is specified. The two studies described in this paper have illustrated that there is some consensus in the way people choose settings for different goals and that different uses of the setting lead to different aspects of the setting being considered salient. The high consensus with which two different groups of subjects, performing slightly different tasks, associated goals and settings suggests that there is some shared, at least subcultural, knowledge concerning the appropriate places in which to achieve specific goals. Individuals enter settings for specific purposes. Individuals entering a particular setting for different purposes tend to report using the setting in different ways. Both the goal and the particular setting affect the aspects of the setting considered relevant to the goal; neither the goal nor the setting alone is sufficient." 339 15 1 1985 This article reports on an initial attempt to improve our knowledge of the cognitive processes which are elicited by the perception of an unjust event. High school students were given a story describing an unfair treatment of a student by his teacher and were asked to place themselves either in the role of the unfairly treated student or in that of a non affected fellow student. They were then asked to write down all questions and thoughts coming to their minds in the described situation. The reported questions and thoughts were classified into three categories: attributions, action oriented thoughts, and assessments and evaluations. Statistical analyses of the frequencies and the temporal sequence of occurrence of these categories of responses revealed that victims of an unjust event reported attributions and action related thoughts more frequently and in an earlier position than non affected observers. Assessments and evaluations, on the other hand, were more frequently reported by observers than by victims. 340 15 1 1985 Two perspectives on the nature of the social group and psychological group formation are discussed. The traditional social cohesion approach traces group formation to processes of interpersonal attraction, while the social identity approach defines the group in cognitive terms and considers identification, or self categorization, to be the mechanism of psychological group formation. On the basis of an experiment by Turner, Sachdev and Hogg (1983) it is hypothesized that interpersonal attraction (positive or negative) is related to group formation only in so far as it enhances intergroup distinctiveness. This hypothesis is experimentally tested in a 2 × 3 (interpersonal liking/disliking per se versus no explicit categorization/random categorization/criterial categorization on the basis of affect) factorial design employing the minimal group paradigm. People who like each other and were not explicitly categorized formed a group. This effect was enhanced by criterial categorization but disappeared when categorization was random. Although the results do not support the hypothesis, they are not explicable in social cohesion terms. A social identity explanation is furnished attraction influences group formation by acting, under certain specifiable conditions, as a cognitive criterion for common category membership. This explanation is located in current theorizing and is proposed as part of a reconceptualization of the relationship between interpersonal attraction and group formation. 341 15 1 1985 Purpose of this study was the problem solving effectiveness and time required for solution under cooperative, competitive, and individual conditions of 108 sixth grade Greek children. Thirty six three person groups, half all male and half all female, were given Mastermind and Questions problems across all three conditions. The sex (2) × conditions (3) A NOVA with repeated measures across conditions resulted in the most effective problem solver working individually was more effective than the cooperative condition or the competitive condition. The least effective problem solver working individually was less effective than the cooperative condition or the competitive condition. The average individual did not differ in problem solving from the cooperative condition, as would be predicted by Johnson et al. (1981). Cooperative group interaction was more effective than competitive, but only with Mastermind. Individuals were not necessarily faster than groups. No sex differences were found. In comparing problem solving effectiveness of individuals and groups, qualifications should be made regarding comparisons with the average individual or high individual. 342 15 1 1985 This paper seeks to offer an alternative approach to the study of prejudice than that based upon the notion of categorization which is currently influential in cognitive social psychology. It is argued that the categorization approach assumes the inevit 343 15 1 1985 Recent research on social cognition suggests that lifelike visual and vocal information about a person may strongly mediate the impact of prior social categorical knowledge on social judgements. Other research, however, on the contribution of visual cues to impression formation, suggests that they have relatively little impact. This study sought to resolve these conflicting findings by examining the effect of visual cues on social judgements when subjects possess prior social categorical knowledge varying in salience to the experimental task. Videotaped target interviews were monitored by observers in either sound and vision or sound only, and measures were taken of the targets §s perceived personality, their actual and predicted social performance, and social acceptance by observers. Whilst salience of categorization strongly influenced the quality of judgements, visual cues had little if any effect. However, visual cues strongly influenced subjects §s confidence in all three sets of judgements, sound and vision subjects being consistently more confident than their sound only counterparts. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research in both social cognition and visual cues. 344 15 1 1985 "A Hong Kong study by Ng (1983) showed that the development of the understanding of bank interest and profit was essentially similar to that of a Scottish sample reported by Jahoda (1981). It also uncovered two minor stages in addition to Jahoda §s six. The present study confirmed the presence of these two stages as well as the others; and, like the Scottish sample, showed a New Zealand lag behind Hong Kong." 345 15 2 1985 The present study was designed to investigate systematically various explanations focusing on information bias, information processing bias, self determination, false consensus bias, quest for positive regard, and self presentation strategies, that have been suggested for the Jones Nisbett (1971) proposition that people describe their own behaviour as relatively more influenced by situational factors as compared to the actions of others. To test the scope and generality of this self other asymmetry, a new methodology was introduced. Using Stimulus Response Inventories of Hostility and Friendliness, the effects of different degrees of familiarity with target persons, of positivity negativity of behaviours, and of the public private nature of the rating context, were studied. Generalizability coefficients were used as indices for a dispositional and a situationist view on personality. The results support only explanations in terms of information processing bias and self determination strivings. Implications of this finding for the conceptualization of self judgments and other judgments are discussed. 346 15 2 1985 "An extension of Heiderian triadic balance (Heider, 1946, 1958) for quantitative data is presented and an algebraic formula is developed: M? = m s 1, s, m, 1 denoting the smallest, medium, and largest of the relations of a triad; lower values indicating more positive relations than higher ones. M? can be interpreted as a natural structural characterization of a triad which covers the idea that balance is an interaction effect of attraction and agreement in a triad. The formula is applied to the sociometric ratings (P O Q triads) of the members of seven peer groups. AS predicted, the higher the value of M? the more the empirical frequencies of triads exceed their expected chance frequencies. The formula is compared theoretically and empirically with other balance models for quantitative data (Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955; Morrissette, 1958; Wiest, 1965). In the P O Q situation the formula presented is shown to be superior to the other models. Finally some substantial problems related to balance are discussed and a second interpretation of M? is given: M? is an equal weight linear combination of four functions which can be seen as group forming forces in triads (forces towards group integration, towards tight friendships, and two clique building forces)." 347 15 2 1985 A Q methodological study of lesbian identities is reported, which reveals substantive factors representing identity account clusters explicated as the Personal Fulfilment identity, the Special Person identity, the Individualistic identity, the Radical Feminist identity, and the Traditional identity. These identities are supported and illuminated by the use of accounts given by the same respondents in tape recorded interviews and are related to the rather limited previous literature in the field. Further developments in the investigation of accounts of identity are proposed. 348 15 2 1985 A production task analogue of the traditional multiple choice trait checklist method was used to investigate stereotypes. Subjects were asked to supply rather than to select the most characteristic attributes of specified social groups. In a departure from tradition, stability of the content of stereotypes was analysed for personal stereotypes held by individuals rather than for social stereotypes shared by a cultural group. In contrast to the widely held belief that social stereotypes are fixed and unchanging, personal stereotypes were found to be only moderately stable over time. Only about two fifths of the most characteristic attributes were duplicated in sessions separated by one week, and only about one fifth of the most Characteristic attributes were duplicated in sessions separated by one month or two month intervals. Findings also supported the notion that general attributes, most characteristic attributes, and least characteristic attributes of a social category are not totally redundant and are represented quasi independently in memory. Only about half of the most characteristic responses had also occurred on free response protocols and over half of the least characteristic responses tended not to be polar opposites of the most characteristic responses. It was the case, however, that with a production analogue of the multiple choice trait checklist, trait adjectives were the most frequent class of person information and accounted for between 50 and 60 per cent of the responses. However, eleven other classes of person information also occurred. Empirical results were applied toward a reexamination of the concepts of stereotype (data structure for the most characteristic attributes of a social group) and stereotyping (rigid procedures for processing data structures) and to a conceptual analysis of how stereotypes and social categories are structurally related. 349 15 2 1985 It is argued that the social context of ordinary explanations encourages them to be more complex than single attributions, and to be defended by a variety of rhetorical devices. Explanations of personally relevant political events were collected from articulate respondents in a setting allowing conversational freedom. Structural analysis showed that single cause explanations were rare. Modestly elaborate causal networks were used, and personal, group and societal attributions tended to appear at different points in their structure. Rhetorical analysis of how explainers conversationally defended causal structures showed that they used claims about the descriptions of events, data supporting their claims and warrants in virtue of which their arguments were valid. Qualitative analysis suggests that explainers use data to exemplify rather than induce, and explainers use either data or warrant in defence of a claim, but not both. 350 15 2 1985 This book review covers two monographs and ten edited books, mostly psychological in orientation and centered on current research questions about nonverbal behaviour or nonverbal communication. The edited books comprised 213 contributors. In each case, the reader is informed about the origin of the book, its main emphasis, the kind of topics covered, the nature of the material presented (whether theoretical discussions, reviews of research, research reports…), its general interest, and the type of readers who would mostly benefit of it. The material has been organized into five classes: Books of readings, introductory books, books on methods, specific dimensions, and specific topics. 351 15 3 1985 Public ability attributions of public task performance were investigated as a function of test performance (high or low), task performance (high or low), and the availability of information about test performance to the audience (audience informed or audience not informed). The results were largely in agreement with self presentation expectations, Ability attributions concerning public task performance addressed to an audience which was not informed about test results, were found to be strongly self serving, although they were also influenced by consistency of test and task performance. In ability attributions directed at an informed audience, self serving biases were completely absent, the attributions being in accordance with the consistency or inconsistency of test and task performances. 352 15 3 1985 Social desirability is one of the most common sources of bias affecting the validity of experimental and survey research findings. From a self presentational perspective, social desirability can be regarded as the resultant of two separate factors: self deception and other deception. Two main modes of coping with social desirability bias are distinguished. The first mode comprises two methods aimed at the detection and measurement of social desirability bias: the use of social desirability scales, and the rating of item desirability. A second category comprises seven methods to prevent or reduce social desirability bias, including the use of forced choice items, the randomized response technique, the bogus pipeline, self administration of the questionnaire, the selection of interviewers, and the use of proxy subjects. Not one method was found to excel completely and under all conditions in coping with both other deceptive and self deceptive social desirability bias. A combination of prevention and detection methods offers the best choice available. 353 15 3 1985 A revised version of earlier models by Stephan and Gollwitzer, and Weiner, has been proposed to study the relations between cognitions and emotions in the achievement related contexts. Accordingly, factors classified along the arousal relaxation dimension should modify the intensity of initial emotional response to the outcome, and the degree of egotism/positive evaluation in the pattern of causal attributions. Then, specific affective modalities are seen as joint products of the former cognitive emotional interaction. A 5 (arousal conditions) × 2 (outcomes) experiment was designed to test the model. 160 male undergraduates from University of Jos in Nigeria served as subjects. Results have showed that the highly aroused subjects suppressed their negative emotions after failure, while the relaxed ones reported lower intensity of success related affects. The hypothesis of attributional egotism did not get support from the causal ascription data. The causal dimension of Evaluation was found to be a better predictor for affects than Locus was. 354 15 3 1985 "In the 1967 version of Fishbein §s model of the attitude behaviour relationship a distinction was drawn between personal and social normative beliefs. Personal normative beliefs were later removed from the model on the grounds that they act as an alternative measure of behavioural intention. It is argued that the existing literature does not support this hypothesis and data is presented which indicates that personal normative beliefs are not an alternative measure of behavioural intention. It is argued that personal normative beliefs can be reconceptualised as measuring a person §s ideal behavioural intention; a variable which mediates the relationship between attitudes, subjective norms and intentions, Evidence is presented which supports this hypothesis, but it is further demonstrated that an alternative model can be fitted to the present data. It is argued that it is impossible to discriminate between these alternative models on the basis of path analytic techniques, and the implications that this finding has for attitude research are discussed. " 355 15 3 1985 The present article is concerned with first considerations and data for a theory of social cognitions. A taxonomy of social cognitions is suggested comprising three classes: causal, evaluative and finalistic thinking. These classes are subdivided according to the social perspective taken, i.e. self directed versus other directed thinking. The situational preconditions of these social cognition classes are studied in different social episodes each comprising either positive or negative, expected or unexpected events. The results show that the most reasoning about a situation occurs when it is an important private episode with an unexpected and affectively negatively experienced event. The data concerning the natural occurrence of the three cognition classes is interpreted as providing suggestions of their functional meaning: The functions of the three classes of social cognitions are labelled information integration (self directed evaluative thinking), action planning (self directed finalistic thinking and other directed causal thinking), control of negative feelings (self directed causal, and finalistic thinking) and understanding (other directed finalistic and evaluative thinking and self directed causal thinking). 356 15 3 1985 Eighty first grade children were pretested on a variety of conservation tasks. Subjects who were either nonconservers or intermediate conservers were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: social interaction, social observation, and individual control. Subjects in the social interaction condition worked collaboratively on conservation tasks with a same sex partner. Subjects in the social observation condition individually observed pairs of subjects working together and control subjects worked individually on conservation tasks. The purpose of the social observation condition was to control for the effects of task relevant information that was expressed during dyadic interactions. All subjects were individually post tested on conservation tasks that were the same form but different content than the pretest items. Subjects in the social interaction condition had significantly greater cognitive change scores (post test less pretest) than subjects in the social observation and control conditions. There were no significant differences between change scores of subjects in the latter two conditions. Also, subjects in the social interaction condition gave significantly more novel explanations for conservation judgments than subjects in the social observation condition. These findings supported a socio cognitive conflict model of cognitive development in young children. 357 15 3 1985 This study is concerned with the relationship between expectations and preferences prior to an interaction, and their effects on behaviours enacted during the interaction. Expectations and preferences of therapists regarding several specific therapist §s and client §s behaviours were assessed prior to a therapy meeting. After that meeting, the therapists described the behaviours that had occurred during the meeting. It was found that the correspondence between expectations and preferences is affected by the amount of control one has over the behaviours. There seems also to be a clear indication that expectations predict the behaviours better than preferences. Still, it should be noted that preferences do predict behaviours, and this relationship, although weak, holds even after the effect of expectations is removed. 358 15 3 1985 Mere belongingness to self is tested as a sufficient condition for the enhancement of the attractiveness of visual letter stimuli. Experimental evidence is presented that, independent of visual, acoustical, aesthetic, semantic and frequency characteristics, letters belonging to own first and/or family name are preferred above not own name letters. The effect is obtained in the absence of awareness of the Gestalt of any name, thus challenging current understanding of fundamental affective processes. 359 15 3 1985 Groups of matched British students(N = 53) and school children (N = 70) and South African students(N = 86) and school children(N = 69) completed the Rubin Peplau Just World scale which yields three scores: beliefs in a just world (JW), beliefs in an unjust world (UJW), difference between just and unjust scores. A three way (2 sex, 2 nationality, 2 education status) ANOVA was computed which showed that although there were no sex, and only one educational status difference, nationality yielded a highly significant difference on both just world, and total scores. The results were interpreted in terms of previous studies of just world beliefs and authoritarianism in South Africa. It was argued that beliefs in a just world help people justify the status quo in unjust societies. 360 15 3 1985 Additional results from Rutte and Wilke §s (1984) study are presented. In the context of a social dilemma situation two variables were manipulated: use and variance. Preference for various decision structures is the issue of the present paper. It appeared that a large majority structure and an unanimity structure were mast preferred. A small majority structure and a structure in which each decides for him/herself were intermediately preferred. Whereas a structure in which one person, a leader, decides for all was least preferred. Further analysis of these data suggested that only the latter two decision structures were influenced by the use and variance manipulations. 361 15 4 1985 "This paper critically examines the notion of social representations by way of a systematic analysis of media and participants §s accounts of the St Pauls street disturbances of 1980. The analysis concentrates on two major explanatory categories which appear in the accounts: (A) race; (B) government cuts and amenities. In each case it is possible to distinguish three different levels of consensus between accounts: (i) particular explanatory schemata can be recognized as available but treated as mistaken; (ii) particular explanatory schemata can be recognized as relevant and adopted to explain the particular events, although in different ways; (iii) particular schemata can be adopted and used to explain events in the same way. The flexible meaning of these categories is highlighted along with the recurrent reference to alternative explanations. These findings raise problems for the suggestion that social representations minimize conflict and create consensual universes, and question the straightforward relationship between social representations and identifiable social groups. In conclusion the need is identified for a more detailed analysis of the language in which social representations are couched, and the relationship they bear to different contexts of use. " 362 15 4 1985 This paper reports an experiment testing two hypotheses. The first is that the value or utility associated with a payment to one §s self and a payment to a co worker can be represented as an additive function of a utility for own payment (nonsocial utility) and a utility for the difference between own and other §s payment (social utility). The second hypothesis is that changes in the amount of work accomplished by one §s self and/or the other should influence the social, but not the the nonsocial utilities. Support for both hypotheses is reported. 363 15 4 1985 Ajzen and Fishbein §s attitude behaviour model was applied to the problem of stimulating the demand for dental care, Subjects were 329 members of Amsterdam health insurance companies. They had not received regular dental treatment and/or a certificate of dental fitness for at least two and a half years. Applying for treatment and acquiring a dental certificate were the behavioural measures. The effectiveness of the communication based on Ajzen and Fishbein §s model was compared with the effectiveness of messages based on the Health Belief model and the notion that knowledge of Rights and Obligations is a prerequisite for seeking dental care. Results lend support to the validity of the Ajzen and Fishbein model. Relationships between the components of the model are moderate to strong, both before and after subjects were exposed to the message. The message proved effective in changing beliefs about seeking dental treatment. Ajzen and Fishbein §s claim that their approach has exclusive merits, however, was refuted. A differential effectiveness of the three messages was absent. In all, 47.4 per cent applied for treatment. No control subjects applied. Fifteen months later 70 per cent of the applicants had obtained a dental certificate. Contrary to our expectations, a condition of no message application form only proved equally effective as the message conditions. 364 15 4 1985 This study investigated the independent effects of power differentials on intergroup behaviour. Using a variant of Tajfel §s minimal group paradigm (Tajfel and Turner, 1979), subjects were arbitrarily categorized into groups of differing power (0 100 per cent) at two levels of salience. Subjects were asked to distribute resources to ingroup and outgroup others using Tajfel §s matrices. Intergroup perceptions, group identifications and self reported strategies constituted our other dependent measures. Minimal group results, replicated in equal power conditions, were systematically eliminated in unequal power conditions on the matrix measures but not on the intergroup perception measures. Dominant group members were more discriminatory, felt more comfortable and satisfied than subordinate group members. Though consistent with Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979), results suggest we may also have identified boundary conditions for minimal group discrimination. Without power, social categorization does not lead to effective discrimination. 365 15 4 1985 This research attempted to integrate Tajfel §s (1978) social identity theory with self presentational concerns by exploring attributions about perceived group differences in behaviour. As such, it dealt with group level rather than individual level attributions, exploring whether bias in making such verbal attributions varied as a function of the interviewer §s group identity and the presence of an ingroup audience. Undergraduate men and women at The Chinese University of Hong Kong rated the appropriateness of ingroup favouring and outgroup favouring explanations for male typed and female typed behaviours in a face to face interview. A group serving bias was found for female typed behaviours, but only when the same sex audience was absent. A conceptual replication of the experiment was run in the United States to examine the possible cultural basis for the Chinese moderation of favouritism in the audience condition. The group serving bias was more robust for the American undergraduates, extending across male and female typed behaviours and also across audience conditions, It was argued that these cultural differences in attributional bias appear to reflect the strength of the movement for women §s liberation and norms surrounding the avoidance of conflict in the United States and Hong Kong. 366 15 4 1985 Two studies examined the quality of clerk customer interactions. In the first study, customers in a mall were followed from one purchase to another and retest reliability of customer sociability was found to be 0.73. A second study of the same and another mall found a retest reliability of 0.56 for customer sociability and a correlation of 0.57 between sociability of different salespersons serving the same customer. These results indicate that the sociability of salesperson customer interactions is determined by stable individual differences in customer sociability, and suggest that salespeople do better to echo than to escalate customer sociability. 367 15 4 1985 In an experiment using the Asch paradigm, a source whose response was denied (source younger than subjects, in an experiment context implying the development of visual acuity) was found to have less direct influence than a validated source (older or same age as subjects), tending to specialize in a pattern of influence similar to the so called conversion phenomenon (i.e. direct influence only). 368 16 1 1986 The article presents a personal history of European social psychology as advanced by the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology during the last twenty years. It is argued that this association did indeed create a new forum for European social psychologists through organizing summerschools, general meetings, workshops, east west conferences and through the foundation of a scientific journal and a series of monographs. The Association may also have promoted a different perspective in social psychological research by emphasizing more the collective nature of social behaviour rather than interpersonal processes and by favouring substance over method. 369 16 1 1986 It is proposed that ideas about nature and culture, key concepts in structural anthropology, have an important bearing on assumptions underlying rival theoretical approaches in social psychology. Experimental social psychologists tend to make the tacit assumption that they are dealing only with nature, while ethogenists like Harré explicitly concentrate on culture and treat nature as irrelevant. Others like Tajfel and Moscovici occupy a middle ground, being concerned with both aspects. Perhaps the most radical critic is Gergen, whose rejection of nature and culture is discussed in detail and shown to be largely based on western cultural beliefs. It is further suggested that mainstream experimental social psychology, epitomized by Aronson §s The Social Animal, is equally culture bound, although masquerading as the study of nature. This contention is supported by an account of predominant failure of replication in a not greatly dissimilar culture. It is concluded, with Doise and Berry, that we need multiple social psychologies, and with Tajfel and Pepitone that social psychological research must consider the wider system within which social behaviour takes place. 370 16 1 1986 In his Tajfel Memorial lecture Gustav Jahoda (1986) proposes that experimental findings infrequently reflect natural laws of human action, but are reflections of cultural conventions. In developing his arguments he finds it useful to criticize a number of my earlier ideas (Gergen, 1982). The present paper demonstrates that this critique is not only misguided, but that if the implications of my earlier work had been properly elaborated neither the argument for cultural convention nor general laws could be adequately sustained. Because of the non objective character of behavioural interpretation, neither of these positions can be empirically warranted. Their justification is more properly considered in ethical, or ideological terms. 371 16 1 1986 Afrer noting some areas of common ground, in particular my acceptance of the fact that causal analysis is not sufficient to capture motivation and meaning, the main disagreement is pinpointed: in my view causal explanations are relevant to human actions. In response to Gergen §s contention that cross cultural replications have no bearing on theories, which essentially turn on language games, I submit that his account of cross cultural work is in several respects misleading. It is suggested that ignoring the striking regularities of social behaviour runs the risk of a return to empty scholasticism. 372 16 1 1986 Subjects who previously expressed either partial or full agreement with an attitudinal position were exposed to a low or high threat essay advocating the position. Anonymous post communication measures of opinion indicated a reactance effect (negative attitude change) only for subjects who (1) read the hrgh threat essay, and (2) previously expressed complete agreement with the communicator. Theoretical implications are discussed. 373 16 1 1986 The present study investigates subjective expectancy of formation of conservative coalitions as a function of status characteristics of actors and nature of the task. Five predictions, derived from Expectation States Theory (cf. Berger, Rosenholz and Zelditch, 1980) are tested. Thirty four university freshmen participated in the experiment. Subjects estimated the formation of coalitions in eleven choice situations, which were composed by varying status differences between scenario actors, the nature of the status characteristic and the task to be performed. The predictions derived from Expectation States Theory were generally supported: (1) differentiation on a relevant status characteristic appeared to lead to the expectation of conservative coalitions, (2) a burden of proof process appeared to operate, and (3) the expectation of conservative coalition decreased as the path of relevance was longer. Contrary to predictions, however, it appeared that irrelevant status characteristics did not led to the expectation of conservative coalitions, and that the expectation of conservative coalitions did not covary with the magnitude of the status differentiation. In the discussion of these results two modifications of the burden of proof theorem are proposed and discussed in the light of other findings. 374 16 1 1986 "The aim of this article is to highlight, 25 years on, the innovations of Festinger §s theory of dissonance as regards its conception of cognitive functioning. Analysis of the dissonance ratio, on the basis of which Festinger evaluated the total amount of dissonance D/(D + C) gives rise to three propositions: (1) The total amount of dissonance is evaluated on the basis of a particular cognition G. (2) This cognition is neither the denominator, nor the numerator of the dissonance ratio; it is the cognitive expression of an effective conduct. (3) No presupposition is made concerning possible consonance or dissonance relations between cognitions C and D. Thus reduction in dissonance is not presented as a process that always orients cognitive activity toward greater consistency, but as a rationalization of conduct which may adapt to an increase in certain inconsistencies, and even generate them. This new insight into Festinger §s theory may be thought of as a new version that is quite distinct, both from earlier revisions of the theory, and from the various theories of cognitive consistency. It is hoped, moreover, that it will provoke reflection concerning the current orientatlons of cognitivism in social psychology. " 375 16 1 1986 This study empirically tested the assumption that in prejudical judgements cognitive processes are mediated by group anchoring. This assumption was supported in the case of estimations about participation in traffic accidents by different groups. 376 16 1 1986 Group membership generally entails that individuals are both defined, and define themselves, as members of that group. This study investigated the effect of incompatibility between these definitions on intergroup behaviour. Subjects were allocated to one of two groups of differential status such that the allocation was compatible or incompatible with their self categorization. The results indicated that the effect of incompatibility depended on the status of the group imposed on the subjects. 377 16 2 1986 Attitudes has been the central concept of social psychology in three different periods, over which the interest evolved to three progressively more sophisticated topics. The first of these three peakings was the 1920s and 1930s preoccupation with the static topics of attitude scaling and relation to behaviour. Then, after a 1935–1955 interlude in which the study of group processes supplanted attitude as the central concern of social psychology, attitude research re emerged as the dominant interest during the 1950s and 1960s enthusiasm for the dynamic topic of attitude change, approached by a convergent style in the 1950s and a divergent style in the 1960s. During the 1965–1985 period interest shifted from attitudes to social cognition, including representational reductions in information encoding and decoding as well as inferential extrapolations in meaning attribution, person perception, and cognitive ramifications. Now we are experiencing the beginnings of a third flourishing of attitude research likely to dominate the 1980s and 1990s, this third peaking focused on more evolved structural issues, including the structure of individual attitudes, of systems of attitudes, and of attitudinal systems as they relate to other systems within the person. Intrinsic and extrinsic forces underlying these shifts of interest are considered. 378 16 2 1986 "Before participating in an Maximizing Difference Game (MDG) subjects were classified with the help of a social motive test (GDG, Liebrand, 1984) as having a cooperative, an individualistic or a Competitive preference for own/other outcome distributions. Thereafter subjects did make choices in an MDG. A status (high, equal, low, no feedback) × matrix (advantage: 8/6, disadvantage 6/81) × preference (competitive, individualistic, cooperative) design was employed, whereas one control condition, i.e. equal statuslmatrix equal (616) was added. Equity theory could explain the data rather well. Support was found for the status hypothesis, i.e. high status subjects made more D choices in an MDG than equal status subjects; equal status subjects made more D choices than low status subjects, and for the matrix hypothesis, i.e. matrix disadvantage subjects made more D choices than subjects playing in a matrix advantage position. Equity theory could also explain a significant status × matrix interaction effect. Support was partly found for a preference hypothesis: Competitors made more D choices than cooperatives, while contrary to the hypothesis, individualists behaved more like competitors. " 379 16 2 1986 "The frequently cited finding that mood congruent information can be better recalled than mood incongruent information is tested using categorically organized stimulus material which imposes a systematic structure on the recall process. A target person was described with respect to six categories of social behaviour, with predominantly desirable behaviours in some categories and predominantly undesirable behaviours in others. Participants were induced either an elated mood state or a neutral state using Velten §s procedure. Instructions (impression formation versus memory) were also manipulated. Although the mood manipulation apparently worked and did influence the impression judgments of the target person, it did not selectively facilitate the recall of mood congruent material, neither at the level of specific items nor at the categorical level. However, when only deviating behaviours are considered which do not fit the structural constraints, mood congruent information is indeed better recalled. To interpret these results, it is argued that the manifestation of mood effects depends on the restrictions of different tasks or response modes. Three other findings were obtained: Superior recall of redundant, structurally consistent information compared with deviating information; an advantage of positive over negative information which is confined to the impression formation condition; and, surprisingly, an incongruency effect for the encoding mood which may reflect the deeper processing of incongruent material. " 380 16 2 1986 Minority influence, although possible, is relatively difficult for an active minority to achieve. One of the obstactes encountered by a minority in the diffusion of an innovation is psychologization which consists in the establishment of a link between the ideological positions defended by the source of influence and psychological characteristics which are specific to that source. The experiment presented here seeks to show that psychologization constitutes an ideological barrier only to minority influence while this mode of interpretation of the source does not reduce the influence of a majority. The results obtained seem to confirm this hypothesis, above all when subjects possess opinions relatively close to those of the influence source. When on the other hand subjects have opinions that are relatively distant from those defended by the source, the explicit induction of psychologization does not seem to affect the degree of influence. It was also found that in the absence of such induction, distant subjects would spontaneously psychologize a minority source, in particular attributing its arguments to psychological imbalance. 381 16 2 1986 Attributional ambiguity is a strategy used to avoid having to attribute potentially negative performance on a task to ability. If the outcome of a task is attributable to ability, if no external cause for failure is available, and if a person is aware that the outcome is attributable to the self, ambiquity can be created with regard to the causation of the outcome. Heightened attribution of an outcome to self, as results from self focused attention, was expected to produce less effort when external causes for potential failure were explicitly removed. In a 2 × 2 experiment, a positive mood was induced that was then either suggested or excluded as a plausible explanation for potential failure on a task said to be indicative of general intellectual ability. Subjects for whom self awareness was experimentally induced, and for whom an external attribution of failure was explicitly removed, put significantly less effort into the task. Self focus, however, has also been shown to enhance task performance. An indirect measure showed increased readiness to perform in direct contrast to the obtained lower self reports of effort. The range of generalizability and application of attribute ambiguity is discussed. 382 16 3 1986 "Human social systems, and groups in particular, are conceived as units which, as a whole, actively strive towards the achievement of external and internal goals. This group action consists of simultaneous integrated processes on various individual and social levels. Our theory comprises four groups of constructs, which refer to task structure, group structure, information processing and execution. In an ongoing group action, the task structure is projected on the group structure; according to the resulting pattern, the group processes its action related information and executes the act. The latter two processes proceed on two levels, on an individual and on a group level. There are cognition, emotion and volition on the individual, and communication on the group level of information processing; execution proceeds in individual action and in cooperation. A specific part of the theory concerns analogies between individual cognition and intragroup communication. " 383 16 3 1986 The four granting strategies of the German Science Foundation (DFG) are introduced in order to demonstrate the place special granting (Sonderförderung) has within the general funding policy of the DFG. A look back to the beginning and the development of the Sonderforschungsbereich 24 (SFB 24): Social scientific decision research, exhibits reasons for problems concerning cooperation beiween projects and research strategies. 384 16 3 1986 Decisions to allocate rewards to ingroup and outgroup members are under the dual pressures of equity and intergroup bias. This study examined variations in equity and bias resulting from the incongruity and salience of intergroup status. Incongruity arose from a mismatch between high subjective and low accorded status. Congruity occurred when subjective status and accorded status were both high or both low. By pairing school classes with known subjective and accorded statuses, an incongruous and a congruous status setting were derived naturally. The setting was made either salient or nonsalient experimentally. It was hypothesized that bias would progressively increase, and equity would progressively decrease, with incongruity and salience. Each set of hypotheses was partially supported. Further data analysis showed a robust tendency to under reward both ingroup and outgroup members. This interpersonal negativity bras was shown by incongruous status allocators either when rewarding superior performance or in the salient condition. Apparently, it served to safeguard personal rather than social identity. The implications for equity and social identity theories were discussed. 385 16 3 1986 The experiment deals with the impact of self esteem and liking for the partner on the attribution of agreement and deadlock in bargaining. Fifty eight male and 70 female students played the Harsanyi Selten bargaining game with incomplete information eight times, allegedly each time with a randomly selected partner. In fact in four games a computer program simulated the partner. Combining an experimental variation of liking (liking disliking), own costs (low, high), partner costs (low, high) the experiment followed a 2×2×2 repeated measures design. As predicted by a path model from balance theory (a) failure (deadlock) was attributed more to the partner and less to self than success (agreement), (b) success was attributed more to the liked than the disliked partner, whereas failure was attributed more to the disliked than the liked partner. 386 16 3 1986 In the present study it was investigated how information about the profession affects the judgment of a person characterized by traits. Two main effects in judgments of likeability were found. More responsible professions produce a lower overall mean of judgments (contrast effect) and more polarized judgments than less responsible professions do. Additionally, an interaction of these effects with the scale value of the traits could be found. For higher scale values a striking difference between the polarization scores for more and less responsible professions was obtained, whereas for lower scale values this difference was small. To obtain more insight into the process underlying the influence of profession response probabilities were analysed using psychometric functions. Two mechanisms seem to mediate this influence: Firstly, the acceptability of the person to be judged is integrated as a peripheral dimension together with the likeability as a focal dimension into a decision continuum. Secondly, a neutral point of the function representing the relation between acceptability and likeability is integrated into an internal standard the value of the decision continuum is to be compared with. The analogy of findings in attitude research is discussed. 387 16 3 1986 This study tested whether reactance theory can account for private acceptance of a minority opinion under simultaneous majority/minority influence (reactance against majority rather than conversion toward minority). Subjects were either exposed to simultaneous majority /minority influence or to a majority source only. As predicted by conversion theory, subjects moved away from the majority only in private and in the presence of a consistent minority. In the absence of a consistent minority, subjects accepted the majority opinion in private, ruling out reactance as an alternative explanation. 388 16 4 1986 "A paradigm named administrative obedience was designed to study obedience in carrying out orders to use a kind of violence that is typical for our times, namely psychological administrative violence resulting in definite harm. In this study, the victim was an applicant for a job, who came to the laboratory to take a test, This test would determine whether or not he would get the job. Subjects were ordered, in the context of a research project, to make the applicant nervous and to disturb him during the test; consequently, the applicant failed the test and remained unemployed. More than 90 per cent of the subjects carried out these orders, although they considered them unfair and did not enjoy doing the task, The level of administrative obedience found in our study is higher than the level of obedience found in the comparable experiment by Milgram. The experimental conditions Experimental absent and Two peers rebel produced a reduction of obedience in our paradigm comparable to that which occurred in Milgram §s paradigm. " 389 16 4 1986 It was hypothesized that the effects of novelty on social category membership salience may be mediated by perceivers §s current tasks, rather than by an automatic perceptual bias (Taylor and Fiske, 1978). Subjects viewed tape slide portrayals of mixed sex groups (1 male 5 females, 2M 4F, 3M 3F, 4M 2F, 5M 1F) under individual (focus on one target person) or collective (focus on entire stimulus group) task conditions. Results on measures of sex stereotyping strongly supported the hypothesis, indicating that individual task subjects tended to maximize stereotyping in the 1M 5F and 5M 1F conditions whilst collective subjects did so in the 3M 3F condition. It is concluded that novel category memberships are not automatically prepotent in social perception, and the results are discussed in the context of a functional approach to the salience problem. 390 16 4 1986 "The effects of psychologization on the conversion phenomenon were studied for cases where influence was exerted either by a minority or by a majority. In a 2×2×3 ANOVA design (minority source versus majority source, personality versus aesthetics, phases) 48 subjects are faced with a confederate who represents either 18.2 per cent or 81.8 per cent of a population and consistently responds green when an objectively blue slide is shown. Colour perception is said to be associated with either aesthetic or personality factors. The prediction is in this last case that psychologization of the majority induces conversion of the subjects, while psychologization of the minority stands in the way of this latent influence. Influence is measured by four response levels for each trial of the three phases (pre influence, post influence in the presence or in the absence of the influence source). Manifest influence is measured in terms of the Subjects §s Judgements and by the way in which they adjust their stimulus colour perception, as determined with the help of a spectrometer. The latent influence is reflected by the subjects §s judgements about the colour of the afterimage upon presentation of the stimulus, as measured on a nine point scale and with the help of spectral adjustments of this afterimage. The subjects having been influenced without being aware of their conversion shows up in the shifts toward green or the complementary colour of green. Results indicate a cross over for the effect of indirect influence. Under the personality condition, psychologization has the anticipated effect. The majority is the only one to produce a conversion. The attenuating effect of minority influence again manrfests itserf (Mugny and Papastamou, 1980). Under the aesthetic condition, non psychologization also induces latent and perceptive shifts, but they go in the opposite direction and coincide closely with other results (Moscovici and Personnaz, 1980; Personnaz, 1981). In this condition, only the minority exerts an influence on all three levels. " 391 16 4 1986 Paradoxical performance effects (choking under pressure) are defined as the occurrence of inferior performance despite striving and incentives for superior performance. Experimental demonstrations of these effects on tasks analogous to athletic performance and the theories that may explain them are reviewed. At present, attentional theories seem to offer the most complete explanation of the processes underlying paradoxical performance effects. In particular, choking may result from distraction or from the interference of self focused attention with the execution of automatic responses. Experimental findings of paradoxical performance decrements are associated with four pressure variables: audience presence, competition, performance contingent rewards and punishments, and ego relevance of the task. The mediating factors of task complexity, expectancies, and individual differences are discussed. 392 16 4 1986 "Judgments of the contingencies between the opinions expressed by three persons in a video taped group discussion were investigated. Although a purely statistical interpretation of the contingency judgment task was called for by the experimental instruction, the intrusion of non statistical information in the judgment process was demonstrated: Temporal contiguity (order of speech) and spatial contiguity (eye contacts, body movements) systematically affected the estimated frequency of agreement among discussion participants. Similar biases were obtained in a memory test for the observed opinion statements which also suggests that intensional information (structural similarity of the discussants §s arguments) influenced the cognitive representation of the contingencies. An attentional focus manipulation was also effective; attending to a certain pair of discussants resulted in higher agreement ratings for that pair. The implications of these findings for experiments which use purely statistical models of contingency as a normative criterion are discussed. " 393 16 4 1986 The influence of the categorization process is investigated in the context of conceptions of categories as fuzzy sets, represented by prototypes. The experiment specifically considers two social categories corresponding to Italian regional groups: for each of these, stimuli were constructed which represented the respective categories in different degrees. We hypothesized that the accentuation of the degree in which individual exemplars represent a category, obtained by the addition of an attribute of the category, produces the effect of accentuating inter category differences and intra category similarities. Our results confirm the hypothesis regarding differentiation, but not that regarding assimilation. The effect of differentiation is strong at the category borders, i.e. for the less representative exemplars. A final issue considered is the theoretical problem of distinguishing, within the prototype of a category, between stereotypical attributes and those which permit categorial identification of individual cases. 394 16 4 1986 This research attempted to examine underlying processes of group polarization under leadership conditions. One hundred and twenty two subjects formed in groups of four and five members answered to the Choice Dilemma Questionnaire first on an individual basis and then after group discussion. Experimental conditions were manipulated through different rules of group discussion and types of appointed leaders. It was found that leadership is associated both with group polarization and with group depolarization but whether the group polarizes or depolarizes is determined by the explicit or implicit group rules which act as a systemic decisional structure. 395 17 1 1987 Six person groups of male or female undergraduates played 12 trials of a simple coalition game that varied the sizes of the coalitions available to the players. Results indicated that the size of a player §s smallest available coalition was inversely related to the player §s outcomes. The most important outcome differences included effects of player position and interactions of position by trial block. The critical implications of these results for minimum power theory, Roth Shapley value, weighted probability model, bargaining theory, and equal excess model are discussed, and quantitative tests of these theories are also presented. Minor gender differences were obtained, and it is suggested that future research use both male and female subjects. A description of the bargaining process, based on the subjects §s responses to a post session questionnaire and our observations, is given. 396 17 1 1987 Two experiments have been conducted to investigate the aggression eliciting properties of an aggressive commercial. The first experiment investigated the influence of an aggressive commercial on subsequent delivery of shocks to a confederate by male or female subjects, in presence and in absence of previous instigation to aggress. The second experiment examined the heart rate modifications before, during and after exposure to the aggressive commercial. Twenty males and 20 females participated to each experiment. Findings justify the concern for the aggression eliciting properties of aggressive commercials. 397 17 1 1987 Professional attitudes can be studied as expressed in the individual §s opinions of conventional and more recent professional stereotypes. It was hypothesized that these opinions, together with their stability and change, depend mainly on the degree of professional identification, a higher degree of which inspires a more sew reliant and independent approach to professional work and thinking. The study was carried out with 58 young architects, exploring the differences between and changes in their images of the anticipated actual, empirical actual, and ideal architect. The results support the hypothesis concerning the role of professional identification and are in agreement with Tajfel §s analysis of manifold social Junctions of stereotypes. 398 17 1 1987 The bargaining and minority influence literatures offer contradictory theories for the efficacy of compromise for influence. Assuming that the relative merits of these two classes of theories lie in their concentration on the public versus the private aspect of influence, we predicted that consistency (without compromise) would be more effective for attitude change but that compromise would be more effective for public concessions. We further predicted that the timing or context of the compromise could change the meaning and the consequences of that strategy. In particular, compromise at the last minute was assumed to be a negotiating tactic that fostered both public concessions and private attitude change. The predictions were generally confirmed. 399 17 1 1987 The present experiment was concerned with the way in which the characteristics of the helper the task and the recipient affect the willingness to seek help. In line with past theory and research it was reasoned that seeking help would be most threatening when one needs help on an ego central task, and the helper is perceived as similar to oneself. Consequently, individuals were expected to seek least help under these conditions. Further it was expected that individuals who enjoy a high self esteem would be more sensitive to this self threat and seek less help under these self threatening conditions than would individuals who have a low self esteem. The experiment consisted of a 2 (similar versus dissimilar helper) times 2 (ego central versus non central task) times 2 (high versus low self esteem subjects) between subjects design. Subjects worked on a difficult anagram task, and their actual help seeking behaviour served as a dependent measure. The findings support the experimental hypotheses. The conceptual and applied implications of these findings are discussed. 400 17 1 1987 Two studies on the impact of temporary moods on judgments of satisfaction with life in general and with specific life domains are reported. It was hypothesized that individuals simplify the complex task of evaluating their life in general by referring to their mood at the time of judgment, but evaluate specific life domains on the basis of domain specific information. In accordance with this hypothesis, both studies demonstrated strong mood effects on judgments of general life satisfaction but only weak and non significant effects on judgments of specific domain satisfactions. The findings are interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that affective states serve informative functions. 401 17 1 1987 Subjects are required to estimate sociability as expressed in questionnaires supposedly completed by different individuals and make a prediction of conduct for each of these individuals. The results are compared to four models: three versions of the individual differences model (IDM) and a dialectical model. Two rudimentary versions of the IDM give the best approximations to results obtained, one for absolute value judgments of sociability, the other for conduct prediction. The conclusion is that the IDM does exist as a model in implicit psychology before becoming a model in learned psychology. The fact that such a model be preponderant in intuitive psychology in spite of its known inadequacies is discussed in terms of self fulfilling prophecy in the exercise of power. 402 17 1 1987 "Learned helplessness theory may provide a framework within which the correlates of sociometric status in children can be fruitfully investigated. Several parallels between learned helplessness and the characteristics of sociometric status groups are noted. It is argued that children who are rejected, and especially neglected, by peers are likely to manifest learned helplessness in social situations. In addition, reanalysis of Goetz and Dweck §s (1980) study on learned helplessness in social situations provides data to support this viewpoint as: (a) rejected and neglected children resembled learned helpless children in regard to both attributions and behaviour following social rejection; (b) neglected children showed greater behavioural deterioration following rejection than rejected children. The implications of the proposed integration of research on learned helplessness and sociometric status are outlined, especially in relation to clinical disorders in children. " 403 17 1 1987 This review examines recent books on altruism and prosocial behaviour. Psychological approaches, biological approaches, and economic approaches are covered. The list of variables known to influence prosocial behaviour includes situational determinants, motivational orientations, and personality variables. Psychological theories emphasizing norms, cost benefit calculations, and developmental factors have been used successfully to explain prosocial behaviour. Attention is given to models of helping and social and therapeutic treatment programmes. Genetic variables in prosocial behaviour are also reviewed. 404 17 2 1987 An experiment examined the effects of role ambiguity and relative group status in an intergroup situation where a superordinate goal was salient. One hundred and fifty six subjects in groups of three undertook a cooperative task under conditions where the groups §s roles were clearly Different, Similar, or not allocated (Control). In addition, the groups §s perceived competence at the task was either equally High, equally Low, or unequal. Financial rewards were contingent on successful completion of the joint task. Two contrasting hypotheses were derived from Social Identity Theory: one (H1) predicted most favourable intergroup attitudes in the Control condition where lack of any clear differentiation in group roles might facilitate a superordinate identifcation. In contrast, (H2) predicted least favourable attitudes in this condition on the grounds that groups lacked a distinctive identity. Support for the second hypothesis was found since friendliness towards the outgroup decreased with increasing role ambiguity. The status variable also had consistent effects. As predicted, mutual evaluations tended to reflect the consensually agreed status differences: least bias being shown towards high status outgroups, most by high status ingroups. Task performance was also affected by role ambiguity. Judges §s ratings of the group products were found to be more favourable as role ambiguity increased, in contrast to the friendliness data. The implications of these findings for Social Identity Theory, the Contact Hypothesis, and theories of group performance are discussed. 405 17 2 1987 The present study explores the effect of crossing social categorizations upon subsequent intergroup discrimination. In the simple categorization conditions, subjects were divided into groups either on an explicitly random basis or on the basis of a very trivial similarity. In the crossed categorization condition, these two categorizations were criss crossed. After performing a perceptual estimation task, subjects had to evaluate the performance of the different groups in this task. Subsequently they had to evaluate the groups on general characteristics less directly related to task performance. There was significant intergroup discrimination favouring the own group in the two simple categorization conditions, but this discrimination was strongly reduced in the crossed categorization condition. This was true for both kinds of evaluations. Subjects of a no categorization condition exhibited no self favouritism. The theoretical implications of the data are discussed. 406 17 2 1987 In a 2 × 2 factorial design, 165 high school girls gave their opinions about abortion (direct influence) and about contraception (indirect ifluence) after reading a message advocating abortion said to have been written by either an ingroup (same sex) or an outgroup (opposite sex) minority and explicitly opposed by the majority opinion of either the ingroup or the outgroup. Results show that there is less direct influence when the ingroup majority is opposed to the minority, and more direct influence when the process of identification is less involved. Indirect influence appears in an intergroup context where categorization of majority and minority into different groups is superimposed on their ideological dissent, which has the effect of allowing recognition of the minority §s distinctiveness and validity over and above the discrimination that appears at the direct influence level. In discussing the results, a theoretical integration of social comparison and validation processes is proposed as a step towards explaining the diversity of minority influence phenomena. 407 17 2 1987 This study is concerned with assessing whether social marking, i.e. the correspondence between the cognitive solution of a task and the social relation expressed in the material, is a mechanism of cognitive progress which depends on specific forms of socio cognitive conflict or on presence of familiar social relations in the material. In the first experiment 5 6 year old non conserver children were selected during a pre test that comprised three spatial transformation tasks. During the test phase, 56 children worked on spatial transformation tasks with an adult partner in four socially marked conditions in which the correctness of the adult model varied. All subjects were individually post tested on the same tasks with unmarked content. Results showed that, under the same marked conditions in the test phase, more progress took place, at the post test phase, when subjects had interacted with an incorrect adult model than when they had interacted with a correct one. In the second experiment the hypothesis of an interaction between the nature of the material and the kind of social interaction was examined by means of a factorial design in which the factors were adult versus child partner and marked versus unmarked material. The procedures in the pre and post test phase were carried out in the same way as in Experiment I. In the test phase 61 non conserver children interacted with partners who presented completely incorrect model. The results of post test phase indicated that there was a main effect of social marking although findings of a condition in which children interact with another child on unmarked material also have shown a certain amount of progress. The findings are discussed with respect to the psycho social model of cognitive development. 408 17 2 1987 Two experiments were conducted to examine the role of the idealism variable and sew focus in value behaviour consistency. The idealism variable was measured by means of a questionnaire (Idealism Scale–IS) devised by the author. The scale is based on the assumption that although every individual is able to declare his or her ideal self if requested, only some of them actually develop such a structure and use it in their behavioural choices. The first experiment revealed that the level of defensive attribution was a predictable function of the content of the ideal self for individuals with high scores on the IS to a greater extent than it was for low scorers. The second experiment showed that both high idealism and situationally induced sew focus were necessary to obtain a predictable influence of the preference of the value honesty on cheating behaviour. Processes which are likely to mediate between ideal self content and behaviour are discussed. 409 17 2 1987 Two studies are reported which examine the availability of scientific propositions of personality in lay conceptions of personality. It is argued from a social constructivist perspective that models of personality must derive from and refer to lay conceptions of persons. Eysenck §s trait type model of introversion extraversion, containing specific propositions about phenotypic and genotypic differences between extraverts and introverts, was utilized as the scientific model of personality and its availability in lay conceptions of personality was examined in two studies. In the first study, subjects were presented with a genotypic characterization of either an introvert or an extravert target person and asked to infer corresponding phenotypic differences. In the second study, the inference process was reversed with subjects being asked to infer genotypic characteristics of introverts versus extraverts on the basis of phenotypic target person desecrations of the two types. Results from both studies show a high degree of accuracy in subjects §s inferences, suggesting that laypersons have well formed conceptions about personality containing higher order psychogenetic propositions corresponding to Eysenck §s trait type model. The implications of the findings for theory construction are discussed. 410 17 2 1987 A theory of lay epistemology is applied toward an integration of attribution theory with cognitive consistency theories. The integration follows a three fold partition of the epistemic process into its deductive, motivational and contentual aspects. The commonality of the attribution and consistency paradigms is apparent in regard to the deductive aspect: In both frameworks central role is accorded the criterion of deducibility or consistency whereby cognitions are validated. However, attribution theory emphasizes the consequences of consistent information, which increases attributional confidence, whereas cognitive consistency theories emphasize the consequences of inconsistent information, which detracts from judgmental confidence, hence occasionally induces negative affect. The motivational component represents a neglected dimension in attributional theorizing. It also defines the conditions under which inconsistency may be motivating. This may occur where inconsistency (I) fosters doubt where knowledge was strongly desired, (2) undermines a particular desirable conclusion. The differences among the cognitive consistency and the attributional formulations are ones of cognitive content. However, the same epistemic process is assumed common to all attribution and consistency formulations. Potential research benefits of focusing on this common process are noted. 411 17 2 1987 Two experiments demonstrate a positivity bias in person memory. Recall is superior for statements endorsed by a target person than for denied statements. This effect of informational positivity is independent of affective positivity (Experiment 1) and on holds for statements associated with one individual as an organizing category (Experiment 2). 412 17 2 1987 Two samples of Swedish high school student3 rated political party leaders and parties on evaluative scales to test two person positivity bias hypotheses: (1) evaluations of persons are more often positive than negative, and (2) individual persons are evaluated more positively than les personal representations of the same object. The hypotheses were confirmed only under certain conditions. Explanations for the bias are suggested. 413 17 2 1987 Subjects were presented with 36 opinion statements ostensibly made by residents of two towns (one large, one small) confronted with the building of a new nuclear power station in the vicinity. There were an equal number of pro and anti nuclear opinions for both towns (nine for each combination) so that there was no relationship between attitudes and town. The probabilistic belief that small towns would contain a higher proportion of antinuclear residents, was predicted to produce an illusory correlation confirming the belief. This was strongly supported. Findings were discussed in terms of the literatures on illusory correlation, stereotyping and attitudes. 414 17 3 1987 An investigation of the group concept proposed by Tqjfel and Turner shows that group formation and intergroup behaviour cannot be explained by the similarity of group members. Taking into account only similarity of elements leads to conceptual contaminations concerning group and class, group and collective, personal and social identity, and finally interpersonal and intergroup behaviour. It is claimed that only the consideration of group structure and the differentiation of partially individual and partially structural attributes of the group members results in a conceptually adequate theory of group formation and intergroup behaviour of its members. 415 17 3 1987 This study investigated the independent effects of status differential on intergroup behaviour. Using a variant of the minimal group paradigm (Tueland Turner, 1979), subjects were categorized into groups of differing status (high, equal, low) with two levels of category salience (high, low). Using Tajfel §s matrices subjects rated the creativity of products ostensibly produced by ingroup and outgroup members. Own group identification, intergroup perceptions and self reported strategies on the matrices constituted the other dependent measures. Results indicated a main effect for group status but none for salience. Equal status groups discriminated against each other thus replicating the minimal intergroup discrimination effect. High and equal status group members were more discriminatory against outgroups and more positive about their own group membership than were low status group members. In contrast, low status group members engaged in significant amounts of outgroup favouritism. Results also showed that social categorization per se was sufficient to elicit more ingroup than outgroup liking amongst all group members regardless of status differentials between groups. Overall, the results illustrate important aspects of the interplay between group status, social identity, prejudice and discrimination. 416 17 3 1987 An experiment was conducted to investigate the importance of inequity distress. In a 2 x 2 factorial design subjects were paid either in a high or low disadvantageous inequitable manner compared to a male confederate. One half of the subjects were led to believe that fictitious infrasonic sound would have arousing side effects, one half expected no side effects whatsoever. According to the hypotheses, (1) subjects in the misattribution condition restored equity less than subjects in the no side effects control group, (2) strongly inequitable treated subjects restored equity more than mildly inequitable treated ones, (3) the misattribution manipulation only had a significant effect on strongly inequitable treated subjects. Thus, the results show that distress is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the restoration of equity. Consequences of the results for future research are discussed. 417 17 3 1987 The present study investigated the role of emotion in the area of intergroup relations. Results showed three ways in which emotions are relevant when Dutch autochthonous people are confronted with members of the three major ethnic minorities in The Netherlands: Surinamers and immigrant workers from Turkey and Morocco. First, four categories of emotions could be identified which appeared to be strongly associated with ethnic attitude positive mood, anxiety, irritation and concern each related to a specific kind of action readiness. Second, the influence which proximity of an ethnic group appeared to have on ethnic attitude could be explained by the specific kind of emotional experience related to different levels of proximity. The third way in which emotions appeared to be relevant was their ability to differentiate between the qualitative aspects of various forms of ethnic contact. With Surinamers, more personal forms of contact were associated with an increase in positive mood and a decrease in anxiety, irritation and concern. But for Turks and Moroccans, who can be considered to be in more basic respects culturally dissimilar from the Dutch, only negative aspects of close contact were found. The correspondence of the results with several research findings in the field of intergroup relations, is extensively discussed. 418 17 3 1987 Two studies are reported which aimed to answer several questions relating to Atkinson §s model of achievement motivation. Firstly, how successfully the theory can predict the occupational choices of two different populations and what changes, if any, need to be made to the model to make it more suited to such predictions. Several conceptual errors were found in the theory which make it unsuitable in its present form for predicting occupational choices and suggestions are made as to the possible correction of these. Secondly, a comparison is made between Atkinson §s model and the expectancy valence models currently utilized to describe and predict occupational decision making. In particular Atkinson §s incentive component is contrasted with the valence measure described by expectancy valence models, and the possible influences of the motive factors (motive to succeed and motive to avoid failure) are considered since these are typically omitted by other models of career choice. Finally, the existence of sex differences in career choice, as well as in the various components of the model are studied and discussed. The changing conceptualization of fear of success is also included in this consideration. 419 17 3 1987 Differences between paired paintings in a minimal group context were accentuated when assigned preferences served as the categorization basis. Failure to replicate resource allocation bias in control groups was attributed to the procedural emphasis on paintings, which may have precluded the use of the random categorization as a meaningful comparison dimension. 420 17 3 1987 Male and female subjects observed a discussion by a group with one of three sex ratios (9M IF, SM SF, 1M 9F) and in which the male contributions were expressed in a more or less stereotype consistent manner. The results indicated that male speakers were stereotyped less than females and that male compared with female speakers were stereotyped increasingly less as the number of like speakers in the group increased. 421 17 3 1987 Zimbardo §s de individuation concept was tested in a field experiment using games of fieldball. The results support the assumption that higher degrees of anonymity lead to more aggressive acts. 422 17 3 1987 The present experiment was aimed at comparing the efficiency of the foot in the door technique (Freedman and Fraser, 1966) to that of the low ball technique (Cialdini Bassett, Cacioppo and Miller, 1978). Subjects were requested to abstain from smoking for 18 hours. The results demonstrated the superiority of the low ball technique. An original method of operationalizing the low ball technique (the use of intermediate behaviours) is presented herein. 423 17 3 1987 The return rate of lost postcards was hypothesized to depend upon the precision of the image that the finder can form of the relationship sender recipient, Signature and length of the message were taken as indices and confirmed this role in two studies using a representative design. 424 17 3 1987 Previous research found that greater personal optimism was produced during selective left hemisphere activation. In that research the selective activation was manipulated by contralateral visual orientation of attention. The present experiment replicated and extended this effect using monaural stimulation. In addition, a significant reduction in variability of responding was found, as expected, in the monaural as compared to binaural groups, and a significant correlation was found between individual desire for control and optimism. 425 17 3 1987 An experiment tested three hypotheses about the conditions under which someone can be held vicariously responsible for the actions of another. Two of the hypotheses received empirical support: that the vicariously responsible person is in a superior relationship to the person who caused the damage and is able to control that person §s causing of the damage. A third hypotheis, that a person is held vicariously responsible because of a relatively greater ability to pay compensation to the victim, was not supported. 426 17 4 1987 The hypothesis is tested that mere ownership of an object is a sufficient condition to enhance its likelihood to become one of the most attractive items of the entire set of similar objects. Evidence is presented that isolated visual letter stimuli belonging to one §s own name are more often ranked among the six most preferred letters of the entire alphabet than identical not own name letters. Across 12 different European languages, an (own) name letter effect was found for (initial and/or not initial) letters belonging to own first and/or family name. The fundamental theoretical relevance of the effect is outlined as well as its heuristic value for research on individual versus collective ownership and on affective asymmetry. A cross lingual analysis of the six least preferred letters while also confirming the mere ownership hypothesis calls for a critical reformulation of Zajonc §s mere exposure theory. 427 17 4 1987 As in other areas of research we have in small group research classical studies with a paradigmatic character. These separated studies define the basic knowledge. But what is necessary is to combine these classical studies and to construct a theoretical concept which shows the similarities and dissimilarities between them. This is the main intention of the paper. The theoretical concept tries to reconstruct the now classical data from a model with normative and in formational components. Both king of components are integrated hierarchically with the normative elements as antecedent variables and the weights of the information integration as dependent variables. With the help of the model it is possible to reconstruct data in such different areas as, e.g. social facilitation, autokinetic effect, Asch conformity studies, Milgram conformity studies, equity theory studies, prisoner §s dilemma. As predictions research in the choice shift and the wage negotiation are presented. Finally, the connection with the research in social cognition is established by a reconstruction of classical study from the aspiration level and the dissonance theory. 428 17 4 1987 Moscovici §s model of minority influence and Hollander §s model of idiosyncrasy credit were compared in an experiment conducted with I6 discussion groups composed of four male undergraduates (N = 64) and a confederate. Their task was to rank order unanimously 10 proposals to remediate urban problems, to which the confederate attempted to have one more added, thus introducing a norm change. Two variables were manipulated: Status of the innovator (minority versus elected leader) and Ideological criterion for innovation (avant garde versus reformist). It was predicted that the consistent behavioural style of the minority would make him more influential under the avant garde condition than under the reformist condition whereas the idiosyncrasy credit of the leader would make him more influential under the reformist condition. Although the adoption hypotheses failed to be supported, the evaluations of the confederate were consistent with both the Moscovici and Hollander models. While the minority con federate §s action gained him visibility and distinctive attributions of determination and assurance, the leader con federate §s initiative cost him his competence and cooperation credits. Strategies devised to adopt the innovation or to reject it (five groups versus four) pointed to the importance of interactive networks within the majority and to the decisive role played by group leaders for the innovator §s influence to be exerted. These findings lead to speculate that Hollander §s theorizing could be complementary to Moscovici §s to account for the diffusion of minority influence. 429 17 4 1987 The course of bargaining is determined in part by interdependent individuals exchanging messages so as to influence other §s behaviour, and thereby to increase the likelihood of achieving outcomes consistent with their own goals. The communication of threats and promises are two major message strategies that are employed to influence the behaviour of others in a bargaining relationship. The present study examines the effects of players §s level of commitment to these forms of message strategies upon behaviour in a duopoly bargaining task. Past research has operationalized commitment in terms of the consistency with which an individual has followed through on threats or promises in the past. In the present research, Becker §s (1960) concept of a side bet is employed to provide an alternative means for defining and manipulating commitment. A side bet obtains when either a threatener or a promiser posts a valued resource, say a bond, which they forfeit if they do not follow through on their stated threat or promise. The main expectations of the present study were that increased commitment to threat meassages would lead to more competitive behaviour and outcomes within a duopoly bargaining task, whereas increased commitment to promise messages would produce more cooperative behaviour and outcomes. Partial support for these major expectations, as well as confirmation of a number of secondary expectations, was obtained. 430 17 4 1987 The pun of a sketch from the Benny Hill show was related to a switch of cognitive in formation processing programmes underlying the interpretation of the scene represented. The audience would be biased to interpret it following a cognitive programme anchored on the constructs self and other (SO programme), while Benny Hill makes a statement that would impose a cognitive programme anchored on constructs associated with the third pronominal person (3P programme). In an experiment it was attempted to make subjects to switch from SO to 3P programmes (Benny Hill effect) when they were making subjective estimations of outcomes of bargains concerning distributions of rewards. The hypothesis was confirmed that the 3P programme was activated by providing additional in formation pertaining to substantiate the stimulus persons in such a way as to make them stand out as anchors for the processing of the in formation. However, the data showed also that the mere substantiation of stimulus persons was not yet sufficient to produce the given shift of cognitive programmes. The results are discussed in the light of theories concerning fairness, social values and allocation rules. 431 17 4 1987 In a 2 × 2 experiment, the influence of attitude relevance and behaviour relevance on attitude behaviour relationship was examined. The highest attitude behaviour correlation was found in the situation where no external factor made relevant neither attitude nor behaviour, while the lowest correlation was found in the situation where both attitude and behaviour were made relevant. 432 18 1 1988 "The present study proposes an extension to the phenomenon of ingroup favouritism, based on the hypothesis that judgments about ingroup members may be more positive or more negative than judgments about similar outgroup members. It contrasts predictions issued from the complexity extremity hypothesis (Linville, 1982; Linville and Jones, 1980), from the ingroup favouritism hypothesis (Tajfel, 1982) and from Tesser §s (1978; Millar and Tesser, 1986) attitude polarization model. Our main prediction, based on Social Identity Theory, is that judgments about both likeable and unlikeable ingroup members are more extreme than judgments about outgroup members. This phenomenon, coined the Black Sheep Effect, is viewed as due to the relevance that ingroup members §s behaviour, as compared to that of outgroup members, has for the subjects §s social identity. Three experiments supported our predictions. Experiment I additionally showed that inter trait correlations were stronger for the ingroup than for the outgroup. Experiment 2 showed that the black sheep effect occurs only when the judgmental cues are relevant for the subjects §s social identity, and Experiment 3 showed that levels of information about the target of the judgment were ineffective in generating judgmental extremity. Results are discussed in light of a cognitive motivational alternative explanation to a purely cognitive interpretation of outgroup homogeneity. " 433 18 1 1988 The relationship between conservation skills and subjective responsibility (SR) in moral judgment was examined in two studies. The Kohlberg ontogenetic priority hypothesis stating that conversation is a necessary but not sufficient condition of SR was pitted against the common structural basis hypothesis advanced by Damon. Piaget §s notion of heteronomy as a combination of preoperational thought and unilateral respect was studied by using the behavioural independence tasks by Subbotsky as indicators of unilateral respect. A teaching experiment using Galperin §s and Obukhova §s method to induce conservation indicated significant transfer from conservation to SR. SR was found to be more susceptible to regression over a 3–month period than conservation. Conservers were less likely to regress on SR than nonconservers. Unilateral respect was related to objective responsibility but not to conservation. Taken together the data fail to support Kohlberg §s ontogenetic priority hypothesis and only partially support the Piaget and Damon model of a common underlying structure. It is concluded that SR judgments largely reflect individual judgmental strategies and the effect of conservation on SR is intepreted in terms of increasing cross situational consistency in the use of these strategies. 434 18 1 1988 The experiment which is presented in this paper was designed to overcome some of the problems associated with previous research investigating the effects of social categorization and minority influence. Sixty eight fourteen year old British Secondary School pupils indicated their attitudes towards a 'grant for pupils §s before and after reading a text which advocated a minority position. The text was attributed as being the work of either pupils from their own school (ingroup minority) or from a school they discriminated against (outgroup minority). Responses were either made in public (by telling subjects that other pupils would see their responses) or in private (by subjects putting their responses into a ballot box). The results showed that on public responses ingroup minorities had more influence than outgroup minorities while there was no difference on private responses. Also, greater change occurred when responses were made in private than in public. These results are compatible with the intergroup analysis of minority influence. 435 18 1 1988 The classical studies by Thurstone (1927b) and Coombs (1967) on the seriousness of crimes and offences are replicated here for a sample of male and female students. Eighty subjects used both forced choice and graded dominance ratios to assess all pairs of 10 crimes/offences. The direct ratio estimates correlate very highly with pair comparison probabilities, thus making it possible to interpret the former as direct estimates of dominance probabilities. These data can be scaled with excellent fit in Thurstone §s sense. The resulting scales are quite similar to those obtained by Thurstone and Coombs. An analysis of the individual data shows, however, that 69 per cent of the average data are aggregated over a variety of distinct subgroups of individuals who partition the crimes/offences into subsets that are incomparable in their seriousness. Thurstone §s and Coombs §s seriousness scales must therefore be considered a population lawfulness. 436 18 1 1988 Two different strategies for making causal attributions are distinguished. The first is the classic inductivist approach, which uses covariation information to arrive at causal attributions. The second is the knowledge structure approach, which uses information relevant to knowledge about plans and goals to explain behaviour. Two experiments are reported in which information activating both types of strategy is given. The results indicate that goal relevant information activates expectancies that resist the presence of explicit covariation information. The results are interpreted as indicating that expectancies generated by knowledge structures are therefore different to those activated by verbs, which do not resist the effect of explicit covariation information. It is concluded that knowledge structures constitute an alternative strategy of causal attribution to the inductivist strategy, and the nature of the relationship between the two strategies is considered. 437 18 2 1988 Henri Tajfel §s contribution to the experimental study of intergroup relations is highlighted and recent complementary approaches are presented. The distinction between deductive and inductive aspects of social categorization and the links between within group and between group interaction and differentiation are commented. A plea is made for studying self as social representation and for considering ethical issues of intergroup relations. 438 18 2 1988 Developments within the social identity tradition have led to work on the inductive aspects of categorization and the relation between personal and social identity, individuality and groupness. Other issues raised by Doise represent important areas for research and theoretical discussion. 439 18 2 1988 In this discussion of papers by Doise (1988) and Tajfel (1982) it is argued that a conceptual distinction should be made between social groups and social categories. A social group can be considered as a dynamic whole or social system, characterized by the perceived interdependence among its members, whereas a social category can be defined as a collection of individuals who share at least one attribute in common. This distinction is crucial for the understanding of outgroup favouritism in the minimal intergroup situation, the basic similarity between large scale groupings and face to face groups, the difference between group identification and social identity and the issue of categorizations versus attributions in intergroup conflict. 440 18 2 1988 Thirty two groups of three subjects each participated once in an intergroup public goods game (IPG) in which two groups compete for the provision of step level public goods. Half of the groups were allowed to discuss the conflict before their members decided privately and anonymously whether to contribute their endowments to their group benefit, and half were not given this opportunity. The results show that preplay group discussion enhances the percentage of contributors and changes the players §s estimates about the decisions of the other players. The theoretical implications of the results are examined within the framework of a new model which relates the individual decision to contribute or not to the reward structure, altruism, and the individual §s belief structure. 441 18 2 1988 In almost all experimental studies on choice behaviour the consequences of choices are limited to denumerable goods (usually money) and represented in a numerical way. It is argued that a different way of representing consequences would cause differences in social orientations. In an exploratory study (1) the kind of consequences (money, satisfaction with money and satisfaction with the situation) and (2) the way of representing consequences (numbers, rectangles, and faces) were varied. No differences were found between the three kinds of consequences represented by rectangles. Representation of money by numbers did not differ from representation of money by rectangles. However, subjects in the condition in which satisfaction with money was represented by faces were more cooperative and altruistic and less equality oriented than subjects in the corresponding condition in which satisfaction with money was represented by rectangles. Additional correlational analyses showed differences between ways of representing consequences. It was concluded that both for theory and for future research it is important to consider how consequences are represented. 442 18 2 1988 Two studies investigated biases in the use of base rate information when assessing the probability of a witness §s accurate identification of a white or West Indian as a burglar. An adapted version of the Kahneman Tversky cab problem was used, to provide a social decision in which biases could be measured against some normative standard. Ethnicity of youth (white/West Indian) and nature of base rate (incidental/causal) were manipulated in a 2 × 2 between subjects design. A significant interaction effect revealed that subjects took no account of the base rate for a West Indian subject, but used the base rate only when it was causal and the youth was white. This prejudice effect against a West Indian youth and exoneration effect for a white youth were replicated in a second study, using a microcomputer and chronometric analyses. Results are discussed in terms of heuristic decision making, social schemata, and the cognitive versus motivational bases of bias in the use of base rates. 443 18 2 1988 This research examined favouritism in group product evaluations as a function of personal involvement. After being divided into groups on an arbitrary basis, subjects worked at a group brainstorming task. Some subjects then assessed the merits of their own group §s product relative to that of an outgroup §s product, whereas other subjects assessed the merits of an ingroup §s product relative to that of an outgroup §s product. In both conditions, a significant bias was observed such that owngroup and ingroup products were rated as superior to outgroup products. Moreover, this bias was equally strong regardless of whether subjects were appraising a product they had personally helped create. The implications of the findings for understanding the antecedents of group bias are considered. 444 18 2 1988 Ajzen and Fishbein §s attitudes model was applied to the prediction of voting in the Autonomous Basque Parliament Elections held on the 30th November 1986. On the whole, the model §s predictive power was acceptable. Nevertheless, the model §s predictive power was found to improve considerably when past experience was taken into account. 445 18 2 1988 The study addressed the influence of a close relationship with a partner. The hypothesis that stronger interpersonal bonds (partner §s support, cohesiveness, emotional ties) lead a goal pursuer to expand greater effort and to feel greater satisfaction in working toward self set goal was tested. The data were collected from 200 Ss involved in a close relationship by means of a Goal Questionnaire referring to goal properties (importance, expectancy, conflict), to action dimensions (effort, persistence, satisfaction) and to interpersonal relations between a goal pursuer and his partner (support, dependence, emotional control). The data analysis (ANOVA) revealed that the high support (vs. low) was significantly related to greater effort, persistence and satisfaction. Also high emotional control was related to higher persistence and high dependence resulted in stronger satisfaction from goal related activity. The path analysis showed that partner §s support influences the goal related activity in two ways, directly through enhancing persistence and satisfaction and indirectly by increasing individual §s expectancy of successful goal attainment. 446 18 3 1988 Moscovici has ushered in the era of social representations widely welcomed as a European alternative to what are increasingly regarded as the shortcomings of mainline American social psychology. The rapid and enthusiastic adoption by many psychologists of Moscovici §s theoretical approach has not so far evoked a great deal of critical appraisal of the ideas he put forward. The present paper seeks to make a start in jilling this gap by an examination of the conceptual structure and some of its underlying assumptions. There appear to be a number of internal inconsistencies and some doubt concerning the logical status of social representations It is suggested that clarification of such issues, together with the establishment of closer links with the findings of neighbouring disciplines, would help to strengthen what is undoubtedly one of the most stimulating new departures in the field. 447 18 3 1988 The theory of social representations occupies a place apart in social psychology both by the problems it raises and the scale of the phenomena with which it deals. This provokes many a criticism and misunderstanding. Such a theory may not correspond with the model of social psychology as it is defined at present. One attempts however to show that it answers important social and scientific questions, in what it differs from the classical conception of collective representations and, from the very beginning, adopts a constructivist perspective which has spread in social psychology since. Several trends of research have confirmed its vision of the relations between social and cognitive phenomena, communication and thought. More detailed remarks aim at outlining the nature of social representations, their capacity to create information, their function which is to familiarize us with the strange, according to the categories of our culture. Going farther, one insists on the diversity of methodological approaches. If the experimental method is useful to understand how people should think, higher mental and social processes must be approached by different methods, including linguistic analysis and observation of how people think. No doubt, social representations have a relation with the more recent field of social cognition. But inasmuch as the former depend on content and context, i.e. subjectivity and sociability of people, they approach the phenomena differently from the latter. Referring to child psychology and anthropology, one can contend, despite appearances, that it is also a more scientific approach. There is however much to be learned from criticisms and there is still a long way to go before we arrive at a satisfactory theory of social thinking and communication. 448 18 3 1988 The same ordering task with social marking is used in two experimental training conditions. In one of the conditions, the answers based on the social norm contradict the answers that result from the cognitive processing of the examples provided. In the other condition, the two types of answers are the same. When compared to a control training condition, both of the test training conditions are shown to have the same effect. The observations made during training as well as the justifications given by the children support the hypothesis that the influence of social marking cannot be explained, at least for one of the test conditions, by the existence of socio cognitive conflict. Social marking may lead to better representation of the task. In one of the experimental conditions, it may also lead to the use of a problem solving procedure that is based on the properties of the objects to be ordered. 449 18 3 1988 While proponents of biological theories of emotion claim the existence of universal emotion and expression patterns, recent theories stress cognitive appraisal mechanisms as elicitors of emotion, thus suggesting the influence of cultural and social factors on emotional experience and emotional expression. Data from a large scale questionnaire study with about 2400 respondents in 30 countries allowed us to test that notion in part. In this study, respondents had to describe in detail situations in which they had experienced the emotions of joy, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, shame, and guilt. The results indicate that emotional expression patterns do seem to be universal, while characteristics of the subjectively experienced emotion, in particular its duration and intensity, show a high variance across country samples. An attempt is made to link these differences to economic data for the different countries, specifically to the gross national product. The rather striking differences found between rich and boor' countries are discussed in terms of the frequency of confrontation with emotion eliciting situations and the importance of such situations. 450 18 3 1988 "While dissent has been construed in terms of social support and informational influence, this paper hypothesizes that exposure to dissenting minority views, even when they are wrong, stimulates resistance to conformity and increased adherence to one §s own views. In this study, individuals in groups of four judged the colour of a series of blue stimuli and were exposed to one individual who consistently judged the stimuli to be green: inconsistently judged them to be 'green' or expressed no dissent. In a subsequent setting, when judging a series of red slides; subjects were exposed to a majority who repeatedly judged them as 'orange. Exposure to dissent, whether it was consistent or inconsistent, substantially reduced the level of conformity. In fact, exposure to the consistent dissent led to almost complete independence. " 451 18 3 1988 The purpose of this study is to examine how external conformity affect internal conformity in the conditions in which the degree of discrepancy between majority opinion and physical reality are different. The 106 subjects were divided into eight groups of 2 (male and female) × 2 (high external conformer and low one) × 2 (large discrepancy and small one). We found the effect of interaction between discrepancy condition and external conformity to internal conformity. 452 18 3 1988 Two experiments yielded further evidence for the black sheep effect (Marques, Yzerbyt and by ens, 1988). In the first experiment, 66 subjects were presented with two good or two poor speeches, one supposedly made by an ingroup member and the other supposedly made by an outgroup member. In the second experiment, 37 subjects were presented with one good and one poor speech supposedly made either by two ingroup members or by two outgroup members. The black sheep effect was predicted and found in both experiments: subjects over evaluated likeable ingroup members and under evaluated unlikeable ingroup members as compared to equally likeable and unlikeable outgroup members. Collapsing the data of the two experiments suggests that social comparison may be performed, in purely symbolic terms, against a cognitive standard of positivity rather than an outgroup present in the judgmental situation. The emergence of the predicted effect when strongly individualized information was presented in inter as well as in intra group situations supports the robustness of the black sheep effect. 453 18 3 1988 Previous research on the Self image bias §s has demonstrated a defensive tendency to overestimate the importance of positive general self attributes (e.g. warm, patient) when forming impressions of other people. The current research replicates and extends the self image bias findings in an area of theoretical as well as applied relevance: The evaluation of other peoples specific skills, and resulting social preferences. 454 18 4 1988 "The norm of internality is defined as a social valorisation of explanations of behaviours (attribution) and outcomes (locus of control) which emphasise the causal role of the actor. It is shown in this paper: (1) that internal explanations are linked to self presentation strategies; (2) that internal explanations are more often selected by middle class subjects; (3) that these explanations are learned by children and by adults in psycho socio educational settings. Finally, the norm of internality is assumed to be linked to social practices (evaluation practices). " 455 18 4 1988 "The background and development of motivational hypotheses in social identity theory are examined, revealing two general motives for intergroup discrimination: a desire for cognitive coherence, or good structure; and a need for positive self esteem. The latter (self esteem hypothesis: SEH) has received most attention. Both the theoretical and empirical bases of the SEH are largely rooted in research using the minimal group paradigm. However, it remains unclear whether self esteem is to be considered primarily as a cause or an effect of discrimination. When real social groups are considered the SEH appears to provide only a partial explanation, and a variety of more or less powerful alternative social motives may underlie discriminatory behaviour. We explore some social structural, individual and interpersonal limits to the SEH, and we call for an awareness of these motives and a re examination of the good structure thesis. The SEH, as it stands, provides only a partial contribution to our understanding of the relationship between social identity and discriminatory intergroup behaviour. " 456 18 4 1988 Various field studies and experimental simulations demonstrated that causal reasoning increases after unexpected as well as after unpleasant events. However, unpleasant events are seen as less likely than pleasant ones in everyday life. Accordingly, the subjective probability of the event and its hedonic quality were naturally confounded in these studies. To isolate the contribution of both determinants, the subjective probability and the valence of an event were independently manipulated in a laboratory experiment. Subjects completed an ostensible professional skills test and received either success or failure feedback in relation to a criterion set by the experimenter. The subjective probability of success was varied by informing subjects about the distribution of success and failure in a comparable population (either 23 per cent or 77 per cent were said to meet the criterion). The results indicate a pronounced valence effect: The intensity of causal reasoning and the number of possible reasons reported for the outcome was greater after negative than after positive feedback, independent of the a priori probability of the outcome. No evidence for an increase in causal explanations after unexpected, as compared to expected, events was obtained. Several mediating processes are discussed. 457 18 4 1988 Three experiments were conducted in order to compare the influence of ingroup and outgroup minorities and to assess the role of Zeitgeist perception in minority influence. The results confirmed that ingroup minorities are more influential than outgroup minorities. This overall finding was observed in two different experimental paradigms, using either a small group setting in which subjects interacted with the minority or the simultaneous social influence paradigm in which both influence sources impinge simultaneously (via written information) upon the subjects. These results were supportive of Tajfel §s social identity theory while contradicting Kelley §s augmenting/discounting principle. Finally, subjects §s perception of the Zeitgeist was unrelated to the magnitude of minority influence. 458 18 4 1988 Bulgarian students who first learned to write in the Cyrillic alphabet prefer own name letters in the Cyrillic but also in the Roman alphabet, with which they became acquainted only many years later. These findings which are intra individually correlated, support Nuttin S interpretation of the Name Letter Effect in terms of attachment to self and contradict a primacy of own name writing explanation. 459 18 4 1988 The effects of ingroup and outgroup minorities upon public and private levels of influence was examined. The results show that whilst ingroup minorities have greater influence in public, outgroup minorities can have as much, if not more influence than ingroup minorities when responses are made in private. These results are consistent with previous research and support the social identijkation model of social influence. 460 18 4 1988 A quasi experiment was conducted to examine the effects of self categorization in overlapping categories on intergroup differentiation. Old aged women was used as the first, sports as the additional category. It could be shown that intergroup differentiation was significantly reduced under crossed categorization conditions. Implications for social compensation strategies are discussed. 461 18 5 1988 This study was conducted in order to compare the influence of ingroup and outgroup minorities and to assess the role of perceived source credibility in minority influence. The subjects were exposed to the simultaneous majority/minority influence paradigm. Ingroup minorities were more influential than outgroup minorities. Subjects moved toward the minority position in private and toward the majority position in public when the minority was represented by members of the ingroup. On private responses subjects were not affected by outgroup minorities who argued for abortion, and they became more positive toward abortion when outgroup minorities opposed abortion. Final &, ingroup minorities were perceived as more credible than outgroup minorities and greater credibility of minority source was associated with greater attitude change toward the minority position. The superior influence of ingroup minorities held when controlling for source credibility. Overall, the results were highly supportive of social identity theory. 462 18 5 1988 Two experiments were carried out investigating the effect of categorization on attitude change. It was predicted that the division of a number of individuals into two subgroups (categorization), in such a way that initial attitudes correlate with subgroup membership, would lead to accentuation of attitudinal differences between subgroups. It was further predicted that an identical distribution of initial attitudes without superimposed categorization would lead to convergence of attitude positions. In experiment 1, the effect of a male female classification on attitude change was studied. It was indeed found that subjects changed their attitudes in the direction opposite to the position of the outgroup (intergroup attitude differentiation), but only for groups who were initially more extreme than the comparison group. In the control condition (no categorization), conformity effects were observed. In experiment 2, an antagonistic intergroup setting was induced. In this situation, strong intergroup attitude differentiation effects were observed, which were not affected by the magnitude of the initial intergroup discrepancy. In the control condition, subjects did not show conformity to the overall group mean, but maintained their initial noncentral attitude position. 463 18 5 1988 In recent years in research on intergroup relationships, the assumption has increasingly been made that discrimination dominates decisions when individuals allocate resources between (members of) own and other group. Conversely, in empirical studies of interpersonal decision making, including an extensive literature on the development of children §s allocation rules within dyadic relationships, it has been repeatedly observed that in dyadic relationships choices though responsive to various changes in the environment, are more strongly governed by fairness rules. The present research extends the interpersonal fairness paradigm to the intergroup case, and examines the effects of some of those variables, namely, children §s age, input and attitudes toward other, that have been observed to influence choice behaviour within interpersonal relationships. The findings indicate that as children are socialized, fairness rules also play an increasing dominant role in intergroup allocation decisions, and that both relative input and the language of the outgroup influence such decisions. At the same time, there is some preliminary evidence to indicate that the relative strength of self interest may be somewhat stronger in intergroup than in interpersonal relationships. Finally, a number of the issues that must be confronted in comparing the two more important forms of human social choices, interpersonal and intergroup decision making, are considered. 464 18 5 1988 Two experiments examined the effects of answering a question about a specific component of life satisfaction on respondents §s assessment of their overall satisfaction with life. The results suggest that the use of primed information in forming subsequent judgments is determined by Grice §s conversational norms. In general, answering the specific question increases the accessibility of information relevant to that question. However, the effect that this has on the general judgment depends on the way in which the two questions are presented. When the two questions are merely placed in sequence without a conversational context, the answer to the subsequent general question is based in part on the primed specific information. As a result, the answer to the general question becomes similar to that for the specific question (i.e. assimilation). However, this does not occur when the two questions are placed in a communication context. Conversational rules dictate that communicators should be informative and should avoid redundancy in their answers. Therefore, when a specific and a general question are perceived as belonging to the same conversational context, the information on which the answer to the specific question was based is disregarded when answering the general one. This attenuates the assimilation effect. The conditions under which these different processes occur are identified and experimentally manipulated, and the implications of these findings for models of information use in judgment are discussed. 465 18 5 1988 "A 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design was employed to test the effects of competition on justice rule preferences in contributive and retributive settings. The factors included task structure (cooperative versus competitive); allocation (contributive versus retributive); and input information (no information, ability only, effort only). The data showed that, in contribution conditions, competition alone was insufficient to produce changes in allocation preferences. However, in the contribution ability condition, competition produced a shift toward more equitable allocations. In retribution situations, competition was sufficient to create stronger preferences for equity in all conditions except retribution ability. In general, allocators in competitive conditions exhibited a stronger preference for equity. In particular, the combination of competition and retribution produced the strongest preference for equitable allocations. " 466 18 5 1988 An experiment is reported to test Davidson §s (1983) hypothesis that there is a pervasive third person effect' whereby people see the mass media as more likely to affect other people than it is them. Respondents were asked to judge the likely impact of three different media issues, a political campaign, the influence of violence in the media and a drink driving advertising campaign. While an issue effect was found, so that the serf was most likely to be seen as infuencible by an anti drink driving campaign and significantly less so by media violence and politics, in all cases others were seen as being much more affected than the self. The results of the study are discussed with reference to the concept of the Ifalse consensus effect. 467 18 5 1988 This experiment examines ingroup and outgroup minority influence when group membership was determined by a trivial categorization. The results show that ingroup minorities had more public influence than outgroup minorities when the categorization was trivial and when subjects also believed that they were similar to their ingroup. However, no differences were found when group membership was not associated with similarity. These results are interpreted as supporting the social identification model of social influence. 468 18 6 1988 It has been argued that the self concept is divided into two sub systems, one relating to personal and the other to social identities. The salience of these identities will depend upon the particular situation. How can the relationship between the individual §s personal and social identities by conceptualized? To answer this question, Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher and Wetherell (1987) proposed a hierarchical system of self categorization. At one level, social identities are determined though comparisons between groups, and at another level, personal identities are determined through comparisons between the self and other members of the ingroup. In the present study, adolescents described a number of self and others §s identities in relevant social situations. Multidimensional scaling revealed three dimensions which subjects used to differentiate amongst the various identities. The first dimension separated peer group identities from ascribed social identities. The second dimension separated ingroups from outgroups and the third dimension differentiated personal identity from all other social stimuli. The latter dimensions therefore supported Turner et al §s self categorization model. 469 18 6 1988 Two experiments demonstrate that individuals use an interindividual comparison strategy to evaluate a specific life domain if their attention is drawn to only one aspect of that domain, that has either positive or negative evaluative implications. If their attention is drawn to two aspects with opposite implications, however, an intraindividual strategy, based on the comparison of both aspects, is preferred. Whether one or two aspects bearing on a specific domain are salient is, among other conditions, a function of the number of aspects assessed in a questionnaire. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed. 470 18 6 1988 Two experiments were conducted to investigate some of the factors affecting social identification. In Experiment 1 ingroup identification was measured for subjects who were members of high or low status groups with either permeable or impermeable boundaries, and who received high, average or low ability feedback. The main results are that (1) members of high status groups show more ingroup identification than members of low status groups (2) members of low status groups with permeable boundaries identify less with their group than members of low status groups with impermeable boundaries and (3) in low status groups ingroup identification decreases as group members have higher individual ability. In Experiment 2, in addition to manipulating group status and individual ability, permeability was further differentiated into separate possibilities for upward and downward mobility. The most important results of Experiment 2 are that (1) members of high status groups show more ingroup identification than members of low status groups and (2) group members with high individual ability identify less with their group when upward mobility is possible than when upward mobility is not possible. These results are discussed in relation to social identity theory. 471 18 6 1988 "Paralleling closely an experiment on group polarization by Vinokur and Burnstein (1978), subjects discussed one of three risky, cautious, or neutral choice dilemmas. For each of the value items, one half of the six person groups consisted of a cautious minority and a risky majority; the other half consisted of a risky minority and a cautious majority. The minorities always consisted of trained confederates. The results indicated that on risky items minorities that argued for risk had more influence than minorities advocating caution; on neutral and cautious items the majority was not influenced by the minority whether it advocated the risky or cautious alternative. " 472 18 6 1988 In attempts to simplify and improve the measurement of social orientations in the minimal group paradigm, a number of alternative reward distribution procedures have been developed. (See Bornstein et al. for a review of Tajfel §s original procedure and other procedures.) This note concerns a nonparametric test for data collected by use of those procedures. 473 18 6 1988 While a strategy of compliance without pressure (Joule, 1987) had the effect of inducing almost all of a group of smoking subjects to stop smoking first for 18 hours then for 3 days, simply observing someone (an accomplice) break his or her own initial agreement to abstain from smoking for 18 hours was enough to bring about a substantial reduction in the willingness of other subjects to later abstain for 3 days. However, subjects did not follow the lead of the accomplice immediately, and persisted in their agreement to abstain for 18 hours. This pattern of indirect, but not direct influence, suggests that there may be a type of minority influence at work here that represents a sort of behavioural conversion. 474 18 6 1988 Using a near minimal group paradigm (see Taifel et al., 1971), this research tested whether the reasons people think about following group categorization can account for the magnitude of ingroup bias. College students were randomly assigned to four conditions. These conditions instructed subjects either to think about reasons for ingroup choice (ingroup condition), outgroup choice (outgroup), to think about anything they wanted (basic), or to think about distracting activities (distraction). The hypothesized ordering of ingroup bias and polarized attitudes was: ingroup > basic > distraction > outgroup. The results support both hypotheses. The meaning of these results are discussed in relation to social identity theory and Billig §s (1985) rhetorical approach to prejudice. 475 19 1 1989 "In the experiment reported here, 116 male and female adult subjects allocated the points of Tajfel §s matrices to the self; an ingroup (same sex), and an outgroup (opposite sex) member, on the basis of gender stereotypical comparison dimensions, individually or in the presence of an ingroup and two outgroup members. Results show that interindividual and intergroup differentiation are associated with masculine characteristics, but not with feminine ones and that there are differences in the male and female patterns of differentiation. Results are discussed within the framework of social identity theory. A theoretical integration of social stereotypes and social identity is proposed, in order to elucidate the process of intergroup discrimination between gender categories. " 476 19 1 1989 An asymmetry effect is known to exist in the estimation of interpersonal distance, depending on whether the point of reference for the estimation is the subject (How far are the others from you?) or the others How far are you from the others?). It looks as though, through the effect of a self centring schema, subjects feel that others occupy their own space more than they occupy the space of others. A self centring schema has also been found in many other processes involving judgment or comparison of oneself and others. It is generally interpreted as a sign of the affirmation and defence of personal identity. The three experiments reported here attempt to relate the asymmetries in the distances perceived between persons represented on a map to the following three areas in which one §s sense of personal or group identity is involved: (1) in the perception of one §s own specificity with respect to others (or of the specificity of the group to which one belongs with respect to other groups) (experiment 1), (2) in one §s ability to put oneself in the place of others (exocentrism) (experiment 2). and (3) in the individuation of oneself by others (experiment 3). The results of these three experiments lead us to believe that it is indeed the processes of identification and affirmation of personal and group identity along with the underlying categorization processes that are the source of the asymmetries observed in interpersonal distance estimation. The consistency of the data obtained in different situations also validates the technique used for estimating interpersonal distance. 477 19 1 1989 "The present study is based on a social psychological concept of aggression, focusing on typicalities in the subjective definitions and interpretations of aggressive interactions. The study was conducted to explore whether perspective specific divergences in the evaluation of longer aggressive interaction sequences are accompanied by different descriptions of the content and different segmentation of the interaction from the actor §s versus the recipient §s viewpoint. Two hundred and fifty three pupils participated in the study. The data obtained indicate that while only slightly differing in the free descriptions and segmentations of the interaction subjects evaluate the single behavioural segments more positive if they are in the position of an actor than of a recipient. Presenting the subjects an ambiguous situation leads to perspective specific differences in the subjective definitions of the beginning of the aggressive interaction, showing that there is a tendency to reject the initiator §s role. Four kinds of segments were distinguished; the MANOVA results show that actions initiating the conflict and actions defined as serious are evaluated more negative than other, not specified segments. Actors §s judgments are more affected by the distinction between segments than are those of recipients. " 478 19 1 1989 Ranking and pair comparison methods are proposed for the recording of individual social orientations. The experimental data were analysed with random utility models that were specially developed by the authors. The utility functions used contain almost all the social motives discussed in the literature as special cases. In order to classify the subjects into classes of similar social orientation, a procedure was proposed that was based on the particular utility function. The experiments were carried out with 144 subjects. The proposed recording methods and analysis procedures proved to be suitable. Results showed that not only simple social Orientation, such as individualism, competition, etc., could be observed in the subjects, but that orientations with more complex utility functions could also be found that have not previously been reported in the literature. The classification of the orientations using both methods showed a high level of agreement. 479 19 1 1989 "Thirty seven academics participated in a field study in which perceptions of the size and attributes of a majority and minority group were obtained. (The groups concerned were male and female academics at a British university). These observations were used to examine the phenomenon of illusory correlation, and to test hypotheses concerning the perceived homogeneity and competence of ingroup and outgroup in majority minority contexts. To test for the illusory correlation effect estimates of the numbers of male and female senior staff were elicited. These estimates were consistently inaccurate, producing a lower perceived correlation between gender and seniority than actually existed. Measures of intragroup homogeneity revealed that, as predicted from previous research, members of the minority group saw their own group as more homogeneous than the outgroup. For majorty group members the reverse was true. The intergroup evaluations generally favoured the minority group; this was especially evident in the evaluations from the minority group members themselves. Possible explanations of these findings and their correspondence with those obtained from laboratory research are discussed. " 480 19 1 1989 The purpose of this study was to examine under which social conditions cognitive development of children at the same cognitive development level will be stimulated. One hundred and two children (mean age 7.8 years), understanding conversation of area quantity, but not yet able to grasp the compensatory relationships between the dimensions of length and width of an area, participated in two experimental conditions in which the developmental processes of socio cognitive conflict and coordination were evoked. The results indicate that the resolution of the socio cognitive conflict and the occurrence of coordination is higher in individual than in dyadic conditions, and higher in (inter group) competitive and (adult) supervised conditions than in conditions were task execution was left to the spontaneous initiative of the children themselves. Cognitive developmental progress generalized from the area concept to liquid and mass concepts. 481 19 2 1989 Two studies are reported which examine the contribution of linguistic factors to attribute inferences and semantic similarity judgements. For this purpose a new method is developed which allows us to examine the contribution of language as a symbolically shared system. The two studies show that a substantial amount of the variance in both attribute inferences and semantic similarity judgements is mediated by socially shared linguistic conventions. The implications of these findings and the methodology for social cognition, and some models of personality and affect are discussed. 482 19 2 1989 Two related field studies investigated social stereotyping and differentiation between student groups in higher education. In the first, subjects from Exeter and Manchester Universities rated students at both institutions on a number of evaluatively positive attributes. They also judged the degree status and prospective employment opportunities of the groups, in a context which rendered these important. Although subjects displayed strategies of positive differentiation, this was restricted to certain consensual dimensions, reflecting perceived stereotypic differences between the groups. Discrepancies in the pattern of differentiation between the groups, and with finding of comparable studies, are discussed. This paradigm was then extended to the case where Manchester University subjects rated three groups, including the ingroup (Oxford or Exeter University vs. Manchester University vs. Manchester Polytechnic students). From social identity theory it was predicted that comparisons with a higher status outgroup which also excelled on contextually important dimensions (Oxford/Exeter), would increase positive differentiation of the ingroup from a second, lower status outgroup (Manchester Polytechnic students). This was confirmed, although there was weaker evidence for devaluation of the second outgroup in absolute terms. In both studies the relation of group status and dimensional importance of the material factor of career prospects helped to explain the strategies of differentiation adopted. 483 19 2 1989 Piagetian scholars have argued that cognitive development is fostered by peer social interaction, brought about by socio cognitive conflict between conserver non conserver pairs. The nonconservers often attain conservation after having discussed their different opinions with conserving peers, whereas the conservers do not regress to non conservation. These results are generally taken to indicate the beneficial impact of such peer interaction. In this research, carried out with one sample in the United States and one in the Soviet Union, socio cognitive conflict was engendered between pairs of 5–7 year olds who were differentiated by their level of thinking about a mathematical balance beam. Contrary to the results reported by the Piagetians, regression was found to be at least as likely as development. The results are discussed in terms of differences between research in the domain of conservation and research in a related domain in which children §s levels of thinking and degree of confidence are not confounded. 484 19 2 1989 An experiment is reported testing an impression management interpretation of previous research demonstrating displaced aggression effects. It was found that superior performance by a confederate and not annoyance was related to increased use of shocks by subjects. Path analyses provided additional support for an impression management interpretation of these results, and disconfirmed frustration aggression theory. 485 19 2 1989 "A current focus of research on individual versus group performance is social loafing, the decrease in individual effort that occurs when the individual works within a cooperative group rather than alone. This result is also referred to as the Ringelmann effect. But what has been ignored until now is the increment in group performance through systematic variation of individual performance rates within the group, although this effect was reported by Moede (1927) in the same article which influenced research on the Ringlemann effect. Within a narrow range of performance rates from 4.5 to 3.5 in dyads Kohler found an increase in group performance to a level above that of the individual performances. Kohler obtained comparable results from 3–person, and 4–person groups using the experimental procedure of weight lifting and winch turning. This phenomenon should be called the Kohler effect; although it is still to be replicated with modern ergometers. " 486 19 2 1989 Simmons, Dawes and Orbell (1984) suggested that greed provides a more important motive for non cooperation in a social dilemma than fear. However, there are at least three reasons to reinvestigate the relative impact of fear and greed on cooperation in social dilemmas. First, the Simmons et al. results were not replicated in a recent study (Van Avermaet and Van Nieuwkerke, in press). Second in the two forementioned studies a step level public good game was employed, a game which does not meet the formal requirements of social dilemmas as they were defined by Dawes (1980). Third, in contrast to previous research, we employed a complete experimental design to investigate the effect of the saliency of the two motives. In the present study, 128 subjects were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 (saliency of fear: high, low) × 2 (saliency of greed: high, low) factorial design. First of all it appeared that our fear and greed manipulation was successful. In addition the results indicated a significant interaction effect: cooperation was highest when both motives had a low saliency. 487 19 2 1989 This article deals with Lewin §s early intentions to promote applied psychology, especially with his essay Die Sozialisierung des Taylorsystems (The Socialisation of the Taylor System). The authors point out that certain characteristics of Lewin §s social psychological approach can already be seen in this early article. Furthermore, they want to show how important the role of applied psychology has been in the development of Lewin S scientific work. 488 19 3 1989 After a conceptual and methodological critique of Social Identity Theory (SIT), it is argued, in sharp contrast to SIT but consistent with a Behavioural Interaction Model (BIM), that the allocations in the standard Minimal Group Paradigm (MGP) which provide the main evidence for SIT can be best reinterpreted as instrumental, rational behaviour aimed at maximizing the economic self interests of the subjects rather than efforts on their part to strive for a positive social identity as SIT has claimed. Explicit social categorization appears to be only one of the many unit forming factors which may affect allocations within and between group boundaries in the MGP. Group polarization effects indicate that groups, guided by their perceived interdependence on the recipients of their allocations seem more rational and effective than their individual members prior to the group discussion in maximizing their economic outcomes. Finally, it is concluded that BIM provides probably a more parsimonious explanation of all the usualfindings obtained by the standard MGP than SIT. 489 19 3 1989 Recently a number of critics of traditional approaches to the study of attitudes have stressed the need to study the ways in which people express views in natural discourse. The present study examines the rhetorical aspects of holding strong views by providing a detailed case study. It focuses on the discourse of a family discussing the British Royal Family, where one member of the family is recognized to hold strong views. A number of rhetorical complexities of the discourse are highlighted and particular attention is placed on the argumentative dimensions of holding strong views. It is suggested that strong views are held in relation to opposing views and in arguing about the issue of monarchy participants are also reflexively arguing about arguments. Examples are given to show that the holder of strong views, as opposed to the holder of weak views, does not necessarily have a greater opposition to the assumption of multisubjectivity, for the discourse of views is paradoxically marked by both assumptions of multisubjectivity and intersubjectivity. It is also shown that the holder of strong views may produce a variable discourse. The rhetorical nature of such variability is discussed and implications are drawn for the study of beliefs and for analysing the relations between thinking and arguing. 490 19 3 1989 Three experiments were conducted to examine the effects which if then instructions of the type if you eat X, then you will get Y, have on the evaluation of the foods addressed in the if and the then parts of the instructions, respectively. Based on research on intrinsic motivation it was hypothesized that liking for food X that one is induced to eat by means of if then instructions will be impaired, whereas liking for food Y offered as a reward for the consumption of X will be enhanced. Experiment 1 revealed an enhancement of liking effect for the thenfood lasting for at least six weeks, but no impairment of liking for the if food. Experiment 2 explored the possibility of reducing children §s dislike for foods by means of paradoxical if then instructions presenting the disliked food in the then position as a reward for the consumption of another food. No significant effects were obtained in this study. Experiment 3 examined the effects of introducing yet unknown foods to children by means of if then instructions. Results revealed that liking for the new food is impaired when it is the iffood, but is enhanced when it is offered in the then position. Discussion is centered on the possibility that the effects of if then instructions are more pronounced in single trial compared to multi trial treatment conditions. 491 19 3 1989 The present study examines the impact of non diagnostic individualized information on judgments concerning stereotypic and non stereotypic behaviours performed by ingroup versus outgroup members. Ninety five Law School students were confronted with either a lawyer or a teacher in mathematics and were given either the category label alone, the category label plus written individualized informations or the category label plus a videotaped interview of the target. Subjects indicated the likelihood that the target would perform each of four behaviours, two of which were stereotypic and two of which were counter stereotypic of the target §s professional category and this in four different situations. In accordance with classical dilution results (Nisbett, Zukier and Lemley, 1981), individualized information weakened the influence of stereotypes. Also, in line with Park and Rothbart §s (1982) work on the outgroup homogeneity hypothesis, judgments were more extreme for the outgroup than for the ingroup target. However, a derivation of Linville §s (1982) complexity extremity hypothesis was not supported: the dilution effect was not more effective for the outgroup than for the ingroup target. Lastly, our data argue against Nisbett et al. §s explanation for the lack of dilution these authors found for stereotype irrelevant behaviours. Taken together, our results may be seen from an optimistic as well as from a pessimistic point of view. The latter perspective points out the pervasive polarization of judgments about outgroup targets across individualization levels whereas the former stresses upon the dilution taking place for both in and outgroup targets. 492 19 3 1989 Subjects were led to believe that two sub groups were created according to similarity. Then they were assigned resources, received bogus offers, and asked to negotiate a mutually acceptable reward division. It was found that low resource members negotiated payoffs approximately equally. In contrast, high resource members negotiated larger payoffs to themselves when paired with outgroup members. 493 19 3 1989 In two experiments, it is shown that interviewers bias to a larger extent their questions towards their hypothesis when they interact with an interviewee than when they only prepare questions for a future interview. Also more biased questions are asked at the beginning of the interview than at the end. This does not seem to be due to the certainty entertained by the interviewers about their hypothesis. More likely, it appears that biased questions have an adaptative value and that they smooth the interview. All in all, our subjects were not especially concerned with diagnosticity. 494 19 4 1989 The present research addresses the interface of social cognition and the use of interpersonal language. Based on a linguistic category model proposed by Semin and Fiedler (1988), it is demonstrated that under different conditions language users tend to describe other people §s behaviour either in concrete and specific terms (descriptive or interpretive action verbs) or in abstract, dispositional terms (state verbs, adjectives) A two stage process is postulated by which these variations in abstractness can lead to the reification of social information: In the first stage, the rules of cooperative and efficient communication encourage the use of abstract statements about other people. Once the social information is represented on an abstract level, a top down bias will then, in the second stage, influence the interpretation and judgments of subsequent specific behaviours in a way which tends to reify or confirm the abstract statements. While the abstraction tendency is expected in free communication, when information is taken for granted, the reverse top down bias should be observed in social judgment tasks, when the truth or validity of statements is open to be judged. Study 1 demonstrates the abstraction tendency in a serial communication game involving the successive re telling of person descriptions. Study 2 utilizes a priming technique to examine the top down bias in social judgment: influences of prior judgments regarding abstract attributes on subsequent judgments of specific attributes are stronger than transfer influences in the reverse direction. Moreover, this top down bias is independent of whether the applicability of the prime attribute to the target person is affirmed or denied. Study 3 supports the view that abstract language is due to taken taken for granted conditions, showing a reversal from abstract to more specific language even in free communication when the validity of statements is challenged. 495 19 4 1989 The major theoretical contributions to the study of attribution, those of Heider (1958), Kelley (1967) and Jones and Davis (1965) have worked from the assumption that person perception is analogous to object perception and scientific investigation. Goffman §s dramaturgic analysis of the social self provides an alternative framework for addressing the problem of how we perceive and understand the behaviour of others. In this paper, I explore the implications of the dramaturgic perspective for the study of person perception and discuss the ways in which it diverges from the traditional approach to attribution. In addition, I present an alternative account of the Fundamental Attributional Error that arises in light of Goffman §s dramaturgic analysis. 496 19 4 1989 Previous research indicated a face ism bias in media depictions of men and women: me media tend to represent men with their faces, whereas women §s depictions include larger parts of their bodies, rendering their faces less prominent. To explore the impact of facial prominence on impression formation, male and female subjects received either full body or portrait style photographs, made from the same negatives, of male and female stimulus persons of different likeability. Male and female subjects evaluated all stimulus persons as more competent (intelligent, assertive, ambitious, etc.) if presented with a high (portrait) rather than a low (full body photograph) degree of facial prominence. This main effect of facial prominence was not qualified by interaction effects with any of the other variables. PIUS, the media §s face ism bias is likely to contribute to a perception of men as more competent than women. In addition, female but not male subjects also evaluated stimulus persons as more expressive and likeable under conditions of high facial prominence, reflecting a global positive effect of facial prominence. 497 19 4 1989 "In the present study it was investigated if choice behaviour in a social trap situation was affected by feedback about the choice of others. On top of the social trap reward structure investigated by Schroeder, Jensen, Reed, Sullivan and Schwab (1983) a bonus was added. In the individual bonus condition subjects were promised an unspecified bonus if they would obtain more points than any other group member of one §s group. In the group bonus condition subjects would obtain a bonus if the own group acquired more points than the other group. As expected, in the group bonus condition one took fewer points than in the individual bonus condition. As suggested by the reciprocity explanation of choice behaviour (Liebrand, Wilke, Vogel and Wolters 1986; Liebrand, Jansen and Rijken 1986) it appeared that first choice corresponded strongly with one §s expectations about the choices of others. Before the second choice and also before the third choice one received purported feedback about the choices of other members of one §s group. In the conserving condition one learned that all others made a conserving choice, whereas in the consuming condition one learned that all others made a consuming choice. According to the reciprocity explanation it was found that when choice behaviour was in agreement with own previous expectations and previous choice, no choice change did occur. Shifts took place in conditions in which own previous expectations about the choices of others and own choice were disconfirmed by information about choices of others. " 498 19 4 1989 "In a resource management game we investigated how regular group members respond to a leader who promotes group success or fails to do so, while operating in a predictable or totally unpredictable environment. The subjects (N = 110) were confronted with a bogus leader who purportedly took decisions on behalf of the whole group. Performance of the leader and Predictability of the environment were manipulated by means of a 2 × 2 factorial design. As predicted, a failing leader received weaker endorsement than a successful leader (Performance main effect). The Performance × Predictability interaction effect was ascribed to two circumstances: (a) As predicted by the attributional approach of leadership (Calder, 1977; Pfeffer, 1977), endorsement of a successful leader was weaker in the Unpredictable than in the Predictable environment. However, (b) endorsement of a failing leader was not significantly weaker in the Predictable than in the Unpredictable environment. Additional data showed that regular group members §s attributions played a mediating role. " 499 19 5 1989 This article examines some stylistic differences in social psychological explanations. Described are different styles in formulating problems, in constructing theories, and gathering evidence. Styles are not to be confused with method since a given method say, factor analysis can reveal itself in contrasting stylistic approaches. Comparisons are drawn from music and art. 500 19 5 1989 "Social psychology traditionally studies conspecific (homosocial) determinants of human behaviour. This suggests that an adequate understanding of (human) conspecific influence and interaction presupposes research on uniquely social psychological processes, effects and theories that lay beyond the reach of standard psychological concepts, procedures and theories. A fundamental and cumulative science of behaviour (homosocial or not) might profit from a heuristic quasi social analysis, as a research tool for a more parsimonious conceptual screening of homosocial phenomena. Whenever the phenomenon under study is experienced, at the pre scientific level, as genuinely social, one of three quasi social contrast filters can be superposed upon it: (1) a heteroquasisocial contrast in which the homosocial determinant is substituted by a member of another species (e.g. man dog); (2) an object quasisocial contrast in which the other becomes an inanimate object (e.g. woman P. C.); (3) an auto quasisocial contrast in which the organism interacts with or influences itself (dog chasing her own tail). Theories and processes whose essential features are masked by any of the three quasi social filters, should be considered as only quasi social. They do not justify a separate homosocial science of behaviour. The proposal is illustrated by a quasi social screening of Harlow S classic analysis of the Nature of Love. " 501 19 5 1989 Genetic constructivism developed by Piaget and his school is considered to be a grand theory which is also of great relevance for experimental social psychology. However according to J. M. Baldwin, the founder of genetic psychology, and to contemporary researchers in the area of moral judgement and development social psychology, the notion of social performism should be incorporated in constructivist theory. Deutsch 5 crude law of social relations is cited as a theoretical assumption implying that social preformism can be studied experimentally. 502 19 5 1989 The paper starts by outlining a general perspective in social psychology. It may turnout that social constructivism, the perspective outlined in the early sixties is one of the major contributions of European social psychology to social sciences in general. Whatever its fate, some particular points are made: a)physics is not the only model we have to follow b) the existing ways of explanation can and must be upgraded c) more complex theories are required d) changes in methodological and statistical criteria are expected in order to deal with new and complex phenomena. Nevertheless the main problem today is description and not explanation. That is the discovery and observation of a wider range of new social phenomena. How successful we will be in this endeavour decides if social psychology becomes a major science or not. 503 19 5 1989 By comparison with the physical sciences psychologists tend to pay little attention to ontology. This has had unfortunate consequences. Contemporary trends suggest a dual ontology, with psychology rooted in neurophysiology and social conversation. The notion of a conversational skill bridges the two basic categories of psychological reality. The use of causal concepts in writing up psychological research is to be avoided since it enshrines a misunderstanding of the kind of necessity that is important in the normative control of social activity including conversing. Classical psychological experimental methodology needs radical revision since it is not appropriate to the investigation of collective semiotic structures. These points are illustrated with examples from recent empirical work by social constructivist psychologists. 504 19 5 1989 Many social psychologists take increasing comfort in cognitive explanations of human action. This paper first attempts to demonstrate that cognitively based formulations not only delimit the possibilities for social understanding, but create a range of intractable conceptual problems. If real world events are reduced to cognitive representations of the world, then social events cease to exist for the discipline as legitimate foci of concern. Further, once the reality of cognition is granted, there is no conceptual means of viably explaining either the origins or acquisition of cognitive categories (schemas, representations, etc.), or the relationship between cognition and action. The paper then goes on to argue that the cognitive revolution in psychology blinds the discipline to the far more pervasive revolution occurring elsewhere in the intellectual world, that of social epistemology. When cognition is replaced by language as the major means for representing the world, then the individual is replaced by the social relationship as the central focus of concern. Theory and research within the framework of social epistemology are reviewed and their implications discussed. 505 19 6 1989 Two studies are reported which apply a language based model to the actor observer domain in attribution theory. This model distinguishes between four classes of interpersonal terms (descriptive action verbs, interpretive action verbs, state verbs, and adjectives) that have been shown to mediate different cognitive inferences. An adaptation of this language based model suggests that actor observer differences can be understood as differential language conventions used by actors and observers. This hypothesis finds support in the first study where subjects were asked to give free descriptions to a number of social events. A second study examined the more specific implications of this general case by replicating an experiment reported by Nisbett et al. (1973). The same language based conventions are shown to be used by actors and observers in this more specific case. The implications of these findings are drawn out with special reference to the influence of culture on cognitive processes. 506 19 6 1989 Pairs of friends wrote descriptions of abstract stimuli for one another. Later, each subject attempted to identify the referents of three sets of messages: those created by the subject, those created by the friend, and those created by a stranger for his J her own friend. Subjects were most accurate with their own messages, but, more interestingly, they were more accurate with their friends §s than with strangers §s messages. The lexical characteristics and content of messages for friends were compared with those intended for a generic other student or for oneself in Fussell and Krauss (1989). Contrary to our expectations, friends §s messages were similar to those for another student in length, vocabulary distribution, and figurative language use, while both differed significantly from messages for oneself: The findings are discussed within a common ground framework for communication. 507 19 6 1989 The present study investigates the effect of social comparison information on learned helpless and mastery oriented children §s attributions, behaviour, and affect following a failure experience. Ninety one fifth grade children experienced failure in the context of high consensus or group failure feedback, low consensus or personal failure feedback or no social comparison feedback. The Jindings point to the robustness of the helpless and mastery response patterns: the behaviour of learned helpless children, as compared to mastery oriented children, deteriorated following failure regardless of the social comparison feedback they recieved. However, the attributions made by the two groups of children differed. Mastery oriented children appeared to use social comparison information more accurately in that they appropriately made higher task difficulty ratings when receiving group failure feedback than when receiving personal failure feedback. Learned helpless children were more likely to use a self derogatory bias and made attributions to their low ability, even when presented with social comparison feedback that was contrary to their bias. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for education and for intervention with learned helpless children. 508 19 6 1989 In this study evidence is given on the mechanisms subjects use to guarantee the stability of their social representations. An initial interview was held in which subjects were asked about the causes of AIDS, affected groups and modes of transmission. Their responses were found to divide into two social representations of AIDS: a conservative blaming representation and a liberal representation. Subjects were then given technical information about AIDS. Two weeks later, the same subjects were given a free recall test and a recognition test. The results of these tests confirmed subject §s tendency to select information which is congruent with their pre existing representations, and to distort the recall of contradictory information in order to make it compatible with pre existing representations. 509 19 6 1989 In studies investigating the effects of reattribution training, reattributing to effort is confounded with forcing subjects to think about causes of their performance. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects on performance of having people think about causes of outcomes by means of measuring attributions for success or failure. The results indicate that measurement has a beneficial effect on performance after failure. Measurement of attributions after success does not affect performance or may even slightly deteriorate it. Explanations for these results are discussed. 510 20 1 1990 Three models of social influence are presented and their principles discussed in depth: social impact theory, the social influence model and group situation theory. A detailed model of social impact is developed and combined with the group situation theory. The integration of these concepts is utilized to reanalyse several classical studies in social facilitation, social inhibition, crowding, social loafing, and helping in an emergency. Finally, in order to emphasize their differences, the three models are used to explain the Asch studies. The combination of a detailed version of social impact theory with group situation theory results in a middle range theory of group behaviour. 511 20 1 1990 In this article, we examine the interpretations by social psychologists of Asch §s widely cited study of independence and conformity. Though it has become known as the Asch Conformity Study, Asch equally, if not more, intended and interpreted it as demonstrating the powers of independence. The evidence for this analysis consists of 99 accounts in social psychology textbooks published between 1953, following the appearance of his study, and 1984. We asked whether these accounts were accurate, or whether, as we suspected, they minimized the role of independence and exaggerated that of conformity. We found that authors have often distorted Asch §s findings, and that this trend has increased substantially with time: they have increasingly accentuated the role of conformity and underestimated that of independence. We suggest several reasons for this distortion. For one, there has been insufficient care in reading the findings and drawing conclusions. Second, authors have generally limited themselves to reports of quantitative results. Although these were strong and beyond question, authors have usually neglected the intimately connected qualitative findings, which would have discouraged the misinterpretations. Third, the study of Asch was an integral part of his perspective on social psychology, which authors again ignored, thus encouraging a limited and out of context view of his study. We conclude with a thematic presentation of Asch §s general theoretical framework, showing how it bears on independence and conformity. 512 20 1 1990 It was hypothesized that the manner in which attitudes influence behaviour is moderated by the level of effort required to perform a behaviour. The effort needed was manipulated in a field experiment by varying the difficulty of getting access to the attitude object. When the behaviour required substantial effort, the mediating role of intentions was strong, and attitudes had only indirect effects on behaviour, consistent with the theory of reasoned action. When the behaviour required little effort, however, attitudes had a significant direct effect on behaviour, and the mediating role of intentions was reduced. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. 513 20 1 1990 To provide evidence of the effects of academic training on causal attributions, university students in social science, commerce and engineering were compared at different points of their training in terms of their explanations of poverty and unemployment. Results of cross sectional analyses showed no field differences in causal attributions at the beginning of the first academic year but significant differences at the end of the year, with social science students blaming the system more than commerce or engineering students. Longitudinal analysis showed that, within a six month interval, the causal attributions of the students changed significantly as a function of their field of study. Differential employment prospects, while not accounting for the effects of academic training, were found to be related to attributional change. These results confirm the hypothesis that causal attributions are affected by socialization in a particular culture and that exposure to the culture of the social sciences reinforces a system blame ideology. The implications of these findings for theories of the attribution process and theories of intergroup relations are discussed. 514 20 1 1990 Advance planning discourse strategies are examined in an experiment where subjects expect to be in a communicative situation (discussion vs appraisal) with another speaker (expert vs peer) whose opinions on a given topic differ diametrically from theirs. Findings indicate that two complementary processes are implemented: one on the level of the components of the universe of reference (via predication operations) and the other on the level of relationships between actors (through hedges). 515 20 2 1990 "The importance of synchronic consistency as a factor facilitating minority influence had not previously been the object of a systematic study. We carried out a 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 experiment aimed at studying the consequences of a) ideological similarity or dissimilarity of two minority sources belonging to b) a single minority or two different ones, on subjects c) ideologically both close and distant from positions defended by the influence sources, d) according to the absence or presence of psychologization. In the main, our hypotheses were confirmed. As expected concerning the close subjects, in the absence of psychologization, the similarity and dissimilarity between minority sources take over, respectively, the signification of consistency and inconsistency and, consequently, increase or decrease the influence exerted by the minority sources. Psychologization decreases the benefits of synchronic consistency. Contrariwise, the distant subjects did not seem to follow the same logic: the condition of opinion dissimilarity in the same minority is the most influential; its influence, however, diminishes when the divergence of opinion is explained by means of a psychological dissimilarity. Data related to the image of the sources indicate that the influence process is no longer determined by perceived consistency or inconsistency, but by the objectivity attributed to minorities. Under these circumstances, intra minority pluralism became the guaranteer of objectivity. " 516 20 2 1990 Two experiments investigated the role of majority size (social pressure) in minority influence. Opposite predictions were derived from an attributional account and two social impact models. In Experiment 1 there was a tendency for minority influence to decrease with increasing majority size when the minority argued against gay rights. The results were stronger and clearer in Experiment 2. For pro abortion minorities, the minority §s impact clearly declined as the size of the opposing majority increased. As predicted by the social impact models, this decline occurred during the initial increase of the majority size. The limitations of the mathematical models are discussed. 517 20 2 1990 "In this article, a theoretical distinction is proposed between representative outgroup minorities (representative of a minority category in the society, e.g. gays) and dissident outgroup minorities (defined as a minority subgroup within a larger outgroup category). Two studies are reported comparing the social influence of dissident outgroup minorities with that of ingroup minorities (belonging to the subject §s own social category). It was predicted that a position advocated by a dissident outgroup minority would be more readily accepted than that of an ingroup minority, but that the ingroup minority would be more likely to elicit the generation of new, alternative solutions. A first experiment in which subjects were either exposed to an ingroup minority, an outgroup minority, or no influence source confirmed these predictions. In a second experiment, subjects were either exposed to a majority or to a minority source either belonging to the subject §s own social category or to the outgroup. The results indicate that the position of an ingroup majority was readily accepted whereas the otherwise identical message of an outgroup majority was rejected; neither ingroup nor outgroup majority stimulated the development of alternative proposals. Again, in line with Nemeth' (1986a) theory, the position of an ingroup minority was rejected but stimulated the generation of new, alternative proposals. The differential role of social category membership in minority and majority influence and the applicability of Nemeth' (1986a) theory to the attitude change area are discussed. " 518 20 2 1990 The present research was designed to identify types of events in everyday life that people regard as unjust and to find a meaningful structural representation of these types of events. Two hundred and eighty descriptions of unjust events were collected from various student samples using different methodologies. Interestingly, a considerable proportion of the injustices which were reported did not concern distributional or procedural issues in the narrow sense but referred to the manner in which people were treated in interpersonal interactions and encounters. An intuitive classification of the descriptions by two experts led to 22 different types of unjust events. Subsequently, a sample of 84 descriptions was selected and sorted by naive subjects into similar groupings. The grouping data were then subjected to cluster and multidimensional scaling analyses. A nineteen cluster solution reproduced the intuitively defined main types of unjust events very well. An eight cluster solution, which provided the most meaningful higher level grouping, and the MDS results indicated that a meaningful structural representation of types of injustices has to consider the particular content of unjust events as well as the social setting where they occur. With regard to the latter aspect, injustices in task oriented relationships of unequal power and impersonal short term encounters are distinguished from injustices occurring in personal, long term, social emotional relationships of equal power. 519 20 2 1990 "Four experiments were conducted to demonstrate that embarrassment and shame are distinct emotions that result from violations of different types of internalized standards. Embarrassment results from violating one §s particular persona; shame results from violating a shared, objective ideal. Subjects vividly imagined themselves in situations and indicated their emotional reactions. In Experiment I, we demonstrate that people differentiate between embarrassment and shame systematically (F(1,27) = 74.4, p < 0.001). In Experiments 2 and 3, we demonstrate that embarrassment results from violating a persona (n = 34, p < 0.001; n = 23, p < 0.001), and shame results from violating an objective ideal (n = 34, p < 0.001; n = 23, p < 0.001). In Experiment 4, we demonstrate that it is the type of standard that is violated (n = 30, p < 0.001), not whether or not the violation was intentional, that determines whether one experiences embarrassment or shame. We argue that both shame and embarrassment play an important role in maintaining personal identity. " 520 20 2 1990 This paper describes an innovative investigation of commonsense conceptions of emotion using a two person game where one player asked questions intended to determine the nature of an emotional state imagined by the other player. All questions used by players were then sorted into categories by expert judges. Based on cluster analysis, questions were categorized as relating to causes, characteristics, and consequences of emotional states. Potential advantages and applications of this technique are discussed. 521 20 3 1990 Four studies test both the alternative explanation advanced by Hoorens and Todorova (1988) for Nuttin §s (1984, 1985, 1987) name letter effect (NLE), and two interpretations for an unexplained finding of the former authors. Flemish, Hungarian and Thai children show an increasing rather than a decreasing NLE over primary school grades (studies 1, 2 and 4). Thai university students and school children prefer own name letters in their mother alphabet (Thai) but also in their second (Roman) alphabet (studies 3 and 4). All these results contradict the primacy of own name writing or mastery pleasure hypothesis. Independently of the time interval between the acquisition of both alphabets, a stronger NLE is found in the subjects mother alphabet than in their second alphabet, contradicting a mitigated mastery pleasure explanation for the stronger NLE in one §s mother alphabet (Hoorens and Todorova, 1988). All the data are consistent with Nuttin §s interpretation of the NLE in terms of the affective consequences of mere ownership. Finally, the striking generality of the NLE over languages, alphabets, and cultures is again demonstrated. 522 20 3 1990 Quantified behavioural signs of depression in relation to pessimism across cultures. First, by observing workmen in 1985 East and West Berlin bars, we found more behaviour consistent with depression in East Berliners than in West Berliners. We then measured pessimism in both cultures by assessing explanatory style in newspaper reports of the 1984 Winter Olympic Games. Despite having more Olympic victories to report, East Berlin newspaper accounts were more pessimistic than West Berlin reports. We suggest that, with proper controls, convergent measurements of explanatory style and behavioural signs consistent with depression allow to quantify pessimism and depression across culture and time. 523 20 3 1990 Previous social psychological theory and research based on the Minimal Group Paradigm have stressed the dominance of ingroup bias in intergroup evaluations and allocation behaviour. However, fairness in intergroup allocations has also been observed. Tested here were hypotheses derived from three non mutually exclusive theories: (1) Social Identity Theory (e.g. Tajfel and Turner, 1986), which predicts ingroup evaluative and allocation biases, (2) Ng §s (1981) Fate Control/Equity Paradigm, which predicts that ingroup bias in allocations occurs in relationships of mutual but not unilateral fate control, and (3) Social Value Theory (e.g. McClintock, 1972), which predicts that intergroup evaluations and allocation behaviours will vary as a function of the social value orientations of subjects. Evaluations were consistent with expectations from Social Identity Theory. Subjects, in general, evaluated ingroup members more favourably than the outgroup members. Allocations, however, were generally consistent with expectations from Social Value Theory, with prosocial subjects preferring fair to biased allocations, competitive subjects biased to fair ones. Neither allocation behaviour nor intergroup evaluations varied significantly as a function of the fate control relationship. 524 20 3 1990 The paper reports a study concerned with the effects of cognitive conflict, socio cognitive conflict and imitation on children §s socio legal thinking. Nine year old children whose socio legal thinking was lower level were paired with 9 and 11 year old children whose socio legal thinking was intermediate between lower and higher level for interaction in same sex dyads on legal transgression items. In total, 54 9 year old children and 18 11 year olds participated in the study. An experimental board game was used for all dyadic interactions. The four investigative phases included a pre test interview, dyadic interaction, one immediate and one delayed post test interview. The results indicated no overall superiority of subjects who could engage in socio cognitive conflict over subjects who were limited to cognitive conflict alone. In addition, lower and intermediate level subjects in both conflict conditions advanced over both post tests compared to a control group, arguing against a straightforward imitation account. Elements of subjects §s discourse during conflict were correlated with post test advancement. Marked differences emerged between lows and intermediates for socio cognitive conflict consonant with the constructivist view that social interactions and cognitive stages are interdependent. A complementary pattern of positive correlations emerged between discourse and cognitive conflict subjects §s advancement. 525 20 3 1990 The influence of group status and group size on intergroup attitude differentiation was investigated. Hypothesized was that members of high status groups would polarize their attitudes more than members of low status group, and that minorities would show greater sensitivity to status differences than majorities. The results show that status affected intergroup differentiation as predicted, while group size did not. 526 20 3 1990 Although folk wisdom suggests that a smile may enhance physical attractiveness, most studies in the area have failed to consider or control this factor. The present study was intended to examine the impact of smiling on judgements of physical attractiveness and other characteristics stereotypically ascribed to attractive persons. Consistent with predictions, it was found that smiling increased rated attractiveness when compared to a non smiling neutral expression. The necessity for controlling this factor in studies of attractiveness is therefore indicated. It was also demonstrated that smiling subjects were attributed greater degrees of sincerity, sociability, and competence, but lesser levels of independence and masculinity. Mediation analysis revealed that the effects of smiling on trait attribution were not due to increases in perceived attractiveness, suggesting that the impact of smiling on ratings of beauty and goodness occurs through independent processes. Potential explanations and implications of these processes were discussed. 527 20 4 1990 On the basis of social identity theory, we argue that the search for a positive social identity is characterized by the accentuation of perceived ingroup homogeneity relative to perceived outgroup homogeneity (the ingroup homogeneity effect). To test our specific hypotheses, we conducted an experiment in which some subjects were provided with a well defined group membership and others were allocated to ill defined groups. We also manipulated the information about the relative sizes of the groups. Subsequently, several measures of perceived dimensional and general group homogeneity were administered. As predicted, members of well defined groups revealed the ingroup homogeneity effect for an attribute associated with the definition of their group. On the other hand, members of ill defined groups displayed social creativity and selected alternative attributes to accentuate the relative ingroup homogeneity. Moreover, when intergroup comparisons did not contribute positively to the self concept, subjects accentuated their positive personal identity and evinced the outgroup homogeneity effect. Consistent with previous research, subjects identified more strongly with a well defined group when it was a minority rather than a majority. Minority members also perceived more general homogeneity within the ingroup than within the outgroup, whereas the majority members showed the opposite effect. Finally, the interrelationship between personal and social identity is briefly discussed. 528 20 4 1990 This longitudinal study was aimed at illuminating some fundamental problems with respect to the application of equity theory in intimate relationships. First the relationship between perceived equity and satisfaction was tested, and next it was ascertained whether inequity produces dissatisfaction or vice versa. A second issue addressed in the present study was whether global assessments of equity represent some type of calculation made by the subject of all the relevant inputs and outcomes. Finally, the elements subjects take into consideration when they respond to a global equity measure was assessed. These issues were examined in a sample of 736 primarily married subjects, including 259 couples who had been married for varying lengths of time. The results provide some evidence that equity has an effect upon satisfaction and not vice versa. The assumption that global assessments are based upon a weighted summing up of a representative set of inputs and outcomes was not supported. Instead, it was found that the global measure particularly reflects exchange elements such as commitment to the relationship, sociability and attentiveness. 529 20 4 1990 "Studies that examine causal attributions for acts by ingroup and outgroup members are reviewed. The tendency for attributions to favour ingroup over outgroup members is found in three paradigms explanations for positive and negative outcomes, success and failure, and group differences and in most of the 19 studies reviewed, but the evidence provides only limited support for Pettigrew §s (1979) ultimate attribution error. The evidence is limited to specific dimensions in a given study, but strongest for three general findings: (1) More internal attribution for positive acts, and less internal attribution for negative acts, by ingroup than outgroup members; (2) More attribution of outgroup than ingroup failure to lack of ability, and explaining away outgroup success to good luck, high effort or an easy task; (3) A preference for ingroup serving versus outgroup serving attributions for group differences. Finally, theoretical issues and methodological shortcomings are discussed with reference to future research. " 530 20 4 1990 Individuals appear to be more successful in discounting invalid evidence in studies which are set in courtroom settings than in studies done in the belief perseverance paradigm. Several differences between the two paradigms may explain this pattern. Most of these differences are ruled out by past research. We focused on differences in two domains, namely, encoding of the information and strength of the discounting appeals, and manipulated them experimentally. Even though the two manipulations were effective in influencing other judgments, they had no effect on success of discounting with guilt judgments. As in previous studies done within the courtroom paradigm, subjects were successful in discounting invalid evidence. Our interpretation for these findings involves the active process of discounting. Specifically, we assume that court settings activate a schema that leads people to deliberately correct for potential biases on the relevant guilt judgments. Since other judgments are less central within the court schema, they are not monitored actively and consequently are more susceptible to the effects of an invalid testimony. 531 20 4 1990 On the basis of prior research on the false consensus effect and on the perception of group homogeneity in minority majority contexts, it was hypothesized that (1) with no information regarding group size available, group members would see their own group in the majority position and perceive more outgroup than ingroup homogeneity and (2) this outgroup homogeneity effect would not occur, when there is no doubt about the numerical equality of ingroup and outgroup. Both hypotheses were confirmed in a laboratory study (n = 88). 532 20 4 1990 Subjects estimated how many Germans drink vodka or beer, or estimated the caloric content of these drinks. The former judgment, but not the latter, produced contrast effects on subsequent ratings of how typically German various drinks are. Thus, highly accessible extreme stimuli did only affect ratings if the first judgment pertained to the same underlying dimension. 533 20 5 1990 Recent research suggests the potential importance of dynamic aspects (e.g. speed of onset and offset and degree of irregularity) of facial movement for the encoding of spontaneous versus deliberate emotional facial expressions. The present studies were conducted to investigate whether emotion elicited and deliberate facial expressions of happiness and disgust differ regarding their dynamic features. Two experiments were designed to elicit spontaneous and deliberate facial expressions of happiness and disgust. The experiments differed regarding the deliberate facial expressions, which were either poses (Experiment 1) or masking deceptions (Experiment 2). Experiment 2 confirmed Ekman and Friesen S (1982) notion, that spontaneous expressions have slower onsets and offsets than do deliberate expressions. The data show that dynamic aspects of the facial expressions differentiate between elicitation conditions. However, the evidence was more consistently found for the degree of irregularity of the expression than for the speed of onset and offset. 534 20 5 1990 The Tajfel Turner Theory of Social Identity was used as a framework from which it was predicted that pupils of low attainment in secondary school should come to define themselves as indifferent to or opposed to the values of their schools. This hypothesis was examined in France and England, on self report measures covering values, aspirations, perceptions, evaluations, beliefs and motivations. While results show numerous differences between low and high attainers common to both countries, the differences are more pronounced in England. National differences are such that the French pupils are more like high attainers. Results are interpreted as being more consistent with low attaining pupils being victims of boredom rather than failure, with the French school culture providing greater insulation against such reactions. 535 20 5 1990 "The general aim of this paper is to show some of the limitations of the attribution theory approach to ordinary reasoning when compared to a discourse analytic alternative. Three central shortcomings with attribution theory are documented, each stemming from the method of presenting subjects with factual vignettes from which they are required to draw inferences: (a) its asocial and unexplicated notion of information; (b) its realist view of linguistic description; (c) its constrained account of participants §s activity. These paws are illustrated in practice through a discourse analytic study of the management of factual versions in a political dispute (over a controversial briefing between a British politician, Nigel Lawson, and a group of journalists). Specifically, it focuses on consensus information, examining the way notions of consensus are used when warranting and undermining versions. Two features of consensus accounts are examined: (a) consensus across a group of observers of an event; (b) corroboration between independent individuals. In each case, the rhetorical organization of factual accounts is documented by analysing both the way the consensus is constructed and the way it is undermined or discounted. The analysis explores how the facts of the matter, rather than existing as criteria for the resolution of disputation, were themselves part and parcel of the disputation itself: In attribution theory terms, the clear distinction between consensus information and the attributions which flow from it becomes unworkable. It is suggested that the analysis provides an exemplar for a discourse orientated social psychology of fact. " 536 20 5 1990 Appreciation of literature (understanding beyond literal comprehension and inference) is hypothesized to depend on readers §s application of knowledge derived from personal experiences, a cognitive process called personal resonance. The influence of cultural differences in personal experience on appreciating a literary work was studied through retrospective reports about remindings that occurred while reading. A Hungarian short story in which geographical and temporal location were left open was read by Danish (culturally distant) and Hungarian (culturally proximate) subjects. Cultural proximity was found to influence considerably readers §s location and overall evaluation of the story as well as the nature of remindings during the reading process. The culturally proximate Hungarian readers exhibited a higher level of personal resonance: they had more vivid remindings and were reminded of more complete events (as opposed to decontextualized event elements), particularly more personally experienced events. The personal relevance, pleasantness, and aggressiveness of the evoked memories were important determinants of readers §s overall evaluation of the story, but with very different patterns in the two cultural groups. 537 20 5 1990 Do emotional states influence the social judgments made by groups and individuals? Based on affect cognition theories and research on group judgmental shifts, we predicted that group discussion will enhance positive mood effects on judgments, but inhibit affectively based distortions in dysphoric moods. Positive, neutral and negative moods were induced using audiovisual presentations. Individual and group consensus judgments of nine person categories on three judgmental dimensions (evaluation, competence and self confidence) were obtained in two experimental sessions separated by a two week interval. Results showed that individuals made more positive judgments when happy, and more negative judgments when sad than did controls. Group discussion resulted in a further polarization of positive judgments, and the attenuation of negative judgments. The findings are interpreted as evidence for the important role affect plays in mediating both individual cognitive processes and interactive social behaviours. The implications of the results for contemporary affect cognition theories and models of group behaviour are considered. 538 20 5 1990 Eight and eleven year olds §s explanations for the self presentational behaviour of story characters provided clear support for a predicted shift between these ages from understanding in terms of psychological to understanding in terms of interpersonal processes. However, a prediction that the strategy of self promotion would be better understood than that of ingratiation was not supported. 539 20 6 1990 Examined the prevalence of an interpersonal device, namely insult types, in a collectivistic and individualistic cultural context as an index of how the concept of person is culturally constructed. Insults were divided into three general categories, individualistic (those that refer directly to a person), relational (those that refer to a person and his/her significant relations) and swear words. An examination of the insults subjects produced in Catania, southern Italy (collectivistic), Trieste, northern Italy (individualistic) and Bologna, central Italy, partially confirmed the hypothesized differences in types of verbal abuse. In the collectivistic context instances of verbal abuse are significantly more likely to be directed to a person and his/her relations than in the individualistic context. The social psychological implications of these findings are discussed. 540 20 6 1990 Groups of subjects participated in a series of 30 noncooperative independent single trial resource dilemmas. On each trial the subjects in each group requested privately a number of points from a common pool. Individual requests were granted if and only if the total group request was equal to or smaller than the pool size. The pool size on each trial was sampled randomly from a uniform distribution that was common knowledge. Asymmetry in payoff was induced by assigning to each group member a different points to money exchange rate. The results show that as the uncertainty about the pool size increases subjects (1) overestimate the pool size, (2) increase their requests, and (3) expect others to increase their requests. In addition (4) individual requests and expectations regarding others §s requests are inversely related to the exchange rates, reflecting attempts to equate payoffs across group members. 541 20 6 1990 "This study was conducted to determine the impact of social support for the minority position and the minority §s argument refutation of the majority viewpoint. The results indicated that both the minority §s refutation of majority arguments and majority defection to the minority position enhanced minority influence. Subjects changed more toward the minority position when the minority could refute the majority position than when the minority could not; the more arguments the minority refuted, the greater was minority influence. In addition, minority influence was a positive function of the number of the majority members who deserted to the minority position. " 542 20 6 1990 A central contention of much of the literature about the nature of work values and the meaning of work is that there is (or at least has been) a consensual work ethic operating in modern industrial societies. This premise has surprisingly, rarely been put to the test. In this paper, evidence for a modern work ethic is obtained from the European Values Survey. The link between this work ethic and religion is then explored. While one conclusion of the analysis is that it is still an identifiably Protestant ethic, contextual analysis demonstrates that the effect of a country §s religious culture is more potent than the religious beliefs of the individual. 543 20 6 1990 An experiment (n = 61) investigated the effects of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity on ingroup favouritism, stereotyping and the overestimation of relative ingroup size. As predicted, outgroup homogeneity was conducive to ingroup favouritism. Ingroup homogeneity, however, failed to influence ingroup favouritism. Also unexpectedly, asymmetry in group homogeneity irrespective of whether the ingroup or the outgroup was the more homogeneous group led to pronounced stereotyping of both groups and to the overestimation of relative ingroup size. 544 20 6 1990 Results of two experiments using a forbidden toy paradigm partially confirm those of a former study which showed an interaction between social class level of the children and threat severity on the final rankings of the toy. Lower class children derogated the forbidden toy more than middle class children in the harsh threat condition. Opposed results were observed in the mild threat condition. Interpretation of such results seems difficult in terms of cognitive dissonance theory. 545 20 6 1990 In this study, the following hypothesis concerning the social value of risk taking is advanced: young men who wish to assert themselves and to gain prestige tend to take greater risks in public when together with other young men than do young men who do not have these wishes, whereas there is no such difference in risk taking in private. This hypothesis is empirically tested and is supported. 546 21 1 1991 Using a variant of the minimal group paradigm (Tajfel and Turner, 1986), this study tested the effects of power, status and group numbers on intergroup behaviours and perceptions. Subjects (N = 160) were categorized into groups that varied on status (high or low), power (dominant or subordinate) and group numbers (majority or minority) variables within a 2 × 2 × 2 experimental design. Based on their evaluations of others §s creative products, subjects distributed credit points to ingroup and outgroup others using the Tajfel matrices. Results showed that dominant group members were much more discriminatory and less parity oriented towards outgroup others than subordinate group members. High status group members were more discriminatory and less parity oriented than low status group members. Minority group members who were dominant and of high status were highly discriminatory and were unique in showing no parity whatsoever towards outgroup others. Subordinate low status minorities did not discriminate and were exceptional in showing out group favouritism. Relative to group status and group numbers, group power seemed more predictive of actual discriminatory behaviour. Group status accounted for the greatest variance in social identification and intergroup perceptions measures. Results also showed that social categorization was sufficient to elicit more in group than outgroup liking amongst all group members regardless of their position in the intergroup structure. Overall, this study indicated that power, status and group numbers independently and in combination, have a strong impact on intergroup behaviours and perceptions. 547 21 1 1991 An experiment tested the hypothesis that the mere categorization of people into social groups spontaneously instigates a mechanism through which group relevant information is perceived and processed in a biased manner. This in turn may result in the erroneous perception of correlation between group and behaviour. Subjects were initially assigned to be members of a minority group, a majority group, or were not assigned to a group. They were then presented with a series of statements that described members of the two groups performing either desirable or undesirable behaviours. Results showed that unaffiliated subjects perceived an illusory group behaviour correlation, indicating the operation of a cognitive bias to associate the minority group with distinctive behaviours. Subjects who were themselves members of the observed groups perceived illusory correlations that favored their own group, indicating a very different sort of bias. The results suggest that a categorization based ingroup favoritism guided the manner in which group information was processed. These data lend support to the contention that social categorization spontaneously instigates specific cognitive mechanisms that contribute to group stereotype formation. 548 21 1 1991 Examined the hypothesis that information enhancing category differences receives greater weight in estimates of category means than information that reduces such differences. In the first experiment, subjects estimated the cumulative means of test scores of two groups of students. The experimental manipulation involved a gradual shift of the true mean of one group either towards or away from the true mean of the other group. As predicted, changes of estimates were larger when the two means became more dissimilar than when they became more similar. The second experiment involved otherwise identical procedures, but the variance in one category was increased while the mean remained stable. Subjects perceived an illusory change of the mean away from the comparison category. It is suggested that accentuation effects of this kind may limit the reduction of social stereotypes. 549 21 1 1991 This study presents the outline of a model for collective phenomena. A symmetry breaking model combines a number of well established social psychology hypotheses with recent concepts of statistical physics. Specifically we start out from the regularities obtained in studies on the polarization of attitudes and decisions. From a strictly logical point of view, it is immediately clear that aggregation effects must be analysed separately from group effects as such. The conceptual analysis of the assumed mechanisms reveals that when we deal with phenomena that have until now been designated as polarization phenomena, we are faced not with a single phenomenon, as was believed hitherto, but with a whole class of phenomena. For this reason it would be appropriate to deal with them differentially both from an empirical and from a theoretical point of view. It is possible to show, moreover, that in principle polarization is a direct function of interaction and, beyond a critical threshold an inverse function of the differentiation between group members. A certain number of verifiable conjectures are presented on the basis of physio mathematical psychological considerations. It is to be hoped that these theoretical outlines will make it possible to give a new lease on life to a field of research that has established solid facts, but that became trapped in a dead end road, for lack of a sufficiently broad analysis. 550 21 1 1991 Subjects were presented with an easy or moderately difficult memorization task and told they could earn either a very low or very high chance of obtaining a modest prize if they did well. A measure of goal attractiveness was taken during an interval immediately preceding the task performance period. As expected, anticipatory goal attractiveness ratings were higher in the moderately difficult condition than in the easy condition when the probability of goal attainment (given success) was high, but were low in both task conditions when the probability of goal attainment (given success) was low. Results are discussed in terms of Brehm §s recent theory of motivation. 551 21 1 1991 The studies reported here were conducted within the TELEMED project which is funded by the European Community within the RACE program. This study examines whether the recognition of emotion from facial expressions is impaired by deterioration of spatial resolution, contrast resolution, and picture size. Eighty judges rated 65 stimuli under 11 conditions: Undistorted, reduced spatial resolution (three steps), reduced contrast resolution (three steps), reduced picture size (three steps), and a very hard condition combining the severest spatial and contrast resolution. Variation in picture quality was achieved by using a digital video recorder. Recognition rate and intensity ratings were not significantly affected by variations in contrast resolution or picture size. The only significant reduction of recognition rate and intensity ratings resulted from reduction in spatial resolution, but only with the largest deterioration in such resolution. Results are discussed with respect to the fundamental importance of facial expressions in interaction and communication, and with respect to applications, such as tele conferencing systems. 552 21 2 1991 Two experiments dealing with the effects of a majority or a minority source influence, solely on the recognition of a portrait, let us study the generalization of the influence to a portrait symbolically linked to a colour. According to the theory of conversion, the bringing into play of the validation process of the stimulus when the source is a minority should allow such a generalization cognitive association. When the source is a majority, a social comparison process should lead to compliance about the portrait, without any cognitive investigation of the whole stimulus. In the first experiment, four slides were shown successively using material similar to Luchins §s (1945) and progressively drawing the portrait of Lenin, with a red orange background for each phase. The dependant variables are: (1) the drawing, (2) the colour of the background, (3) the after image. On the two last slides for which the answer Lenin is given by the source, changes towards red (and the complementary colour green), in the absence of the source under the minority influence, and changes towards orange under majority influence in the absence of the source are registered. Moreoever, the most significant changes of the colour judgment are due to the subjects who refuse to answer Lenin during the interaction. In the second experiment, only the fourth slide, on which Lenin §s portrait completely appears is shown. The subjects submitted to majority influence answer Lenin more than the control group does, only in the presence of the source and change their judgment on the colour of the after image towards the complementary of orange in the absence of the source. When the source is a minority a sinificant effect towards the red and its complementary colour is shown. 553 21 2 1991 "An experiment was conducted within a new paradigm for Festinger §s theory of dissonance (1957): the double forced compliance paradigm (Joule, 1986a). Double compliance was used to test dissonance reduction following the execution of not just one, as in the classical paradigm, but two forced compliance behaviours. The first behaviour involved abstinence from smoking, and the second, writing a text for or against smoking. Based on the radical conception of the theory of dissonance (Beauvois and Joule, 1981; Joule, 1986b), subjects were expected to find tobacco deprivation more difficult after having written a text against smoking than before, and easier after having written a text in favour of smoking. The results confirmed these predictions. " 554 21 2 1991 Various implications regarding evaluative inference in social cognition are derived from (a) a relativistic evaluative meaning concept dealing with evaluation as an interaction between descriptive attributes associated with the perceived object on the one side and evaluative standards belonging to the perceiver on the other side, and (b) a concept of evaluative positive negative asymmetry that completes and integrates more simple concepts regarding the halo effect, negativity effect, and positivity bias. In subsequent sections empirical support for those implications is provided from (a) a review of previous research on impression formation, and (b) two new experiments in which effects associated with positivity bias, negativity effect, halo effect and the supplements implied by the positive negative asymmetry concept were isolated from each other using a multifactorial ANOVA design. The results showed strong halo effects and positivity biases. Room for negativity effects was left only under very specific conditions which, however, were consistent with the positive negative asymmetry concept. 555 21 2 1991 "An experiment on the comprehension of, and memory for, texts of varying degrees of plausibility is reported. Previous studies on conservatives §s art preferences (concerning poetry and music) showed that they favoured works of art that were conventional and relatively simple; this was explained in terms of conservatives §s generalised intolerance of ambiguity. The present study sought to extend the previous research by examining conservatives §s and non conservatives §s memory of and preferences for texts of varying plausibility. When plausibility is disrupted, texts recount strange, unexpected and ambiguous sequences of actions and events. It was found that conservative subjects §s memory for texts of varying plausibility was similar to that of non conservatives when overall recall is considered, but there was a greater tendency for conservatives to import inferences (novel propositions which had not been present in the original text) into their recall protocols and to distort their recall (although the latter effect is only marginally significant). They also showed much stronger preferences for plausible over implausible texts compared to non conservatives. These results accord well with the previous findings on art preferences, and were explained in terms of the conservatives seeking to avoid or minimise ambiguity. " 556 21 2 1991 In this study 97 subjects were observed during free discussions in same sex triads and dyads. In earlier research, it has been found that rank ordering in ad hoc groups occurs at a very early phase of the interaction. In this study it is shown that, in the absence of status characteristics, rank ordering occurs not only right from the beginning of group interactions, but even exists after a first glance, before one word has been spoken. Not only nonverbal behaviours that are usually associated with the development or maintenance of a dominance position appear to be predictive for the amount of talking in the discussion to follow, but also personality measures. As the verbal interactions do not result in a change of the first glance rank ordering, our data support the view that rapid judgements of interpersonal relationships may occur without much cognitive information processing. 557 21 3 1991 Two experiments investigated the role of message originality vs. conventionality in social influence. It was hypothesized that subjects would generate more original proposals when confronted with a minority advocating an original viewpoint than when confronted with a conventional minority proposal or with an original majority proposal. In the first experiment, subjects exposed to an original minority paired with a conventional majority produced a wider range and more original proposals than those exposed either to a conventional minority paired with a conventional majority or to a majority source only. The second experiment further demonstrated that the original message induced creative processing only when attributed to a minority source but not when attributed to a majority source. It also showed that the original minority elicited creative processing mainly when paired with a conventional majority, but not when paired with a majority advocating an equally original position. Findings are interpreted in the frame of Nemeth §s (1986) minority influence theory. 558 21 3 1991 In a 2 × 2 design, 85 subjects were asked to estimate the size of angles (direct influence) that were either 90 or 85°, after being confronted with incorrect judgements of a majority (88 per cent) or a minority (12 per cent) of people estimating the angles at 50°. Additionally, pre and post test measures were used to establish indirect influence on subjects §s judgements pertaining to acute angles (i.e. on the estimation of the length of lines constituting the angles, and on the imaginary weight of figures represented by these angles). Overall, little direct influence is observed. This may partly be due to the introduction of a denial of the credibility of the source in all conditions. In fact, some evidence of direct influence is only found in the majority–85° angles condition. An instance of indirect influence (on the estimation of length of lines) appeared as the result of a majority stance when the angles in the experimental phase were 90°. When these angles were 85°, indirect minority influence (on the estimation of weight of figures) was observed. These effects had been predicted on the basis of the hypothesis stating that indirect majority influence would be possible when subjects expected consensus on the correct response (in the 90° angles condition), without being able to reach consensus at the manifest level (because of the denial and the restriction imposed by the clear shape of 90° angles). Indirect minority influence was hypothesized to be stronger in a situation that allows for diverse responses (i.e. for 85° angles). 559 21 3 1991 A first experiment examined the effects of two methods of dividing resources between Swiss nationals and foreign residents in a study involving 118 subjects. Subjects gave judgments involving either interdependent allocation (resources allocated to the outgroup cannot be allocated to the ingroup) or independent allocation. The results indicated that the socio cognitive functioning preferred by subjects varies as a function of their view of outsiders. Interdependence of judgments was more characteristic of the most xenophobic subjects, whereas the least xenophobic were more likely to reason in terms of independence. On the other hand, intermediate subjects (those who were clearly neither for nor against outsiders) were sensitive to these modalities of judgment: interdependence engendered an ingroup favouritism, while independence counteracted this bias. A second experiment further analysed the influence of a more or less imperative minority argument on the attitudes of 109 more xenophobic subjects. Independent as compared to interdependent judgment facilitated a latent influence by the source, especially when the source employed a more imperative rhetoric to urge a more favourable attitude to foreigners. 560 21 3 1991 Numerous experiments have illustrated the intervention of social regulations in individual cognitive functioning, applying such concepts as social co ordination, socio cognitive conflict and social marking. Two experiments, involving secondary school pupils are presented within this general framework. The first tests the hypothesis that individual cognitive functioning, highlighted in a task requiring mobilization of knowledge learned to that end, can under certain conditions be regulated by experimentally induced social resources. The second experiment uses the same paradigm to compare the information processing, under anonymous versus individuated conditions, of pupils respectively with successful and unsuccessful academic histories. The results of both experiments indicate that cognitive functioning is strongly influenced by the social situations created within the experimental settings. These results are discussed in terms of the social meta systems which may intervene in cognitive processes. 561 21 3 1991 Subjects were exposed either to positive–positive evaluations or to negative positive evaluations. In addition, evaluator §s credibility was manipulated (high, low, neutral). Liking for the evaluator, perceived correctness, and perceived contingency of the evaluations were assessed as dependent variables. The gain effect suggested by Aronson and Linder (1965) was not found in any of the three dependent measures. Implications of these findings are discussed. 562 21 3 1991 Forty two adult subjects, 21 male and 21 female, were asked to rate 16 distinct movement expressions as to their expressiveness of aggression and grief. Each movement expressed anger or grief at one of four levels of diagnosticity. Of each movement two performances were selected, one by a male, the other by a female encoder. With higher levels of diagnosticity, higher ratings were given. The male encoder was rated higher in aggression than the female with movements at a high or moderate level of aggression, and lower than the female with movements at the lowest levels of diagnosticity. The female encoder was rated higher in grief than the male at all levels of diagnosticity. 563 21 3 1991 Concern has been expressed in the literature regarding the method of scoring beliefs within expectancy value models of attitudes. This paper reviews the major issues and focuses upon some hitherto largely neglected problems with scoring methods. Empirical findings from a series of studies concerned with the theory of reasoned action are examined: with a multiplicative Combination of beliefs and evaluations, it is found that bipolar scoring of belief items leads to higher correlations of the summed products of beliefs and evaluations with attitudes than are achieved with unipolar scoring. These findings contrast markedly with recently reported research and indicate the important role played by contextual factors (such as belief content and the response scales presented to subjects). It is concluded that more attention needs to be paid to the relationship between conceptual and methodological issues. 564 21 4 1991 The present study examines the influence of pre existing individual differences in social value orentations, or preferences for certain patterns of outcomes to oneself and others (McClintock, 1978), on perceptions of rationality in a social dilemma. In Experiment 1 conducted in Groningen (the Netherlands), it was found that people with pro social orientations expected more cooperation from another described as intelligent than from another described as unintelligent, whereas individualists and competitors expected relatively more cooperation from another described as unintelligent. The cross cultural generalizability of this finding was examined and supported in Experiment 2 which was conducted in Santa Barbara (U.S.A.). Results from both studies are consistent with the Goal Prescribes Rationality Principle (Van Lange, Liebrand and Kuhlman, 1990) which assumes that people with pro social (cooperative) orientations would perceive rationality in social dilemmas primarily from the collective perspective, whereas individualists and competitors would take a strong egocentric perspective on rationality. In addition, we found a strong relationship between expectations of other §s cooperation and own cooperative behaviour when the other was described as intelligent. The strength of this relationship was reduced, particularly for individualists and competitors, when the other person was described as unintelligent. 565 21 4 1991 Two experiments investigated whether the direction of priming effects depends on the processing stage at which the individual links the prime to a trait that is applicable to the evaluation of an ambiguously described target person. In line with previous research, it is hypothesized that assimilation effects will emerge when primes are processed in terms of a trait concept that is applicable to the encoding task. However, when the primes are not processed in applicable trait terms, they may still affect subsequent Judgments if the individual recalls the prime when judging the target along a trait dimension. In this case, the primes may serve as an anchor, resulting in contrast effects. Two experiments, in which subjects were primed with names of prototypically nice or hostile famous individuals under instructions that did or did not prompt subjects to process the prime in applicable trait terms, supported these hypotheses. Implications for the emergence of priming effects in everyday social interaction are discussed. 566 21 4 1991 While there has been much research on organizational innovation and on individual creativity, little research has examined the social psychological factors predicting work group innovation. In this exploratory study, using a new measure of innovativeness, eight health care teams were studied. Members of five innovative and three traditional teams (comprising 43 health care professionals) completed questionnaires examining aspects of individual and group work experience, and produced inventories of innovation reports. On the basis of these inventories, team innovativeness was rated by experienced health care professionals. Team innovation was predicted by climate for innovation (in particular tolerance of diversity), team commitment and team collaboration. The content of health care team innovations was also examined to reveal current trends. 567 21 4 1991 According to Taifel §s accentuation theory, national stereotypes can be thought of as the correlation between trait dimensions and national affiliations, This correlation is high when the trait shows high homogeneity within and high distinctiveness between the national groups. The present study tested the hypothesis that a trait §s distinctiveness would facilitate inductive stereotypic judgements (inferences from trait to nationality) whereas homogeneity would facilitate deductive stereotypic judgements (inferences from nationality to trait). The latencies of inductive and deductive stereotypic judgements of 48 German subjects were assessed for 39 traits and three foreign nationalities (English, French, Italian). Multiple regression analyses using latencies for both types of judgements us criterion variables and both distinctiveness and homogeneity as predictor variables were conducted. The stereotype measures of Katz and Braly and McCauley and Stitt served as additional predictor variables. As expected from accentuation theory, distinctiveness predicted inductive but not deductive latencies, whereas homogeneity predicted deductive but not inductive latencies. For the latencies of deductive stereotypic judgements, the stereotype measure of Katz and Braly as well as that of McCauley and Stitt also proved to be significant predictors. The results are discussed and recommendations are given with respect to the assessment of national stereotypes. 568 21 4 1991 The existence of context specific ethnic stereotypes and their effect on evaluations of contact with ethnic groups is examined in a survey of 1694 Dutch secondary school students. Interethnic evaluations and 13 trait attributions towards five ethnic groups were measured in three basic social domains: as neighbours, classmates and (marital) partners. The 13 trait attributions were also measured for ethnic groups in general and for people in general. The first hypothesis was that stereotypes operationalized as diagnostic ratios were better predictors of interethnic evaluation than stereotypes operationalized as percentage scores. The second hypothesis was that contextual stereotypes are better predictors of interethnic evaluation than general group stereotypes. It was found that diagnostic ratios do not predict interethnic evaluations better than percentage scores. For most ethnic groups contextual stereotypes are better predictors of interethnic evaluations than general group stereotypes. 569 21 4 1991 This paper reports a study comparing the memorability of information that either confirmed, disconfirmed, or was irrelevant to, particular real life social group stereotypes. Memory for both stereotype confirming and stereotype disconfirming material was enhanced relative to that for material which was stereotype irrelevant. Further, there were no differences between the memory for stereotype confirming and disconfirming information. Implications for stereotype stability and change are noted. 570 21 4 1991 Ninety three students were exposed to majority and minority influence in an inductive reasoning task. The former induced convergent thinking processes, though its effects were not reducible to mere compliance. The latter activated more divergent constructive processes, supporting the predictions of Conversion Theory. 571 21 4 1991 While a compliance strategy induced almost all subjects to agree to forego first a lunch and then a dinner and the following breakfast, simply observing an accomplice break his commitment to forego lunch was enough to produce a significant reduction in subjects §s commitment to forego two meals, even though the effect was not immediate. This pattern of influence, similar to a behavioural conversion, appeared if the accomplice had first agreed to the initial request and only later refused to continue, but not if he refused to make the commitment at the outset. 572 21 5 1991 In 1908 Ebbinghaus distinguished between the long past and the short history of psychology. The short history dated from 1879 when Wundt established a psychological laboratory at Leipzig. The long past concerns the time when psychology was a branch of philosophy. Implicit in such a break with the past is a positivist philosophy of science. I show how this philosophy of science distorts the historical record. I then analyse the history of social psychology. Unwittingly Lindzey and Aronson (1985) distinguish between the long past of social psychology as part of the Western intellectual tradition and its short history as an experimental science that is mainly American. Murchison §s Handbook of Social Psychology (1935), whilst marking the boundary between the long past and the short history, belongs to the long past. The break with tradition came in 1954, when Lindzey published the first Handbook in the modern series. There is a self conscious need, in the post World War II era, to train a whole new generation of social psychologists. The Lindzey series of Handbooks meets that need. The progress of modern social psychology is now measured in terms of its distance from the Murchison milestone of 1935. 573 21 5 1991 Adolescents from three Italian cities responded to a questionnaire concerning the particular peer group with which they were associated and identification with their family, aspects of the process of coping with seven developmental tasks, and demographic characteristics. The participants were 1600 male and female teenagers, with a mean age of 16.28 years, who were approached at schools and various meeting places in three Italian cities. The study shows that effective coping with developmental tasks depends largely on the degree of identification with both family and peer group. Those who identify with both social groupings show advantages in various critical situations. Adolescents only identifying with either family or peers get emotional and instrumental support from that group but not from the other, thus, they are supported in some critical situations but not in others. Adolescents who are unwilling or unable to identify with their family and/or their peers are less successful in managing the transition to adulthood than others who are close to their parents and peers. Consistent with the findings of previous studies, the type of group adolescents join, be it a formal group or an informal street group, has no significant effect on their coping strategies. 574 21 5 1991 This study investigated the effects of sex membership and its salience on individuals §s self stereotyping and the motivation to define oneself positively (self enhancement). Bem §s (1981) gender schema and Markus §s (1977) self schema theories were interpreted within the framework of inter group relations, which emphasized their respective bipolar and unipolar structures. The use men and women made of these cognitive schemas, as well as of self enhancement, was tested by examining latencies in self descriptions on the BSRI attributes (Bem, 1974). Subjects described themselves and rated the stereotypicality and the positiveness of these attributes in one of two situations. A situation stressed a personal level of categorization (the individual setting), another a social level (the group setting). The first hypothesis was that the situations influence individuals §s selection of specific self defining strategies. Results supported this expectation when considering the motivational strategy and the gender schema. Self enhancement was slightly more used in the individual than the group setting, and the gender schema was salient only in the group setting. The second hypothesis was that distinct self stereotyping processes occur as a function of the sex of the subjects. Support for this hypothesis was again found only for the gender schema, with women displaying this schema more than men. Sex differences in schematic thinking were interpreted as ensuing from status positions of women and men in the social structure. 575 21 5 1991 An investigation was made into the stability of important self described goals of young men and women aged 18 to 20 years old using the results of analyses of two goal assessments having an intervening period of 5 months. A theoretical perspective was adopted which assumed goals are future selves or possible selves, thus linking the self concept to motivation. An adapted version of Nuttin §s Motivational Content Analysis (1985) was used to assess individual goals. It was hypothesized that women may have greater instability of self concept and possible selves than men. Findings of the study showed the contrary, and revealed that men and women had similarly stable goals over time. Results are compared to other research on the self concept and to the problems of self concept measurement. 576 21 5 1991 The hypothesis that the degree of contextual dependence of interpersonal verbs (as defined by Semin and Fiedler (1988) in their LCM) significantly affects the strength of causality implicit in such verbs is assessed in an experiment. Results show that both the strength of causal inference induced by the verb and the degree of respondents §s confidence in their own judgements increases from descriptive action verbs (DAV), to interpretive action verbs (IAV), to state action verbs (SAV), to state verbs (SV). Furthermore, the effect of contextual factors (gender of the stimulus sentence subject and object and respondents §s gender) is shown to be stronger for more descriptive verbs like DAV and weaker for more abstract verbs like SV. 577 21 5 1991 Perspective taking is central to much social interaction, but the processes by which it is accomplished are poorly understood. The current study examines accuracy and bias in one type of perspective taking: inferences about what others know. Twenty two New York City landmarks were presented in three conditions: Picture Only, Picture + Name and Name Only. Subjects estimated the proportion of short and long term New York City residents who could identify each landmark from its picture. They also rated their subjective recognition of the stimuli. Subjects in all three conditions were good at estimating stimulus identifiability, but their estimates were biased in the direction of their own knowledge. Estimates of the difference in identifications by short and long term residents were relatively inaccurate, probably because the two groups differed less than anticipated. For most but not all subjects, subjective feelings of recognition were significantly correlated with estimates of identifiability. We conclude that perceptions of the distribution of knowledge are socially shared. 578 21 5 1991 Previous research suggests that people who experience romantic jealousy in their relationships are typically low in self esteem and high in neuroticism. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether the effects of personality are moderated by the nature of the relationships. Data based on 101 respondents suggest that the jealousy–personality correlations are more apparent among dating couples with less established relationships. 579 21 6 1991 When people recall an event collaboratively we may expect the product to be influenced by the combined cognitive resources of the group, interpersonal acquaintance of the members, and social competition engendered by salient intergroup considerations. Using undergraduate students and serving police officers as subjects, a range of experimental conditions was established which varied on the three factors of cognitive resources of the participants (Cognitive Resources), interpersonal acquaintance of the participants (Interpersonal Acquaintance) and professional salience (Professional Salience) of the recall material. Participants answered a questionnaire concerning a police interrogation they had witnessed, and rated how much confidence they had in their answers. Multiple regression revealed statistically significant associations between (i) Cognitive Resources and number of correct answers, (ii) Interpersonal Acquaintance and confidence for implicational errors, and (iii) Professional Salience and (a) number of implicational errors and (b) confidence in confusional errors. The theoretical implications for our understanding of memory as a social process are discussed, and the practical implications for courtroom testimony briefly described. 580 21 6 1991 Three age groups of children and adolescents (9–10, 13–14, and 17–18 years old) were asked to indicate sources of information which serve as their epistemic authority in nine knowledge areas and to attribute reasons for their choices. In general, the results showed that children and adolescents differentiate among sources and select their epistemic authorities according to knowledge areas. It was found that while the perception of parents as epistemic authorities decreases with age, the perception of self increases considerably and becomes an important epistemic authority. In spite of the decrease in the perception of parents as epistemic authorities, they continue to be a significant source of knowledge. In addition, the perception of friends as epistemic authority increases relatively in social knowledge areas. With regard to causal explanation, it was found that children and adolescents use various reasons to explain their selection of epistemic authority. They differentiated among their reasons on the basis of the selected source. Knowledge denotating source expertise was used as the most important reason. The selection of oneself was mainly attributed to familiarity, and helpfulness was used to explain the selection of mother, friend and father as epistemic authorities. Friend was also selected because of similarity. Age differences with regard to use of reasons reflected changes in source selection. This line of research sheds light on the interpersonal nature of knowledge acquisition. 581 21 6 1991 Manis et al. (1986, 1988) have suggested that, when a classification is superimposed on a series of items, this can lead to a reduction in the judged differences between the classes (interclass assimilation), whereas most previous research points to an accentuation of interclass differences. In a modified replication of conditions used by Manis et al., 82 subjects were presented with a series of vocabulary definitions, indicative of varying degrees of thought disturbance, supposedly provided by patients at different hospitals. For experimental but not control subjects, each definition was attributed to a patient from one of two hospitals, and the earlier items in the series were chosen so as to induce the expectation that patients from one hospital were more disturbed than those from the other. Subjects then compared pairs of midscale definitions (one from each hospital) and indicated which definition in the pair they considered more disturbed. Ratings of these test pairs by experimental subjects differed from those of controls in a direction of reduced discrimination between the classes, confirming the basic finding of Manis et al. This effect was not consistently influenced by the extremity of the induction series. Since the interclass assimilation effect found for test items also occurred for the induction items, our findings do not favour an interpretation in terms of midscale items being contrasted from other members of their class (within class contrast). However, those subjects who were more confident in their ratings of the induction items showed less interclass assimilation. Implications for theories of category use and social stereotyping are discussed. 582 21 6 1991 "In order to examine the effects of filmed violence expectancy, male subjects were induced to think that they would watch an aggressive or neutral movie. The behavioural measures of aggression of the potential viewers were collected via an interaction aggressometer that allowed subjects to manipulate the level of aversiveness of electric shocks supposedly delivered to others. Main results indicated that the mere anticipation of viewing an aggressive movie was already effective in producing the usual instigation effect of filmed violence. Evidence was also provided indicating that degree of physical provocation influenced subjects §s aggressive responses. The results are discussed in terms of Berkowitz' (1984) cognitive neoassociation analysis; anticipating a violent movie may prime aggressive behaviour. " 583 21 6 1991 Two studies investigated the pervasiveness of race as a social categorization and whether the organization of information around racial categories is sensitive to contextual factors. Both studies measured accentuation effects (more intra than inter race errors) and own group bias (fewer confusions between own than other group members) in person memory, using the paradigm developed by Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff and Ruderman (1978). Experiment 1 studies the generalization of these effects across ethnic group membership (black/white) and topic (categorization relevant/irrelevant) in a 2 × 2 [× 4] between subject design, with type of error as a repeated measure. There was a highly significant accentuation effect, which was not affected by either topic or group membership. Experiment 2, using white subjects only, manipulated anticipated future interaction/no interaction, which affected overall accuracy/error rate, but not the strong accentuation effect. Neither study found any support for an own group bias. Results are discussed in terms of the automaticity of race as a basis for social categorization. 584 21 6 1991 To test theoretical ideas derived from classic and recent social comparison theory, two studies examined affiliative tendencies as a response to marital problems among individuals varying in marital dissatisfaction. Study 1 (n. = 632) showed that the higher the degree of marital dissatisfaction and the higher the uncertainty about how things are going in one §s marriage, the stronger was the desire for affiliation (operationalized as the desire to talk with others about one §s marriage). Moreover, among individuals high in marital dissatisfaction, a preference for upward affiliation was found, i.e. for contact with others having better marriages. Individuals with lower levels of dissatisfaction preferred affiliation with similar others. Women experienced more uncertainty and a stronger affiliative tendency than men. In Study 2 (n = 233), these findings were largely replicated. Moreover, it was shown that the desire to affiliate when facing marital stress was particularly strong among individuals high in interpersonal orientation. 585 21 6 1991 The hypothesis was tested that mere ownership of an object ( in casu an abstract symbol)is a sufficient condition to enhance its attractiveness. The evidence was obtained through experimental manipulation of belongingness rather than in a quasi experimental context as was the case with the name letter effect, a preference for letters occurring in the own name above not own name letters which has been presented as the first evidence supporting the mere ownership hypothesis. Alternative explanations for the present results in terms of stimulus complexity and mere exposure are briefly presented en ruled out. 586 22 1 1992 During the 1990 1991 Persian Gulf conflict an experiment was conducted with Australian university students (N = 200) to investigate whether the social stereotyping of Americans varied with social contextual manipulations related to the hostilities. The study, conducted in two phases at the start and end of the conflict, examined how the assignment of standard stereotypical traits to Americans was affected (a) by the large scale social change constituted by the war and (b) by variation in the frame of reference provided by relevant comparison groups. The elicited stereotypes were sensitive to both of these contextual variables, demonstrating significant variation and fluidity. Overall, stereotypes of Americans were relatively negative. They were significantly more negative (a) at the end of the war than at the beginning in the restricted frame (when Australia and Britain were comparison groups) and (b) in the first phase of the conflict when the frame was extended to include Iraq as a comparison group. The findings were in line with expectations derived from self categorization theory (Turner, 1985) that the social categorization of self and other into ingroup and outgroup is inherently variable, comparative and context dependent. They question the long held view of stereotypes as fixed, rigid and resistant to change. 587 22 1 1992 In this study, Mulder §s power theory consisting of the power distance reduction tendency (PDR) of less powerful group members towards more powerful others, and the power distance enlargement tendency (PDE) of more powerful group members towards less powerful others, is investigated. In particular, two different interpretations of the relationships Mulder hypothesized between power distance and power tendencies are examined. In Experiment 1 no support was found for the interpersonal interpretation. Evidence for the intrapersonal interpretation was found only for the PDE. The most remarkable difference between these results and the results of previous experiments was that we did not find any consistent support for an increased interpersonal PDR with smaller power distance. Therefore, in Experiment 2 a more extensive investigation was undertaken focusing on interpersonal measures similar to the one used earlier by Mulder and his co workers. Results of these measures yielded support for the interpersonal interpretations of both tendencies. In the discussion an explanation for the obtained results is offered that departs from the (in) stability of the power hierarchy. 588 22 1 1992 Situational and personality variables influencing the accurate understanding of partners §s communications in intimate couples were studied. The situation was varied by inducing either partner focused or self focused attention. The personality variables were gender role attitudes, control orientation, and empathy. Thirty couples who had been living together for at least 12 months discussed an issue which was important to both partners. Afterwards, each selected their partner §s most important statement from their videotaped discussion. The two statements were then rated by each of the partners in respect of their own and their partner §s emotional reaction to them (intentionally sent and actually experienced emotions). Analyses of variance with correctness of decoding as a dependent variable demonstrated strong effects of other focused attention and gender as independent variables. Femininity and secondary control correlated positively with correct decoding. These results are interpreted in a theoretical framework of empathy and communication. 589 22 1 1992 The study reported here takes its lead from the literatures which emphasize the importance of attitude variability and the role of perceived control over action. Within person variability and perceptions of control are investigated in the context of people §s attitudes towards the consumption of two common foods. The role of attitude ambivalence is also examined. The findings indicate that higher attitude variability is associated with weaker relationships between the components of the theory of reasoned action and that attitude variability is negatively related to perceived control. Moreover, perceived control is shown to be related to different sorts of control problem for different behaviours. It is advocated that a more in depth assessment of attitude variability and the perceived control construct is merited and that recent calls for more serious examination of attitude ambivalence are well founded. 590 22 1 1992 The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of social representation on both social perceptions and social judgments. In the first stage of this study, 47 drug users and 80 normal subjects were asked to respond to a questionnaire about representations of drugs. Three weeks later we contacted the same subjects. They were asked to answer some questions about a fictitious story in which an actor labelled as a drug user or a person disputed with a trader. Three different social representations of drugs were found. It was shown that these social representations were anchored in different social groups which were defined by their proximity to the world of drugs. Subjects who were themselves drug users shared an accepting or an ambivalent social representation of drugs but they also made the most negative judgements about the causes of a fictitious dispute between a trader and a drug addict. Moreover, these subjects had the most negative perception of the drug addict. Furthermore, some factors which increase the salience of social representations were studied. The effect on social perception and causal attributions of the interaction between social representations, the context and personal involvement in drugs was also shown. Some relations between the theory of social representations and the theories about asymmetrical intergroup relationships are exposed. 591 22 1 1992 Female undergraduates were or were not exposed to an opinion statement that threatened to a greater or lesser degree their freedom to make an independent assessment of the relative attractiveness of two males. Measures of perceived attractiveness and choice indicated a persuasion effect among subjects exposed to the mild statement and contrary opinions indicative of reactance among subjects exposed to the strong statement. 592 22 1 1992 This paper contains an investigation about research of Dutch social psychologists. Based on reported publications two types of analyses were performed. The reported publications were categorized by means of a topic inventory proposed by Fisch and Daniel (1982), which enabled us to compare Dutch trends with developments in Europe and the U.S.A. Moreover, by means of bibliometric analyses publications of Dutch social psychologists were related to data obtained by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI). Several trends were observed and discussed. 593 22 2 1992 This paper reports the results of a meta analytic integration of the results of 137 tests of the ingroup bias hypothesis. Overall, the ingroup bias effect was highly significant and of moderate magnitude. Several theoretically informative determinants of the ingroup bias effect were established. This ingroup bias effect was significantly stronger when the ingroup was made salient (by virtue of proportionate size and by virtue of reality of the group categorization). A significant interaction between the reality of the group categorization and the relative status of the ingroup revealed a slight decrease in the ingroup bias effect as a function of status in real groups, and a significant increase in the ingroup bias effect as a function of status in artificial groups. Finally, an interaction between item relevance and ingroup status was observed, such that higher status groups exhibited more ingroup bias on more relevant attributes, whereas lower status groups exhibited more ingroup bias on less relevant attributes. Discussion considers the implications of these results for current theory and future research involving the ingroup bias effect. 594 22 2 1992 The present study investigated the conditions under which group members try to obtain membership in another group, or are motivated to protect their group membership when they risk losing it. One hundred and twenty nine high school students participated as subjects in a laboratory experiment. Subjects were divided into two groups, allegedly on the basis of their problem solving style. The relative size (minority/majority) and status position (high/low) of the subject §s group, as well as the permeability of group boundaries (permeable/impermeable) were manipulated as independent variables in a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. The main dependent variables were the extent to which individuals valued their group membership, and identified with their group. The main results are that membership in a group with high status is considered more attractive than membership in a low status group. This differential evaluation of high and low status groups is more extreme in minority groups than ingroups of majority size. Furthermore, when group boundaries are permeable, members of high status minorities show relatively strong ingroup identification, indicating a strengthening of ties with their own group when an alternative (majority) group affiliation is possible. However, our expectation that permeable group boundaries would result in diminished ingroup identification in low status minorities was not confirmed. Some additional data suggest that unsatisfactory membership in a low status group is resolved in a different way. 595 22 2 1992 Social categorization is claimed to elicit a tendency to conform to ingroup norms, which may result in attitude change after exposure to information on the opinions of other ingroup members. It was hypothesized that the degree to which arguments represented ingroup norms, i.e., were prototypical, would affect their potential influence on attitudes, such that prototypical arguments would be perceived as being of higher quality and would elicit more attitude change. Moreover, prototypical arguments were expected to elicit more argument elaboration. Two experiments were designed to test these predictions. In Experiment 1 subjects were exposed to both a set of pro and a set of contra arguments, while one of the sets was allegedly prototypical of ingroup attitudes. In Experiment 2 subjects were exposed to either prototypical or a prototypical pro or contra arguments allegedly originating from in or outgroup. In both studies conformity to ingroup norms was observed. In addition, prototypical ingroup arguments elicited higher quality ratings in the first study. Indications of higher elaboration of prototypical ingroup arguments were found. 596 22 2 1992 This study sought to investigate the utility of several variables to post dict eyewitness identification accuracy in target present and target absent line ups in a staged event paradigm. The incident involved and altercation between an experimenter and a confederate who attempted to take away the slide projector needed for an ongoing laboratory experiment. Sixty two subject witnesses were called back to the laboratory one week after the incident, purportedly to answer some additional questions about the laboratory experiment. They were asked to provide a description of the intruder and to indicate whether or not they though they would be able to identify the target (pre decision confidence). Next, they saw a video line up with or without the target present. Using choice of a line up member as a mediating variable, with choosers post decision confidence (r = 0.58) and decision time (r = 0.43) were strongly related to the accuracy of this choice while pre decision confidence was not. For non choosers, no meaningful relationship between these variables and identification accuracy was observed. There was also some evidence that the number of descriptors was significantly related to identification accuracy (r = 0.28). Results are discussed in terms of the importance of choice as a mediating variable for post dicting identification decisions in studies using both target present and target absent line ups. Forensic implications of confidence and decision time as verbal and non verbal indicators for the post hoc assessment of identification accuracy are stressed. 597 22 2 1992 We examine the proposition that, in ordinary conversation, people are concerned to argue to justify their claims and to counter potential and actual counter claims. We test out the proposition by analysing explanations in one particular conversation. We attend to the validity claims of what the speakers say, and to the authority with which they say it. Viewed in that light, we find that the majority of what might look like causal attributions turn out to look like argumentative claim backings. We then go on to flesh out the quasi pragmatic rules which might help to decide formally whether any given utterance is better understood as an argument or a causal explanation. These rules revolve around the speaker §s apparent intention and the projected relationship between the clauses in what she or he says. All of this takes us a fair way from attribution theory §s model of explanation as the reporting of a cause, and we end up with an argumentative model of ordinary explanation. 598 22 2 1992 A quasi experimental field study (n = 314) investigated the consequences of framing the problem of HIV infection in terms of risky practices versus high risk groups . It was reasoned that respondents in the risky practices frame would be more conscious of the risks to people in general leading them to make more pessimistic prognoses of HIV spread than those for whom the issue had been framed in terms of high risk groups. This hypothesis was strongly supported on three related indices, and results also indicated more pessimistic prognoses by female than male respondents. The implications of these findings for framing AIDS related issues are discussed. 599 22 3 1992 Research has shown that the behaviour of people in fires and other emergencies is characterized by internally rational, socially and cognitively structured action. It has not been possible to date to discover whether the victims of fires display similar patterns of behaviour to the survivors, or act in a fundamentally different way. Following the public inquiry into the 1987 King §s Cross underground fire in London, data were made available which allowed this issue to be addressed. The data mainly consisted of statements and interviews with survivors and friends of the victims. Examination of this information allowed the likely actions and intentions of 24 of the 31 victims to be pieced together with a good degree of certainty. The results showed that those who died in the fire behaved in a way similar to the survivors. Generally, victims perpetuated actions that were consistent with the normal scripts for the use of the setting, and as shaped by their place related roles and schemata. The study shows that virtually all of the victims attempted to leave the station either by the way they had entered, or by their originally intended route. Implications of the findings for the understanding, modelling and researching of behaviour under life threatening conditions are discussed. 600 22 3 1992 We report investigations of change in, and cognitive representation of young people §s stereotypes of the police, in response to a police schools liaison programme. This programme provides a real life application of the conversion model of stereotype change (in which stereotypes change radically in response to salient instances of disconfirming information). Study 1 revealed that school police officers were rated significantly more positively than the police in general, but that this view did not generalize to perceptions of the police in general. Stereotypes of the police became less positive over one year, although females were more positive than males, and school police officers were not judged typical of the category. Study 2 revealed that subjects categorized their school police officer separately from the police in general, and perceived him to share features with caring and welfare professions, rather than other police officers and authority figures. Both studies converge on the limitations of the conversion model and tend to support the subtyping model (in which extremely disconfirming individuals are isolated from other group members). 601 22 3 1992 The reported study compared change in stereotypic perceptions of homogeneous and heterogeneous groups, when subjects were presented with a pattern of stereotype inconsistent information that was either concentrated in two extreme group members or dispersed across six members. Results provided some support for the conversion model (in which stereotypes change in response to salient instances) in the case of a homogeneous group, where stereotypical responding was lower in concentrated than dispersed conditions. In the heterogeneous group conditions, there was no effect of pattern. In addition, subjects §s estimates of stereotype consistent information were higher, and of inconsistent information were lower, and they perceived more members as typical, and fewer as atypical, when the target group was heterogeneous versus homogeneous. There was also support for the subtyping model (in which disconfirming individuals are isolated from other group members) in the concentrated conditions. A theoretical account of these findings is given in terms of stereotype change via salience for homogeneous groups, and the need to integrate research on cognitive models of stereotype change and perceived group variability. 602 22 3 1992 This paper examines the hypothesis that patterns of stereotypic accentuation reflect the degree to which judged stimuli share the same social category membership as the stereotyper. Following self categorization theory, the degree of this shared identity is operationalized in terms of the meta contrast ratio as a function of the positions of (a) stereotyper and (b) stereotyped target relative to (c) the stereotyper §s frame of reference. Three experiments are reported which sought to manipulate shared category membership either by extension of subjects §s frame of reference or by extremitization of target and subject with respect to that frame. As predicted, greater shared identity was associated with stronger assimilation of the target to subjects §s own position and with change in stereotype content. Findings are discussed in relation to theories of personality, social judgement and social cognition. Like the accentuation processes which underpin them, it is proposed that stereotypes are sensitive to comparative context and that they reflect veridically the social self categorical properties of stimuli. 603 22 3 1992 Data from a survey of 4591 16 19 year olds from four parts of Britain demonstrate that a North South divide is manifested both economically and politically. Southerners are materially better off and more supportive of the Conservative party. Adopting a social identity analysis of sectional effects, we hypothesized that party political support is a manifestation of identification with locality, and also that political support, rather than perceived deprivation, would be associated with intentions to stay in or move out of one §s locality. Results revealed that Labour supporters in the north of England, and Conservative supporters in the south were most committed to their locality. In Scotland, where nationalism is more directly linked to political parties, those who supported the Scottish Nationalist Party or Labour Party identified more strongly with Scotland and had less intention to leave, but also perceived their situation as more disadvantaged than did Conservatives. These findings are interpreted as supporting a social identity approach to political support and geographical occupational mobility. We suggest that despite the apparent irrationality of self denying perceptions and choices, these may also serve self preserving functions in the longer term. 604 22 3 1992 Cooperative decision making was studied as a function of the decision makers §s own, and the interdependent other party §s gain or loss frame. As expected, results showed that (a) an own gain frame produced less cognitive activity than an own loss frame and (b) other §s loss frame caused more cooperation than other §s gain frame, but only in case of an own gain frame. 605 22 3 1992 Male academic staff members received a Low or High threat (freedom restricting) description of measures for the preferential treatment of women in job selection for academic staff functions. The High threat condition evoked more psychological reactance than the Low threat condition. Persons with high self esteem manifested a more negative attitude in the High threat than in the Low threat condition. Social position did not interact significantly with threat. 606 22 3 1992 In Providing behavioural frequency reports, respondents use the range of the response alternatives as a frame of reference, resulting in higher estimates on scales that offer high rather than low values. The present study demonstrates that the size of this effect increases with increasing question difficulty. 607 22 4 1992 Explores how preattributional variables describing an event (i. e. consensus, consistency, distinctiveness, and effectuality) as well as dimensions of attributions given to explain the event (i.e. locus, stability, globality, and control) determine subsequent emotions and expectations. In a first pilot study, subjects described actual emotion evoking incidents. The results indicated that these free descriptions included preattributional variables more often (43 per cent) than attributional appraisals (13 per cent), and that the hypothesized preattributional cues were used to describe the emotions. In a second experimental study, preattributional or attributional information about an event was presented, and subjects were asked to judge an actor §s emotions or expectations. The time needed to make this judgment was recorded Judgments and response times were not significantly different after preattributional or attributional information, but were different for distinct emotions and expectations in accordance with the hypotheses. The data were interpreted as suggesting that people possess cognitive schemas about the preattributional and attributional determinants of emotions, and that these schemas speed up the processing of diagnostic inputs that shape emotions. 608 22 4 1992 Two studies compared the relative strength of motivational assumptions drawn from SIT (e.g. Taifel, 1978) and memory based assumptions drawn from the differential familiarity hypothesis (Linville, Fischer and Salovey, 1989) in explaining ingroup bias and the black sheep effect (Marques, 1986, 1990). In Study 1, 15 subjects estimated member distributions and gave overall ratings of an ingroup and two outgroups. In Study 2, 42 subjects performed similar tasks for ingroup or outgroup, and evaluated likeable and unlikeable group members. Results showed, first, that overall group ratings account better for ingroup bias than do central tendencies of group distributions. In addition, likeable and unlikeable ingroup members were, respectively, upgraded and downgraded relative to their outgroup counterparts. Finally, whole ingroup ratings as well as judgements of likeable and unlikeable ingroup members proved more independent from variability and central tendency of underlying distributions than did similar outgroup judgements. Results are discussed in light of motivational and knowledge based determinants of group judgements. 609 22 4 1992 Western societies can be characterized as individualistic: the person is seen as a situation free distinct agent, relatively autonomous from contextual influences. By contrast, many Eastern societies are collectivistic with a more holistic view of the person: people are reconceptualised in terms of their relation to the environment and their actions are primarily understood in terms of this relation. This difference implies that in Western cultures the psychological self will be prominent, in Eastern cultures the social self will be more salient. We report the results of a study carried out in the Netherlands, comprising Dutch, Turkish and Moroccan children in which these differences in self concept and the comparison of self with similar and dissimilar others, were investigated. A strong culture effect was found in the hypothesized direction: Dutch children referred more to psychological aspects, whereas Turkish and Moroccan children referred more to social aspects. These differences were found in both the self descriptions and the comparison measures. 610 22 4 1992 In the past, leadership was perceived to be the special province of males and still females tend not to occupy top management positions. Traditional social stereotypes hold that a leader needs to have typical masculine characteristics: he needs to be competitive, aggressive, tough and successful. Due to important changes in the conception of the societal female and male gender role during the last decades it can be assumed that the classical sex role stereotypes have at least become less polarized. Obituaries concerning deceased male and female managers, published in the years 1974, 1980 and 1986 in four daily newspapers were content analysed. Terms used to describe the managers were classified into 53 categories and included in a correspondence analysis. The results show that images of male and female managers were dissimilar in 1974 and 1980 and were still different in 1986. Male managers were perceived as intelligent, knowledgeable, experienced, outstanding instructors, unselfish opinion leaders with an enviable entrepreneurial spirit. Women, on the other hand, were described as adorable, likeable superiors in 1974 and 1980. Some years later, in 1986, they became fighting managers: their surviving colleagues described them as courageous, highly committed workers who, nevertheless are still lacking in knowledge and expertise. 611 22 4 1992 For Canadian born Greek Canadians, the failure of Athens §s bid for the 1996 Olympic Summer Games was presumed to evoke social comparison at a group level. Although this process may influence social identity (collective self esteem), the effect was expected to be qualified by the subject §s degree of involvement or self engagement with the event. Pre event (prior to the announcement of the awarding of the Games to Atlanta, U.S.A.) and post event responses were obtained from 63 female and 44 male Canadian born Greek Canadian university students. In a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses controlling for pre event collective self esteem, involvement and levels of post event positive emotions enhanced the prediction of post event collective self esteem on three subscales directly related to self. Low involvement subjects and those experiencing less post event positive emotion evidenced a decline in post event collective self esteem, whereas their high counterparts exhibited a relative stability in esteem scores. With a comparison group of 84 Canadian born Italian Canadian university students, for whom the outcome of the Olympic bid was irrelevant to their ethnic origin, involvement and affect were unrelated to post event collective self esteem. Results were interpreted as consistent with previous research linking group failure to increased group cohesion and involvement with stability in the attitude change literature. 612 22 4 1992 Kahneman and Tversky (1982) have proposed a simulation heuristic such that perceivers tend to substitute normal antecedent events for exceptional ones in psychologically undoing a given outcome. Recently Gavanski and Wells (1989) have demonstrated that exceptional outcomes tend to be perceived as caused by exceptional events and normal outcomes by normal events, a finding more in line with the representativeness heuristic than this normalization principle. We argue that representativeness may be determined by the evaluative tone of events as well as by probability namely that positive events are assumed to underlie positive outcomes and negative events, negative outcomes. Both normality and value were independently manipulated in order to test the relative effects of each of these factors. In contrast to Gavanski and Wells our data indicate that preference was given to the similarity of value between events and outcome for undoing both positive and negative and normal and exceptional outcomes. Some implications of these findings for counterfactual processing are discussed. 613 22 4 1992 A substantial amount of research exploring the theoretical parameters of social identity theory has utilized artificially created ingroups and outgroups. This study aimed to examine the propositions of social identity theory between naturally existing groups (French and English Canadians) where the dependent measure was more consequential than typical ratings within this experimental paradigm. Subjects read a transcript of a rape trial which varied the ethnicity of the defendant and victim and were asked to rate the victim and defendant on 18 adjectives and then determine the defendant §s guilt on a 7 point scale. While the results are not entirely consistent with the predictions emanating from social identity theory, we did find that French Canadian subjects rated the outgroup (English) defendant more guilty when the victim was from the ingroup (French) than when she was from the outgroup (English) as was anticipated. 614 22 4 1992 An experiment (n = 36) was conducted to test the hypothesis that attribute typicality moderates intragroup differentiation. The predicted reversal from perceived relative ingroup homogeneity on typical ingroup attributes to perceived relative outgroup homogeneity on typical outgroup attributes was confirmed for both homogeneity measures (standard deviation and probability of differentiation). But the ingroup homogeneity effects were more reliable than the outgroup homogeneity effects. Relative ingroup size (minority versus majority) was included in the experimental design as a between subjects factor but did not qualify the reversal of perceived relative homogeneity. 615 22 4 1992 Utilizing a group product evaluation paradigm, a study was conducted to investigate anticipated outgroup evaluations. Specifically, it was proposed that ingroup members view outgroups in a way that leads them to anticipate discrimination. Results indicated, as predicted, that while subjects expected outgroup members to favour their own (outgroup) product, they expected impartial judges to agree with their own more favourable rating of the (ingroup) product. It is thus suggested that while subjects saw outgroup members as biased in their anticipated evaluations, they saw their own evaluations as relatively impartial. The results are discussed as an expression of ethnocentric attribution. 616 22 5 1992 "Research and theory emphasizing the role of cue diagnosticity in judgment (e.g. Skowronski and Carlston, 1987, 1989) suggests that under the proper conditions: (a) negativity effects should be observed in judgments of honesty/dishonesty; (b) positivity effects should be observed in judgments of intelligence/unintelligence, and (c) intelligence implicative and dishonesty implicative cues should be increasingly difficult to contradict as those cues become more extreme. Two experiments yielded data consistent with these predictions. In addition, two other important findings emerged from these studies. The results of Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that subjects do not respond as if highly diagnostic cues are sufficient for category membership, suggesting that the representational format of trait categories does not correspond to the format suggested by the classical model of categorization. The results of Experiment 2 also indicated that negativity and positivity effects are not substantially altered by a role playing manipulation designed to increase subjects §s involvement in the judgment task." 617 22 5 1992 The present paper deals with negativity and positivity effects in trait inferences and impression formation. In the first experiment we tested the suggestion of Skowronski and Carlston (1987) that in the domain of morality negative information is more diagnostic, will therefore receive more weight and result in a negativity effect whereas in the domain of abilities, positive information is more diagnostic resulting in positivity effects. Results of our first experiment support these predictions: negative behavioural information leads to more certain inferences concerning morality and positive behavioural information leads to more certain inferences concerning ability. In a second experiment, we investigated the relative weight of positive versus negative ability and morality related traits in an impression formation task. We counterposed traits from both morality and ability domains to see which was the most dominant in determining evaluative impressions. Findings of this second experiment showed strong negativity effects but also revealed that information related to morality is more influential in forming an evaluative impression than equally extreme information related to ability. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. 618 22 5 1992 This paper analyses the logical structure of personal construct systems in terms of relations of partial entailment between constructs and the relative frequencies of positive and negative judgments concerning both self and others. It is argued that conditional hypotheses (anticipations) which incorporate the positive poles of constructs (e.g. happy) as antecedent terms will have wider ranges of relevance, on average, if self is assigned to the positive poles of those constructs. Conversely, hypotheses with antecedents based on the negative poles of constructs (e.g. sad) will tend to have wider ranges of relevance when self is assigned to their negative poles. Some theoretical implications of these relationships for the adaptability of personal construct systems are elaborated. 619 22 5 1992 Three samples, consisting of 200 traits, 200 nouns and 200 verbs taken from the Toglia et al. (1978) verbal norms, were analysed for evidence of positive negative asymmetry. Within each sample the items were ordered on a general positive negative index, and a systematic series of dichotomizations was carried out, ranging from 5 per cent negative to 95 per cent negative. It was found that the partial correlation of pleasingness with the positive negative dichotomization increased as a linear function of the informational complexity of the negative class of words, for all three word types. The partial correlation of familiarity increased as a similar function of the positive class of words, but only for traits. The results are discussed in terms of Peeters and Czapinski §s (1990) positive negative asymmetry model, and Scherer §s (1984) component model of emotion. 620 22 5 1992 Subjects in a positive, neutral, or negative mood were presented with behaviour descriptions exemplifying different categories to investigate mood effects on the organization of person information. Subjects were instructed either to form an impression about the person performing the behaviours (impression set) or to memorize the behaviours (memory set). Neutral mood subjects showed higher recall and more clustering under impression instructions than under memory instructions, replicating previous findings. Regardless of instructions, subjects in both positive and negative mood showed recall as high as that shown by those in a neutral mood under impression set. Subjects in a positive mood showed considerable clustering regardless of instruction set, whereas subjects in a negative mood showed little clustering regardless of instructional set. Thus, recall appeared to be mediated by different processes in the positive and negative mood conditions. Results are consistent with the interpretation that different affective states influence processing styles which in turn mediate recall. 621 22 6 1992 Two experiments are reported examining the impact of recipients §s mood on the processing of simple, everyday persuasive communications and on subsequent behaviour. Consistent with the general assumption that affective states may inform an individual about the state of its current environment, it was found that positive (as compared to neutral or negative) mood reduced subjects §s motivation to systematically process both content information and contextual cues. Specifically, Experiment 1 demonstrated that, in a field setting, the behaviour of subjects who had been put in a good mood was less likely to reflect differences in message content than the behaviour of neutral mood subjects. Experiment 2 replicated and extended these findings, showing that good mood subjects §s behaviour was uninfluenced by content as well as context information, whereas bad mood subjects did make use of both types of information. Subjects §s cognitive responses and evaluations paralleled the behavioural data. The results are discussed in terms of their compatibility with contemporary models of persuasion, and their implications for future research on mood and persuasion and on the interplay of affect and cognition in general are considered 622 22 6 1992 Does good and bad mood have a different influence on our perceptions of typical and atypical people? In this experiment, people in happy, sad or neutral moods recalled, and formed impressions of high or low prototypical characters. We expected an asymmetric mood effect on memory, with better recall of typical targets that require simplified, schematic processing in positive mood, but greater negative mood effects on atypical targets that require more detailed and inferential processing. Subjects (N = 66) received an audio visual mood induction in an allegedly separate experiment, before recalling, and forming impressions about people who were consistent or inconsistent with familiar prototypes within their social milieu. We found the predicted mood congruent bias in judgments, that was significantly greater for non typical than for typical people. We also found evidence for positive negative mood asymmetry in memory, with better recall of typical people in positive mood, and atypical people in negative mood The findings are discussed in terms of contemporary multi process models of affect and cognition (Forgas, 1992), and the implications for everyday affective influences on social judgments and stereotyping are considered. 623 22 6 1992 Investigates an old controversy in ethnic identification from the Perspective of information gathering strategies. It was hypothesized that people would request a lot of positive information before deciding that someone is a member of the ingroup. First, a questionnaire measuring the typical features of likeable and unlikeable targets issuing from two linguistic groups (Flemish and Walloon) revealed the existence of four distinguishable sets. These sets corresponded to the orthogonal combination of valence and group membership, i.e. they were organized in terms of two independent dimensions, an evaluative one and descriptive one. The dimensional complexity and evaluative extremity of the positive ingroup and negative outgroup sets were not different. Second, characteristics in each set served to create personality profiles presumably describing real targets. Subjects read these profiles, one feature at a time up to 10 features, and were asked to decide whether the target was a member of their group. They also learned that they could make their decision as soon as they felt confident. In line with Yzerbyt and Leyens §s (1991) results, data indicate that subjects requested more information when the evidence was positive or consistent with their ingroup membership than when it was negative or inconsistent. These findings shed new light on earlier work concerning ethnic identification. In the context of the more general question of intergroup relations and their role in person perception, the present results may be interpreted in terms of an ingroup overexclusion effect rather than a vigilance effect or response bias. Thus is added a new effect to the well known phenomena of ingroup favouritism and outgroup homogeneity. 624 22 6 1992 Positive negative asymmetry in thought can involve both cognitive asymmetry, (thinking about characteristics that a stimulus has versus does not have), which we predict will be large and preponderantly a positivity bias, and affective asymmetry (thinking about desirable versus undesirable characteristics that the stimulus has or has not), predicted to be small and to fluctuate predictably in direction. The first four of the 10 studies reported here investigate asymmetries in thinking ability, measured by giving people directed thinking tasks specifically asking them to generate positive versus negative thoughts. We predicted and found no affective asymmetry and a moderate sized cognitive positivity bias that declines with practice. The second four of the 10 studies investigate asymmetries in proclivity (or preference beyond ability) that appear when people free associate on a variety of stimuli. As regards proclivity, we predicted and found a large, uniformly positive cognitive bias (that declines somewhat as children mature), but only a slight affective bias that is positive when autistic needs are dominant and negative when realistic needs dominate. A final pair of studies show that the cognitive and affective variables interact as regards how directed positive versus negative thinking about a stimulus affects evaluation of that stimulus. 625 23 1 1993 The present study investigates the effects of evaluative processing of hostile and friendly words on impression formation. Two experiments were conducted. Subjects were first asked to complete sentences using hostile (Experiment 1) or friendly (Experiment 2) words. Then they participated in an ostensibly unrelated impression task, where they rated a stimulus person on a series of trait scales based on a paragraph of behavioural descriptions that was ambiguous regarding hostility (Experiment 1) or friendliness (Experiment 2). It was found that the hostile sentence completion tasks increased the likelihood that subsequent behavioural information would be assimilated into the primed hostile constructs, whereas the friendly sentence completion tasks increased the likelihood that behavioural information would be contrasted to the primed friendly constructs. The underlying mechanism of the positive negative asymmetry of priming effects was discussed in terms of the socio cultural expectancy for normality of friendliness being evoked by priming manipulations. In addition, a supplementary experiment was conducted to assess the feeling states following the hostile or friendly priming tasks. It was found that the hostile priming elicited negative affects, whereas friendly priming had no effects on the feeling states of subjects. This asymmetric effect of priming on the feeling states was also considered as a result of the influences of the socio cultural expectancy. 626 23 1 1993 Social and cognitive psychologists have reconceptualised judgemental confidence (how strongly a person holds the belief that some judgement is correct) as being proportional to the amount of evidence in favour of a response. Festinger (1950) argued that there are two separate processes by which uncertainty (the inverse of confidence) can be reduced These two processes are physical reality testing (the perceptual processing of stimulus information) and social reality testing (reliance on other people to resolve particularly ambiguous situations). However, there is surprisingly little direct evidence that uncertainty is either reduced or increased by the responses of other people. In two experimental tests (N = 74 and N = 83) it was found that disagreement increased uncertainty and agreement tended to reduce uncertainty. In a third experiment (N = 63) it was found that disagreement only increased uncertainty when stimulus information was limited, but that agreement generally reduced uncertainty. The results challenge Festinger §s model of uncertainty reduction and support a self categorization theory account. 627 23 1 1993 A review of the literature concerning the relationship between religiosity and premarital sexual attitudes and behaviour revealed in consistencies in research findings and problems with methodology and operationalizations of variables. A postal questionnaire to 527 16 to 18 year olds examined the associations between six models of religiosity (religious upbringing, denominational affiliation, ritual/behavioural, self attitude/self schema and salience of religious identity) and personal sexual standards, attitudes towards sexually active others, virginal status, anticipation of sexual intercourse and frequency of both coitus and non coital sexual experiences over the previous year. A negative relationship between religiosity and a number of sexual attitudes and behaviours was observed though non significant relationships in the case of sexual experiences without intercourse suggested the maintenance of a technical virginity to accord with religious precepts. There was also some evidence that Catholic adolescents were more likely to be sexually active than non Catholics when current religiosity was controlled for. The results lent strongest support to models which implicated self conception either in terms of self attitudes/self schemas or the salience of religious identity. Implications of the study and suggestions for future research are outlined. 628 23 1 1993 In the present study, subjects had to generate an evaluative judgment about a target person on the basis of his behaviour that had both positive and negative implications. In a previous phase of the study that was ostensibly unrelated to the judgment task, the relevant trait categories were primed. Subsequently, half of the subjects were reminded of the priming episode. Consistent with earlier research (e.g. Lombardi, Higgins and Bargh, 1987, Newman and Uleman, 1990) that used memory of the priming events as a correlational measure, a contrast effect was found under the reminding condition and assimilation resulted when subjects were not reminded of the priming episode. This pattern of results is interpreted as the consequence of corrective influences. 629 23 1 1993 The proposition that individuals engage in intergroup discrimination to increase or maintain positive social identity and a high level of self esteem has received some empirical support. An attempt was made to extend prior findings by evaluating whether inter group allocation behaviour consistent with subjects §s social values would lead to higher self esteem than inconsistent allocation behaviour. More specifically, it was predicted that competitive subjects self esteem will be higher following discriminatory choices than fair choices and prosocial subjects §s self esteem will be higher following fair choices than discriminatory choices. It was also predicted that after subjects were constrained to make discriminatory choices, competitors §s self esteem would be higher than prosocials §s self esteem and after subjects were constrained to make fair choices, prosocials §s self esteem would be higher than competitors §s self esteem. Experiment 1 supported the first of these predictions when a measure of personal self esteem was used as a dependent variable. Experiment 2 attempted to extend the generality of the findings of Experiment 1 by defining and measuring self esteem in collective terms. The expected prior pattern of results did not occur again. Constraining subjects to make discriminatory choices increased their collective self esteem regardless of their social values. 630 23 1 1993 The Present research considered the effects of stereotypes on judgmental and memorial processes. In particular, we investigated the heuristic utility of stereotype application in difficult or demanding information processing contexts. Our results supported the prediction that stereotypical effects on memory are contingent upon the characteristics of the task environment. Whereas perceivers displayed preferential recall for stereotype inconsistent information under low processing loads, this switched to a preference for consistent information as task demands increased. Likewise, target based judgments were most stereotypic under high processing loads. Judgment recall correlations supported the contention that, under high loads, these inferences are related to the relative memorability of stereotypic information. We consider these findings in the wider context of stereotype based effects on social cognition 631 23 1 1993 To what extent are the more common emotion words in Western European languages equivalent? Some information on this question, which is relevant for cross cultural emotions research, is collected in the present study. Students from six Western European countries were asked to list all emotion words they could think of in 5 minutes. The most frequently mentioned categories were highly similar across samples. However, considerable differences in relative frequency of presumably equivalent words (close, common translations) in the different languages were also found. 632 23 1 1993 This research explores the role of perspective taking in self serving biases. Assisted by a confederate, 80 subjects performed an impression formation task and were given either success or failure bogus feedback. One week later, half of the subjects watched their performance on videotape and provided causal attributions ( observers ). The other half simply gave causal attributions (actors). Thus, the experiment employed a modified version of the actor/observer paradigm with one group of subjects taking the perspective of observers (observers) and one group of subjects keeping their original perspective (actors). The aim of this study was to test whether the change of perspective would increase dispositional causal attributions both in success and failure conditions. Results showed that subjects gave greater causal weight to internal factors (ability, effort) and less causal weight to external factors (task characteristics, collaboration with the partner) in the success than in the failure condition. Moreover, in a direct comparison task, subjects attributed a greater percentage of responsibility to themselves than to their partner in the success than in the failure condition. However, the type of perspective produced no significant effects, but showed an attenuation of self serving biases for observers as compared to actors. A motivational explanation of the results is proposed. 633 23 1 1993 In a free choice forced compliance situation, subjects had to perform a tedious task. Then, just before having to evaluate the task §s interest, certain subjects were provided an arbitrary positive feedback regarding their performance, others a negative feedback and others no information at all concerning their performance. Afterwards, all subjects were administered a questionnaire concerning their theories of causal explanations, which enabled us to compute an externalization score. Evaluation of the task was affected by the feedback §s nature: Subjects who received the negative feedback found the task more interesting. Causal theories, however, were only affected by actual performance: the most efficient subjects were those who presented the more external orientation of causal theories. These results are in agreement with the radical conception of dissonance theory. 634 23 2 1993 Starting from the assumption that people direct more attention to the objective, non evaluative, aspects of undesirable behaviours than of equally evaluatively intense desirable ones and attach more weight to the defining descriptive features of undesirable traits than of desirable ones, we predicted and demonstrated, with samples of Dutch adjectives, that, on the average, undesirable trait adjectives, as compared to desirable ones, had a lower category breadth and a higher discriminative value (Study 1). Undesirable able trait adjectives were also estimated as less similar in meaning and as less likely to co occur in the same person, and were less strongly intercorrelated when used for memory based self ratings (Study 2). These positive negative asymmetries tended to hold for all traits whether they belonged to the self profitability dimension or to the other profitability dimension, and did not depend on the evaluative intensity of the traits. Alternative interpretations of these asymmetries and the implications of these asymmetries for personality assessment and for research on implicit personality theory and on the factorial structure of rating correlations are discussed. 635 23 2 1993 A model of egocentric social categorization (ESC model) is presented It predicts an asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroups and outgroups which is traced back to an egocentrism in the cognitive differentiation of the social world. The more specific assumptions are: (1) At the most basic level of cognitive differentiation, the perceiver distinguishes between the categories ME and NOT ME. (2) This basic level categorization predicates an asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroup and outgroup as social categories: The ingroup is construed as a heterogeneous aggregate of separate entities and the outgroup as a homogeneous social category. (3) Egocentric social categorization thus facilitates self definition in terms of personal identity relative to self definition in terms of social identity. The ESC model is highly relevant to research on perceived ingroup and outgroup homogeneity. Moreover, it alerts researchers to the possibility of quasi intergroup situations in which the outgroup, but not the ingroup, is a salient entity. This article also discusses the relationship between the ESC model and self categorization theory and points out some prospects for future research. 636 23 2 1993 Conversational rules of everyday communication are applied to the interaction between experimenters and subjects. According to these rules, contributions to a communication should be informative, relevant, true, and unambiguous. It is assumed that subjects determine the pragmatic meaning of instructions and questions on the basis of these rules and the provided context. In contrast to most natural settings, standardized experimental procedures rarely allow for an interactive determination of pragmatic meaning and often preclude feedback as a corrective device. As a consequence, subjects are required to rely heavily on general rules, and even subtle cues may become informationally loaded. The information extracted from context cues may often not be intended by the experimenter. Thus subjects may infer more than they are supposed to, resulting in discrepancies between the experimenter §s intended and subjects §s inferred meaning of the instructions. If researchers are not sensitive to the information provided by verbal and non verbal context cues, their interpretation of research results may be based on biased data. Evidence from different research domains is reported to support the presented assumptions and their implications for bias avoiding strategies are discussed. 637 23 2 1993 Various studies in the health area consistently rejected the multiplicative combination between severity and probability of threat which is predicted by expectancy value (EV) theories. It is hypothesized here, that this negative evidence may be due to an overly demanding assumption underlying the multiplicative combination, namely, the assumption that people are able to performs trade offs between expectancies and valences. This hypothesis is tested in two studies in which subjects judged hypothetical health threats. Results from a nonparametric analysis (conjoint measurement) of individual data (Study 1) and an experimental study of trade off judgments (Study 2) are mostly consistent with the prediction. Unexpectedly, however, an ANOVA of the aggregate data of Study 1 yielded a small, but significant effect consistent with the multiplicative assumption. Whereas this latter result can be interpreted as evidencing an attempt to perform trade offs, the overall results show as predicted that trade off judgments are associated with a systematic error component due to the inherent difficulty of this type of judgment. 638 23 2 1993 "The research examined whether subjects with hearing impairment would differ from normal hearing subjects in their ability to decode emotions from video stimuli (48 video takes in which two actors portrayed six different emotions). Studies in tactile and visual perception lead one to expect deficits, while there is also some evidence for compensation. Twenty six subjects with hearing impairment and 26 matched normal hearing subjects participated (average age = 25.5 years; nine female, 17 male subjects in each group). Results indicate that in general subjects with hearing impairment were slightly less successful in decoding emotions from the visual stimuli than the normal hearing subjects. A comparison between highly (loss > 60 90 dBA) and moderately (loss about 30 60 dBA) impaired subjects on the other hand indicated poorer emotion decoding only for the moderately impaired group. Post hoc analyses indicated that these effects were specific to males. Results are discussed with respect to compensation versus deficit, and with respect to issues of training." 639 23 2 1993 Ekman, Friesen and Ellsworth §s (1982b) influential review on emotional expression and context prescribed the current standard criteria for selecting clear and comparable faces and contexts. These recommendations might not pay enough attention to the peculiarities of contextual information. Criteria of clarity for contextual stimuli should be grounded in the process of categorization of social situations (e.g. prototypicality and salience). A set of criteria of contextual clarity were designed according to this line of argument. The resulting contextual stimuli were employed in a replication of Wallbott §s (1988) experiment on recognition of emotions through discrepant sources of information. In contrast with previous studies, subjects §s judgments were equally predictable from expression and context. 640 23 2 1993 This paper critically examines the mathematical model, the confluence model , proposed by Zajonc, Markus and Markus (1979) as part of their analysis of birth order effects on intellectual differences. Five observations are made. The first concerns lack of precision in the indices contained in the model. The second deals with the coherence of the mathematical formulation. The third identifies presumably unanticipated and remarkable universal laws of mental development which can be derived from the model. The fourth identifies a further universal law which arises from inappropriate use of terms to qualify parameters in the formulae. Finally, it is concluded that the confluence model lacks the features required of a credible and useful mathematical model. 641 23 3 1993 Attribution theorists typically have conceived the attribution process in terms of universal laws of cognitive functioning, independent of social interaction. In this paper we argue for the notion, grounded in recent ordinary language philosophy, that any consideration of the form of everyday explanation must take into account its function as an answer to a why question within a conversational framework. Experiment 1 provides support for the idea that speakers should identify as causally relevant that necessary condition for the occurrence of an event about which the enquirer is ignorant. Experiment 2 replicates this basic finding and further demonstrates that speakers will change their explanations to enquirers believed to be sharing different knowledge about the same target event. Experiment 2 also assessed the role of individual differences in conversational rule following, and found in apparent contrast some previous predictions that high self monitoring individuals were no more likely than lows to tailor their explanations to suit the enquirer §s knowledge state. If anything, the reverse occurred. Taken together, these experiments support the central contention of the abnormal conditions focus model (Hilton and Slugoski, 1986), that the common sense criterion of causality is that of an abnormal condition rather than constant conjunction as instantiated in the ANOVA model of causal attribution (Kelley, 1967, 1973). 642 23 3 1993 "Two contrasting notions concerning upward power tendencies within hierarchically structured groups are investigated. Power Distance Theory assumes that people have a desire for power that results in a tendency to reduce the power distance towards a more powerful other, and this tendency is assumed to be stronger the smaller the power distance. The bureaucratic rule implies that a vacant position may only be taken over by someone from the level immediately below the vacant position. In Experiment 1, power distance from the top position of a hierarchy was manipulated by assigning 120 subjects to a higher or a lower position in a power hierarchy. Results showed that only the motivation derived from the bureaucratic rule (i.e. entitlement) mediated the relationship between power distance and upward tendencies. In Experiment 2, a more pertinent test of the two theoretical notions was performed by assigning 139 subjects to one of three positions. The main results were consistent with the bureaucratic rule: (1) subjects immediately below the top position showed a stronger upward tendency towards this position than subjects in the two lower positions, whereas no differences were found between subjects in these two lower positions; (2) again only entitlement mediated the relationship between power distance and upward tendencies." 643 23 3 1993 In Study 1, 60 item sets of behavioural acts exemplifying a personality trait were elicited for each of 40 traits. Each set of behaviours was then rated by 66 students for their inferential meaning (prototypicality) and evaluative meaning (valence). As predicted, the traits differed in the degree of congruence between the two meanings of their exemplifications. In Study 2, 80 subjects were presented with behaviour descriptions varying in their prototypicality for congruent or incongruent traits, and were asked for trait inferences and evaluations. The higher prototypicality, the more the inferred traits were similar to the original criterion traits and the more extreme were the ascriptions of those freely inferred traits. As predicted on the basis of accentuation theory, behaviours exemplifying congruent traits led to more extreme trait inferences and evaluations than behaviours exemplifying incongruent traits. We conclude that trait inferences and evaluations are based both on prototypicality of behavioural acts and on structural properties of the traits exemplified by these acts. 644 23 3 1993 While much research concerning decision making in interdependency situations concentrates on the influence of social values or different preferences for certain distributions of outcomes for self and other (McClintock, 1978), little attention has been paid to the cognitive processes underlying the expression of these different social values. The present research focuses on the cognitive processes by examining the influence of the dominant social values on decision makers §s response latencies (RLs) in interdependency situations. Using the Ring Measure of social Values (Liebrand 1984), three experiments were conducted to assess these RLs. Experiment 1 examines the reliability of the social value construct and the RL effect. Experiments 2 and 3 investigate the generality of the RL effect across presentation of combinations of own and other §s outcomes (all positive versus all negative). As predicted, RLs were shorter for individualists than for cooperators and competitors. Further, regardless of values, shorter RLs occurred across experiments when own outcomes are positive rather than negative. More important, the predicted interaction between social value and outcome distribution was observed, reflecting increasing RLs for cooperators as their joint outcomes decreased, longer RLs for individualists when own outcomes were negative rather than positive, and longer RLs for competitors when they were outcome disadvantaged rather than advantaged relative to other. These findings are consistent with the expectation that (1) the transformations associated with different social values require different cognitive processes, and (2) subsequent to the value transformations of outcomes, RLs increase when the utility of the transformed outcome distributions decreases. 645 23 3 1993 The reactive effects of concurrent verbalization (CV) on task performance in impression formation research have not been investigated, despite increasing use of this process tracing method. Since many person perception tasks involve multiple trials, assessment of reactivity should focus on carry over and reactive practice effects, as well as changes in task performance concurrent with thinking aloud. An experimental method for assessing these three forms of reactivity was demonstrated in an information request impression formation task. Concurrent reactive effects were found for both continuous and intermittent CV. For the former, task processing was mildly slowed but altered in a manner suggestive of more efficient learning of and memory for cues requested early in task performance. The substantial slowing of task processing during trial 1 intermittent CV largely disappeared by trial 2, indicating that subjects may require more practice for this method to be used effectively. The results for continuous CV are in line with recent findings which are inconsistent with certain predictions from the predominant theory of verbal protocol generation (Ericsson and Simon, 1984). Investigators using CV are urged to incorporate empirical checks for reactivity into their experimental designs. 646 23 3 1993 "We argue that people §s self esteem is affected by the fairness of procedures to which they are subjected; unfair treatment will lower self esteem. Moreover, since this influence on self esteem is presumably due to the implicit evaluation expressed by the choice of procedure and hence by the evaluation expressed by the person implementing the procedure, people §s concern with the fairness of treatment will be focused on the interactional aspects of the procedure. In two experiments designed to test these hypotheses subjects received either a high or a low grade on an ability test on the basis of either fair or unfair grading procedures. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that subjects §s self esteem was lower after unfair treatment, and this influence was only apparent when subjects received high test feedback. Additionally, ratings of the fairness of the interaction were lower following unfair grading procedures. Experiment 2 also manipulated level of involvement with the test. Self esteem was affected by procedural fairness and procedural fairness influenced perceived fairness of the interaction only in the high involvement condition." 647 23 3 1993 "Various researchers on feminist issues have argued that rape against women is supported by beliefs encouraging socioeconomic domination of women and that acceptance of rape myths foster those beliefs. If this is true, acceptance of such myths should be correlated with restrictive beliefs about women §s social roles. Two previous studies, carried out in England, Israel, United States and West Germany, confirmed that hypothesis (Costin, 1985; Costin and Schwarz, 1987). The replication of those investigations in Turkey adds further support for the hypothesis." 648 23 4 1993 A number of investigators demonstrated that processing verbal stimuli by encoding them in reference to the self facilitates recall for these stimuli, compared with other kinds of semantic processing. On the basis of a critical discussion of the relevant research, it is hypothesized that the superiority of self reference is due to some specific features of semantic orienting tasks that serve as control groups for self referent encoding. This hypothesis is tested in three experiments demonstrating that, when changing certain features of these semantic orienting tasks, the self reference effect (SRE) is no longer obtained In Experiment 3, the statistical difficulties are addressed that arise when not rejecting the null hypothesis. Furthermore, several implications of schema oriented explanations of the SRE are tested Several dependent measures provide evidence in support of the motion that a self schema is activated during encoding and retrieval of self relevant material. However, results show that self referent processing in contrast to the most general claim of the relevant literature does not lead to superior recollection. 649 23 4 1993 Past research on social marking and pragmatic reasoning schemas suggests that cognitive processing modes are first elaborated by children when they are carrying out regulating social routines in the course of which they learn to produce the responses that satisfy the demand of their environment. The data of the two experimental studies reported here with 4 5 year old children, for object distribution tasks, show that the social routines evoked by the objects to be processed have a dual effect, influencing both the representation of the partition to be made, as well as the procedures used to make them. It can be hypothesised that the utilization of routine evoking tasks, which children are capable at a very young age, of accomplishing by activating efficient social goal oriented procedures, promote the attribution of an operative meaning to the linguistic expressions used to characterize the states to be attained, and the transformations to be applied in order to attain them. 650 23 4 1993 Three studies address the question of how observers react to rebuttal statements and which variables are crucial in determining observers §s evaluations of the initiator of the rebuttal. The first study showed that devaluation of the initiator of the rebuttal was higher when observers were confronted with the isolated rebuttal than when observers first learned about an existing accusation and then about the corresponding rebuttal. The second study qualified this finding by revealing that the devaluating effect of an isolated rebuttal was especially pronounced if the event in question was of high impact for observers. The third study included an additional variable, namely, the credibility of the source of the accusation. The drop in devaluation from rebuttal only to accusation + rebuttal conditions was obtained only for high impact observers when the accusation came from a noncredible source. The findings are explained within a framework of attributional and belief perseverance notions. Implications are discussed. 651 23 4 1993 Distinctiveness based illusory correlation effects (ICEs) have been implicated in the formation of negative stereotypes of minorities. In standard experiments subjects are presented with information about a large and small group in which the ratio of desirable to undesirable members is the same. These conditions normally lead to a negative representation of the smaller group. Explanations of this effect suggest it is a product of (a) over representing highly distinctive stimuli, (b) sampling from memory, or (c) regression to the mean following information loss. The present research investigated the possibility that the ICE would occur even where no stimulus information linking behaviours to groups was presented an outcome inconsistent with the first two explanations. Two experiments (Ns = 83, 112) produced ICEs in the absence of this standard stimulus information in a range of conditions. Results in these and previous studies are shown to be consistent with an explanation in terms of the principle of meta contrast derived from self categorization theory. 652 23 4 1993 The present research focused on power processes in a simulated organizational structure consisting of three hierarchical levels occupied by different numbers of males and females. Subjects were presented with a chart showing the organizational hierarchy of which they were a member placed at the lowest level, and asked to nominate any person for the leader position vacated by the current incumbent. The results of Experiment 1 (n = 88 Dutch male and female university students) showed that male subjects strongly overnominated themselves, whereas a majority of the female subjects nominated either self or another female. Of the others that were nominated by both males and females, almost all were occupants of positions immediately below the leader position, indicating the normative influence of a bureaucratic rule of leader succession. Experiment 2 was a replicational study carried out in a different culture (n = 101 Polish male and female university students). Polish subjects adhered to the bureaucratic rule more strongly than their Dutch counterparts, and both females and males nominated mostly males. Results are discussed with reference to gender self stereotypes and cultural differences. 653 23 4 1993 "To date little evidence is available as to how emotional facial expression is decoded, specifically whether a bottom up (data driven) or a top down (schema driven) approach is more appropriate in explaining the decoding of emotions from facial expression. A study is reported (conducted with N = 20 subjects each in Germany and Italy), in which decoders judged emotions from photographs of facial expressions. Stimuli represented a selection of photographs depicting both single muscular movements (action units) in an otherwise neutral face, and combinations of such action units. Results indicate that the meaning of action units changes often with context; only a few single action units transmit specific emotional meaning, which they retain when presented in context. The results are replicated to a large degree across decoder samples in both nations, implying fundamental mechanisms of emotion decoding." 654 23 5 1993 In this paper we argue that people §s explanations of a wide range of social outcomes occur within a framework of expectations derived from beliefs about the pervasive influence of social class on individuals §s life chances. This claim is tested by examining the effect of varying the social class origins of vignette characters on judgments and explanations concerning their outcomes. Four domains of social activity are examined: occupational attainment, educational achievement, relationship success, and unemployment. In all of these areas, the class background of the characters was found to be associated with different outcome expectations, future expectations, judgments of responsibility and differences in the ways in which outcomes were explained. The results are consistent with the claim that people have cognitive models in which social class background is associated with particular social outcomes across a range of activities, and that these models are reasonably accurate representations of the relationships between social class and life chances. This suggests that contrary to theories which have stressed the individualistic nature of belief systems in western societies, social class forms an important part of the popular representation of the influences on occupational, educational and relationship success. 655 23 5 1993 The aim of the study was to examine whether positive negative asymmetry can be found in the strength of political attitudes. Two hundred and eleven subjects participated in the study. Attitudes toward political parties were examined by means of a questionnaire with three strength measures. As was expected, attitude intensity, centrality and behaviour were found to be linked together in positive attitudes but not in negative attitudes. 656 23 5 1993 Social identity theory predicts that ingroup members should see their group as more homogeneous when confronted by a large and presumably dominant outgroup. This prediction has been supported in a series of recent studies, all of which purport to show that the usual ingroup outgroup difference in perceived variability, i.e. outgroup homogeneity, is reversed when the ingroup is in a minority position. In all of these studies, however, the ingroup outgroup distinction has been confounded with the size of the target group judged The present study was conducted to overcome this confound Subjects judged both the ingroup and outgroup, under one of two different orders, and the first group judged varied in size across subjects while the size of the second group was held constant. This permitted comparisons of the perceived variability of the second judged group (be it the ingroup or outgroup) when it followed the judgment of either a larger or equal size first group. Consistent with social identity theory, ingroups were judged as less variable when judged after a large outgroup than after a small one. This was true, however, only on measures of perceived dispersion and not on measures of perceived stereotypicality. On both sorts of measures, however, overall outgroup homogeneity was found, over and above the difference due to the comparison of the ingroup with a large or small outgroup. 657 23 5 1993 After reading a vignette about a hypothetical rape incident, 240 undergraduate students of the University of Bombay recommended imprisonment for the rapist and attributed fault to the rape victim. The experiment had a 2 (subject §s sex) 2 (schoolteacher versus callgirl victim) x 2 (acquainted versus stranger rapist) x 2 (victim §s physical resistance versus no physical resistance) factorial design with 15 subjects per cell. As predicted, attributed victim §s fault was greater and recommended rapist §s imprisonment was shorter with male rather than female subjects, with the callgirl rather than schoolteacher victim, and with no physical resistance rather than with physical resistance. Greater fault was also attributed to the acquainted rather than unacquainted victim. These main effects and the interaction effects were discussed primarily in light of the proposition that acquaintance rape is viewed less seriously than stranger rape because of ambiguity regarding the acquainted victim §s consent. 658 23 5 1993 It is proposed that perceptions of powerlessness influence attitudes towards political policies and ideologies, and that these attitudes influence levels of support for political parties. A cross sectional survey analysis of the relations between social class, powerlessness, ideology, and party preference supports this contention. However, the role of powerlessness in influencing the appeal of political attitudes is found to be conditional on respondents §s social class. For middle class respondents, powerlessness is associated with opposition to economic redistribution, whereas for the working class it is associated with pro redistributive attitudes. For respondents in all classes, powerlessness is associated with authoritarian beliefs, but these are only of relevance for the partisanship of respondents in the middle class. As a consequence of this pattern of relationships, powerlessness is associated with political polarization between social classes, which takes the form of increased support for the Conservative party in the middle class and increased support for the Labour party in the working class. Apart from their substantive implications these findings illustrate the importance of social structural characteristics in conditioning the relationships between social psychological variables. 659 23 5 1993 A study is reported that tests the hypothesis that group members exhibit intergroup bias in response to the belief that outsiders will discriminate against them. To this end, two experimental conditions are included in which subjects anticipate either biased evaluations or fair evaluations respectively. In a control condition, subjects do not expect to be evaluated from an external source. Results indicated, as expected, that those who anticipated biased evaluations from an outgroup exhibited bias themselves, while those who anticipated fair evaluations exhibited outgroup favouritism. The fact that control subjects exhibited the same degree of bias as those who anticipated biased evaluations from the outgroup poses some difficulties for the hypothesized connection between anticipated discrimination and intergoup bias. Thus, it appears that intergroup bias is the rule and not the exception in an intergroup context. Nevertheless, it is clear that anticipated evaluations of outgroup members can effect intergroup bias. 660 23 5 1993 Salient self identities and their impact upon feelings of relative deprivation (RD) and subsequent action intentions were examined Eight experimental conditions (Personal/Group Salience x Large/Small Intragroup Inequalities x Large/Small Intergroup Inequalities) were created utilizing a role play design. Significant main effects for both salience and social inequalities were found to influence both RD and action intentions. In accordance with self categorization theory, when group compared to personal identities were made salient, stronger feelings of group RD and greater likelihood of collective action intentions were reported Alternatively, when personal compared to group identities were made salient, greater likelihood of individual actions were reported In accordance with relative deprivation theory, when intergroup inequalities were large compared to small, stronger feelings of group RD and less likelihood of collective action were reported. Alternatively, when intragroup inequalities were large compared to small, stronger feelings of personal RD were reported. 661 23 5 1993 An experiment was conducted to examine the influence of the perceived extremity of a message and motivation to elaborate upon the process of persuasion. The first goal was to test a model of attitude change relating Social Judgment Theory to the Elaboration Likelihood Model. The second objective was to develop an instrument to measure attitude structure (latitudes of acceptance, non commitment, and rejection) that allowed for a more refined assessment of the discrepancy between the position advocated in a message and the recipient §s initial attitude. The main dependent variable was the attitude towards the use of automobiles in relation to environmental issues. Subjects were confronted with a message located in their own latitude of acceptance, rejection or non commitment. Shortly after, a second measurement of attitude took place. The results showed that messages within the latitudes of non commitment gave rise to the greatest attitude change. The data support the susceptibility hypothesis that subjects elaborate messages mainly in the latitude of non commitment. 662 23 5 1993 A method is presented for locating the central core of social representations which is based on the study of associative relations. The procedure proposed allows estimation of the quantity of the various relations which an inductive item has with induced items produced by subjects during an association task. The procedure shows that when the inductive item is a part of the central core of social representations, the number of relations is significantly greater. 663 23 6 1993 "In two experiments, conducted in Germany and the U.S.A., it was found that exposure to a rape report lowered self esteem and positive affect in women who do not accept rape myths (stereotypical beliefs which blame the victim and exonerate the rapist; Burt, 1980). Men high in rape myth acceptance (RMA) showed an increase in positive affect and self esteem as a function of exposure to rape; men low in RMA and women high in RMA were largely unaffected. Both experiments demonstrated that these effects were specific to rape, as opposed to violence in general. These results support the feminist hypothesis that the threat of rape serves the function to exert social control over women and to sustain men §s dominance. Potential cognitive mechanisms mediating the observed effects are discussed." 664 23 6 1993 We examined the impact of intergroup similarity on two aspects of intergroup relations. Drawing on social identity and belief congruence theory, we hypothesized that at high levels of intergroup similarity increasing similarity has dual, seemingly opposed effects: It increases ingroup favouritism in evaluations but also increases readiness for social contact with the outgroup. We further hypothesized that both effects are moderated by the strength of individuals §s identification with their ingroup. Finally, we hypothesized that there is ingroup favouritism on dimensions relevant for defining the group, but outgroup favouritism on dimensions irrelevant for this purpose. One hundred and forty nine students from two prestigious high schools, who were assigned to one of three levels of manipulated similarity between their schools, evaluated both schools on dimensions relevant and irrelevant to the school context and expressed their readiness for social contact with the other school. Ingroup favouritism appeared on relevant dimensions and outgroup favouritism on irrelevant dimensions. As predicted, for those highly identified with their ingroup, intergroup similarity led to greater ingroup favouritism in evaluations on relevant dimensions but to increased readiness for outgroup social contact. Implications for interpreting inconsistent results of past research and for specifying conditions for intergroup bias are discussed 665 23 6 1993 Two experiments investigate the impact of the evaluative connotation of risk terms on the judgment of risk behaviour and on risk preference. In the first experiment we focus on (1) the evaluation congruence of the risk terms with a general risk norm and (2) with subjects §s individual risk preference, and its effects on the extremity of judgments of risk behaviour. In the second experiment we address (3) the effects of evaluative connotation of risk terms on risk preference. In the first experiment subjects were presented with four decision problems, each with a risky and a cautious decision option, and were required to judge options. Results showed that the judged discrepancy between the risky and cautious option was larger on scales which were evaluatively congruent with the general risk norm for that specific decision problem or with subjects §s individual preference. More specificly, in decision problems for which there was considerable consensus about the risk norm judgments were more extreme on scales which were congruent with the risk norm, in those problems lacking a clear cut risk norm judgments were more extreme on scales congruent with subjects §s individual risk preference. In the second experiment we studied the reverse relation between the evaluative connotation of risk terms and risk preference. This experiment demonstrates that using evaluatively biased risk terms can affect risk preference. Using terms which imply a positive evaluation of risk taking and a negative evaluation of risk avoidance led to increased risk preference, and vice versa. Results are discussed in the context of accentuation theory. 666 23 6 1993 An experimental study assessed the impact of positive versus negative mood inductions on health related judgments with respect to both self appraisal of health (present health status, future health risks, unrealistic optimism), and appraisal of unhealthy behaviours §s noxiousness compared to an untreated control condition. With respect to self appraisal of health it was hypothesized that there should be stronger effects of negative mood than of positive mood, but that there should also be a mood by specific judgment task interaction. With respect to unhealthy behaviours §s noxiousness ratings it was assumed that positive mood leads to higher noxiousness ratings than negative mood. The findings show that 23 per cent of the rating variances can be explained by the mood factor. In accord with the predictions self appraisal of health was more negative under negative mood, but with one exception not more positive under positive mood than in the respective control condition. The exception relates to a measure of unrealistic optimism. Also in accord with the prediction positive mood led to higher noxiousness ratings of unhealthy behaviours than negative mood All mood effects were independent of the respondents §s sex, health locus of control and of the number of illness days during the previous year. Under an applied perspective it is discussed how negative mood may exert a double detrimental influence on health care, whereas positive mood does not lead to a happy go lucky attitude. 667 23 6 1993 This study examined the effects of feedback on a task on information seeking and partner preferences as forms of social comparison. It was predicted that subjects who experienced failure and perceived control over future performance would, for reasons of self improvement, choose more strongly upward a comparison other than subjects who experienced success or perceived no control. In the experiment, 121 college students were given either failure, average, or success feedback on a bogus test for either a stable or a controllable ability. Next, the subjects choose a comparison other whose test material they would examine, and a comparison other as a partner for writing an evaluation of the test. As predicted, the preferences for information seeking and affiliation were more strongly upward when subjects experienced failure than when subjects experienced success. Perceived control partly resulted in more strongly upward choices in information seeking for subjects experiencing failure. 668 23 6 1993 "In two experiments we studied the prediction that majority support induces stronger convergent processing than minority support for a persuasive message, the more so when recipients are explicitly forced to pay attention to the source §s point of view; this in turn affects the amount of attitude change on related issues. Convergent processing is the systematic elaboration on the sources position, but with a stronger focus on verification and justification rather than falsification. In Experiment 1, it was found that numerical support is related to information processing as predicted The greater the support, the more convergent the processing. Experiment 2 replicated this result, and furthermore confirmed our expectations regarding attitude change: The more convergent processing occurs, the less subjects change their attitude on related issues." 669 24 1 1994 This paper presents an overview of current evidence for the role of affect in social judgments, and the work represented in this Special Issue in particular. A new integrative theory, the Affect Infusion Model (AIM) is outlined as a comprehensive and parsimonious explanation of these effects. The model assumes that the degree of affect infusion into judgments varies along a processing continuum, and identifies four alternative processing strategies: (a) direct access, (b) motivated, (c) heuristic, and (d) substantive processing. Consistent with the empirical material reviewed here, the AIM predicts that judgments requiring constructive, generative processing (heuristic and substantive strategies) are more likely to be infused by affect than are simple, reconstructive judgements (direct access and motivated processing). The role of target, judge and situational features in recruiting different processing strategies is considered, and evidence supporting the model is reviewed 670 24 1 1994 Two experiments examined the processes by which positive and negative mood states produce attitude change under high elaboration conditions. We hypothesized that under high elaboration conditions, mood would influence attitudes by affecting the perceived likelihood of occurrence for consequences presented in message arguments. In Experiment 1, arguments were framed positively, and positive mood led to greater perceived likelihood of the consequences and more favourable attitudes than negative mood for subjects high in need for cognition (NC). In Experiment 2, arguments were framed either positively or negatively, and a mood X frame interaction was obtained on attitude and likelihood judgments for high NC subjects. That is, positive mood led to marginally greater perceived likelihood of positive consequences but to lower likelihood of negative consequences as compared to negative mood As a result, positive mood tended to lead to more persuasion than negative mood when the message was framed positively, but to less persuasion when the message was framed negatively. In both experiments, path analyses supported the prediction that likelihood judgments mediated the impact of mood on attitudes for high NC individuals. 671 24 1 1994 The overwhelming majority of research on affect and social information processing has focused on the judgments and memories of people in good or bad moods rather than examining more specific kinds of emotional experience within the broad categories of positive and negative affect. Are all varieties of negative affect alike in their impact on social perception? Three experiments were conducted to examine the possibility that different kinds of negative affect (in this case, anger and sadness) can have very different kinds of effects on social information processing. Experiment 1 showed that angry subjects rendered more stereotypic judgments in a social perception task than did sad subjects, who did not differ from neutral mood subjects. Experiments 2 and 3 similarly revealed a greater reliance upon heuristic cues in a persuasion situation among angry subjects. Specifically, their level of agreement with unpopular positions was guided more by the credibility of the person advocating the position. These findings are discussed in terms of the impact of emotional experience on social information processing strategies. 672 24 1 1994 Subjects recalled an affect eliciting event that had occurred to them in either an achievement situation or an interpersonal situation. Recalling a positive or negative achievement experience (for which subjects appeared to take personal responsibility) influenced judgments of their competence in achievement situations, whereas thinking about a positive or negative interpersonal experience (for which subjects appeared to deny responsibility) did not influence judgments of their competence in social situations. On the other hand, both types of affect eliciting experiences influenced subjects §s judgments of their competence in the domain to which these experiences had no direct implications, and also judgments of their general self esteem. Implications of these results for a more general conceptualization of self esteem and its stability are discussed 673 24 1 1994 "Two studies explored mood incongruent recall and the self regulation of moods. In Study 1, subjects were put into sad or happy moods before recalling a mood incongruent event. Subjects engaged in one of three types of recall. effortless, effortful, or no recall. Results showed that the greatest change in mood occurred for effortful recall. In Study 2 subjects were again put into a particular mood and were asked to recall anything they wanted either at the beginning or the end of a class session. In general, subjects chose to remember mood congruent events; however, subjects in negative moods recalled more positive events when they performed the task at the beginning of class. Implications of the results for issues of mood regulation and mood congruent judgment are discussed" 674 24 1 1994 A dynamic complexity model is used to explain some effects of emotional arousal on retrieval of social information. Two hypotheses are presented: (1) emotional arousal reduces the cognitive complexity of social perception, and (2) these reductions in complexity result in polarized evaluations of social targets. In Study 1, where arousal was operationalized as exam apprehension, evaluations of famous target figures were polarized wider arousal. In Study 2, where arousal was induced with loud white noise, arousal reduced cognitive complexity and polarized evaluations. The polarization of evaluative judgments seems to hinge on the fact that evaluation is the primary dimension in person perception: wider arousal, evaluation becomes relatively stronger as secondary dimensions are discarded Hence, evaluative judgments become more extreme. Other supportive evidence is summarized and the model is compared with other competing frameworks. 675 24 1 1994 "In two studies, subjects read and rated how well they understood a poem. Beforehand, however, they had participated under hypnosis in an exercise designed to induce feelings of being uncertain about something. For half of the subjects hypnosis was made salient as a cause for the feelings; for the other half the feelings remained unexplained The results showed that when left unexplained, the feelings of uncertainty were interpreted by subjects as indications that they did not understand the poem. When attributed to the hypnosis, however, the feelings had no effect on ratings of comprehension. In one experiment, subjects were also studied who were not susceptible to hypnosis, and who, therefore, did not feel uncertain in the first place. The results suggest that just as positive and negative affective feelings serve as information for making evaluative judgments, feelings of certainty and uncertainty serve as information for making cognitive judgements (i.e. judgments of knowing)." 676 24 1 1994 This study examined the role of informational social comparison motives in depressed and nondepressed individuals §s opinion comparison activities. In particular, we examined the impact of agreement and disagreement from sources similar or dissimilar to depressed and nondepressed subjects on an attribute related to the focal judgment. As predicted, depressed compared to nondepressed subjects indicated a greater preference for the similar disagreer, whereas nondepressed preferred as a partner the dissimilar agreer to a greater extent than did depressed subjects. Furthermore, measures of validation and construction motives were found to be associated with different partner preferences. Results are discussed in terms of the multiple motivations underlying and distinguishing depressed and nondepressed social comparison activities. 677 24 1 1994 An experiment is reported that examines the effects of emotional mood and evaluative priming on cooperation in a social dilemma game. Unlike an associative network account or an equity account of mood dependent prosocial behaviour, the present approach assumes that the primary effect of elated mood is to increase behavioural variability rather than altruism or cooperation per se. Accordingly, a positively emotional state serves the function of freeing the individual from the need to optimize local profits and increasing the range of behavioural judgments and decisions. As a consequence, positive mood may sometimes produce a secondary increase of prosocial behaviour (especially when the normal behaviour is rigidly competitive) but positive mood may al other times lead to antisocial tendencies and transgression. The empirical findings are consistent with such an interpretation. Cooperation in a four person dilemma game increases when positive connotations of cooperation and negative connotations of competition are primed in a preceding verbal learning task. However, the mood manipulation does not directly affect the decision to cooperate but only indirectly via increased variability. In fact, subjects in good mood make more cooperative as well as more competitive choices than people in bad mood The notable priming effect does not support the pessimistic view that the cooperation is largely determined by crystallized personality factors. 678 24 1 1994 Social prediction was used to examine the causal role of physiological arousal in self evaluation maintenance (SEM) processes. Subjects §s level of arousal was manipulated by having half of the subjects engage in physical exercise and half of the subjects relax prior to receiving performance feedback on high and low relevance tasks. On each task, subjects were given an opportunity to predict the performance of a friend or a stranger. The SEM model predicts that the more relevant the task the less charitable one §s perception of another §s performance, particularly a close other. Subjects in the high arousal condition showed a pattern of behaviour which was significantly closer to that predicted by the SEM model than subjects in the low arousal condition. Thus, arousal appears to play a causal role in the unfolding of SEM behaviours. 679 24 1 1994 "A new hypothesis is proposed to account for the relation between sad mood and self conception valence, the first, congruency; then, incongruency hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, sad mood initially influences the valence of open ended self descriptions in a mood congruent fashion, but after a short period of time self descriptions become mood incongruent. Subjects were placed into a sad, neutral, or happy mood state, and were subsequently asked to freely describe themselves in writing. The results were consistent with the hypothesis. Sad mood affected the valence of the first half of self descriptions in a congruent manner, but affected the valence of the second half of self descriptions in an incongruent manner. That is, with the passage of time sad mood led to increasingly positive self descriptions (i.e. equally positive as neutral mood did). Implications of the findings are discussed." 680 24 1 1994 The present study is concerned with the processes mediating the impact of mood on impression formation. Four assumptions are distinguished: (1) mood as a prime for the generation and/or association of additional information, (2) mood as a cue for the change of meaning of incoming stimuli, (3) mood as a direct source of information, and (4) mood as a cue for selective weighing of incoming stimuli. These mediating processes assumptions are specified in terms of information integration theory. A pattern of hypotheses is derived which allows to examine what mechanisms underlie the impact of mood in an impression formation task. The results confirm the mood congruency effect and show that mood congruent judgments are mediated neither by change of meaning nor by selective weighing of incoming information. Also the explanation by additionally activated information primed by mood was not supported However, the findings indicate that mood serves as a direct source of information to be incorporated into the judgment together with the presented information: (1) parameter estimations show that the global impression depends on the person §s current mood, whereas the scale values and the weights of the traits presented are independent of the mood state, (2) judgments of single traits are more influenced by mood than judgments of pairs, (3) medium traits are more affected than extreme traits and (4) the negativity effect is more pronounced in a good mood than in a bad mood The final judgment is an averaging process of a mood dependent global impression and of mood independent stimulus information. Implications of these findings for current mood and social judgment models are discussed. 681 24 1 1994 "This study investigated the effect of mood on the favourability of intergroup attitudes, and on two important components of intergroup attitudes, namely stereotypes and feelings (i. e. emotional associates) toward social groups. In addition, the individual difference variable of affect intensity (AIM; Larsen and Diener, 1987) was considered as a potential moderating variable, with high AIMs expected to demonstrate more pronounced mood judgment effects. After a musical mood induction, subjects completed measures assessing attitudes, stereotypes, and feelings toward French Canadians and Pakistanis. The results revealed that mood influenced attitudes, stereotypes, and feelings toward the groups, but only for high AIMs. The implications of the findings for future research are discussed." 682 24 1 1994 The mechanisms by which mood states influence attitude judgments in persuasion settings are delineated in terms of current dual process theorizing, with an emphasis on mechanisms that may operate when the evaluative implications of message content are ambiguous. In a preliminary test of hypotheses concerning such circumstances, college aged subjects were put into a happy or sad mood and then read a message containing unambiguous strong, unambiguous weak, or ambiguous arguments, which was attributed to a highly credible source (heuristic cue). When message content was ambiguous, sad (as compared to happy) subjects §s attitudes were more influenced by heuristic processing, and their message related thoughts were biased by the heuristic cue. These and other results are discussed within a dual processing framework, and compared to other social cognition theorizing on the impact of affect on social judgment. 683 24 2 1994 The antecedents of political disaffection and political activism have been extensively studied in adult populations, producing two models of political protest, the dissatisfaction model , suggesting that protest action is rooted in political disaffection, and the resource model which bases interest in politics in a sense of political self efficacy. There has been a dearth of research extending this theorizing to young people of prevoting age. The present study presents the results of regression analysis applied to longitudinal data collected in a U. K. programme of research and economic and political socialization, the ESRC 16 19 Initiative. The analysis relates lack of interest in politics §s , intention not to vote and political activity, to attitudes, personality characteristics, experience and circumstances measured earlier. It is concluded that political disaffection, including lack of interest and intention not to vote, is strongly associated with a growing cynicism about politics rooted in poor educational performance and a working class family background The connections with activism are negative but much weaker, suggesting the potential for protest activity across a wider spectrum of youth. This lends support to Marsh §s (1990) view that given the right circumstances, protest action under both the resource model , and the dissatisfaction model , can apply. 684 24 2 1994 Three experiments investigating the effects of cognitive and motivational factors on stereotype change are reported Trait ratings in all three experiments showed there to be greater stereotype change when stereotype inconsistent information was dispersed across many group members than when it was concentrated in only a few. A sorting task (Experiment 1) indicated that, in the concentrated conditions the stereotype disconfirmers were more strongly isolated from the rest of the group than in the dispersed conditions. Free recall protocols (Experiment 2) showed greater memory for the target exemplars when subjects anticipated interaction with a group member than when no interaction was anticipated The questions subject chose to ask target group exemplars were also influenced by anticipated future interaction. Subjects chose more stereotype inconsistent questions when interaction was anticipated than when no interaction was anticipated Experiment 3 showed the impact of stereotype inconsistent information to be greater when expectancies for the stereotyped group are weaker. A cued recall task yielded evidence of spontaneous subtyping. All these studies support the subtyping model, even in the presence of cognitive and motivational factors that might be expected to impede stereotype change. 685 24 2 1994 We expected that, when group members cannot control their group membership, majority members show ingroup favouritism on task relevant dimension, whereas minority members were expected to show ingroup favouritism on task irrelevant dimension (hypothesis 1). In addition, it was expected that intergroup comparisons will change when group membership changes from uncontrollable to controllable. Based on Social Identity Theory, two alternative hypotheses were explore& Compared with uncontrollable settings, ingroup bias will decrease (2a) or increase (2b) in controllable settings. Ninetytwo subjects were divided into four groups (minority versus majority, controllable versus uncontrollable group membership), allegedly on the basis of their essay writing style. The results supported the first hypothesis. Hypothesis 2a received support among the majority members and hypothesis 2b among the minority members. The findings are discussed in terms of Social Identity Theory and the effect the perceived control of group membership and the dimension may have on intergroup comparisons. 686 24 2 1994 Most psychological research on the social effects of facial appearance has compared normal with attractive faces whereas little work has been concerned with the possible differences in reactions to disfigured and normal faces. Yet many cranio facial surgeons wish to know whether their disfigured patients are reporting reality when they complain that members of the public avoid or react negatively to them. This study finds that people travelling on a suburban railway significantly avoided sitting next to someone who appeared to have a facial port wine stain. It is concluded that facially disfigured people §s accounts of avoidant behaviour towards them are probably the results of correct perceptions. 687 24 2 1994 The influence of private self consciousness on the components of Ajzen and Fishbein §s attitude model (attitude and subjective norm) is analysed The impact of past behaviour on both current behaviour and behavioural intention is also studied. This model was applied to the prediction of voting intention and reported behaviour in the Spanish Parliamentary elections held in 1989. Attitude showed stronger influence than subjective norm on behavioural intention for subjects with a higher private self consciousness. The opposite was true for subjects having a lower private self consciousness. Past behaviour had a significant influence on both behavioural intention and behaviour. 688 24 2 1994 Two studies examined differences in excuse making and blaming by subjects with internal or external locus of control. In Study 1, 39 internals and 30 externals judged acceptability of various excuses in three situations and also assigned blame for cheating and lying in other situations. Externals were uniformly more prone to use excuses than internals, both for other actors and for themselves. Also, externals tended to assign less blame for cheating and lying. In Study II, 24 internals and 32 externals divided blame among themselves, another person, and no one to blame in 10 joint responsible situations. Externals assigned more blame to the other person and less to themselves, but approximately the same blame to no one . Externals also had higher tendencies to blame others and were more sensitive to being blamed. These results point to a missing dimension of interpersonal relations in studies of excuse making and blame. 689 24 2 1994 The present research considers how mothers explain the development of characteristics in different targets, namely their own children, children in general and pupils. This study also examines the role played by mothers §s occupation in shaping their expressed views. A questionnaire was completed by 415 mothers in different occupations, housewives, office workers and teachers, and with children between four and eight years of age. The questionnaire presented six types of explanation (from intra individual to societal) regarding the development of four characteristics, autonomy, intelligence, order and obedience. Results indicate that when talking about development mothers use different kinds of explanation depending on the target child. Moreover, mothers §s professional role is relevant in shaping explanations of children §s development. 690 24 2 1994 Reactions to self discrepant feedback were theoretically and experimentally investigated The conceptual frame was provided by the theory of symbolic self completion. Starting from the assumption that attitudes can function as central aspects of self definition, 81 female subjects were either presented with feedback that their attitudes were unfeminist (treatment, i. e. incompleteness condition) or they received no feedback (control condition). Then they were given the opportunity for self symbolizing by subscribing to a feminist journal. Subjects with strongly pro feminist attitudes who were made incomplete with respect to their feminist self definition subscribed more often and more intensively to the feminist journal than others. The results illustrate that attitudes can take on the character of self definitions. Furthermore, reactions to self discrepant feedback concerning a central attitude were as predicted by the theory of symbolic self completion. 691 24 3 1994 This study was conducted to determine the impact of censoring a minority who had argued persuasively against the majority. While there was no significant increase in minority influence when one third of the minority §s message was censored, the minority was more effective when two thirds of its message was censored The minority was most effective when two thirds of its message was censored and when the minority was prevented from continuing to espouse its position. The results were explained by the theory of psychological reactance. 692 24 3 1994 "We studied the influence of explicitating a social conflict between smokers and nonsmokers on the social representations held about tobacco. Two representations were found: a psychological representation which was defined by psychological explanations of the causes of beginning to smoke, a characterization of smokers as psychologically disturbed, and negative feelings towards smokers; a second defensive representation which attributes smoking to social factors, and hold both a positive stereotype of smokers and positive feelings towards smokers. The percentage of smokers who adhere to the defensive representation increased significantly when the conflict was made salient. Non smokers were not influenced by the explicitation of the social conflict. The structure of each representation was analysed. It was found that in the psychological representation the structuring element was the negative stereotype of smokers. By contrast, the structuring element in the defensive representation was identification with smokers. The implications of this data for theories of both intergroup relations and social representations are discussed." 693 24 3 1994 According to Optimal Distinctiveness Theory and Self Categorization Theory, possible self definition as a member of contextually moderately distinctive social categories should be more central to identity than association with very general or with highly unique social categories. Data from a large scale cohort survey of 4156 18 21 year olds were analysed to test this hypothesis. Respondents §s self reported political affiliations were classified according to the social popularity (size and support) accorded each party. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that minority political parties should provide more central and important bases of social identity. Supporters of minority parties showed greatest commitment, perceived their parties to be more representative of themselves, and were less likely to simply conform to parental political views. Minority supporters were also significantly more likely to discuss politics with their friends. Additional data from Scotland confirmed that identification with Scotland was more strongly associated with support for the Scottish Nationalist Party than with support for other minority or majority parties. These data provide convergent evidence that minority parties may attract members through their capacity to provide a meaningful social identity. 694 24 3 1994 Dynamic facial expressions, either posed or elicited by affectively evocative materials, were objectively scored to determine the movement cues and temporal parameters associated with the two types of expression. Subjects viewed these expressive episodes and rated each of them on a number of scales intended to assess perceived spontaneousness and deliberateness. Subsequent to viewing all stimuli, subjects reported the specific cues that they felt they had used to discriminate spontaneous from deliberate expressions. The results reveal that (a) subjects were able to accurately report the cues they employed in the rating task and that (b) these cues were not always valid discriminators of posed and spontaneous expressions. Subjects were in fact relatively poor at identifying expressions of the two types and this low discrimination accuracy was found to be a function of the consistent use of these invalid cues. A measure of the level of perceived honest demeanour of the stimulus persons based on their neutral expressions was found to relate to perceivers §s accuracy in discriminating posed and spontaneous expressions. 695 24 3 1994 In two experiments subjects inferred perceivers §s attitudes toward target girls of varied physical attractiveness. Subjects could select traits from a provided list and ask whether the perceiver ascribed to the target each of those traits. After each question they received feedback about the perceiver §s trait ascriptions. The nature of the traits being asked for was analysed It was predicted and found that subjects searched for information on ascriptions of extremely rather than mildly evaluative traits (the diagnosing strategy), and for ascriptions of traits highly probable under implicit hypotheses based on the target §s attractiveness (desirable traits when the target was attractive but undesirable ones when she was unattractive the positive test strategy). Experiment 2 also showed that attractiveness based hypotheses governed information gathering only in an initial phase of this process and were later replaced by newly developed hypotheses based on the feedback information. Implications of these findings for information gathering in general, and for inferring interpersonal attitudes in particular, were discussed 696 24 3 1994 Although implicit framing differences have been advanced as an explanation of the buyers §s advantage, two necessary preconditions must be met to sustain this model: a demonstration that negatively framed negotiators are advantaged in negotiations and that buyer role labels invoke a negative frame. A modification of Neale, Northcraft, Magliozzi and Bazerman §s (1986) simulation created a role neutral setting in which positively framed negotiators bargained against negatively framed negotiators, thus testing the first of these preconditions. Experiment 1 found no differences in the outcomes of positively and negatively framed negotiators, a finding that could be attributed to relatively low market competitiveness. A second experiment, by creating power imbalanced negotiation markets, sought to increase market distributiveness and strengthen framing effects. Results showed that both high power and negatively framed negotiators were significantly advantaged, providing conditional support for the implicit framing model. However, unlike role, frame interacted with power suggesting that the two variables are not functionally equivalent. These findings are interpreted to suggest that factors other than implicit framing differences account for the buyers §s advantage. More generally, these results suggest that frame is responsive to situational variables and that such variables, by influencing negotiation processes, mediate the relationship between negotiator frames and negotiation outcomes. 697 24 3 1994 Subjects classified as more or less xenophobic allocated resources to Swiss nationals (ingroup) and foreign residents (outgroup) in three intergroup judgement modes: negative interdependence, independence and positive interdependence. When both groups were assessed together as a single beneficiary (positive interdependence), they were allocated more resources than those provided to the outgroup under negative interdependence or independence. More xenophobic subjects, however, gave less resources to both groups together under positive interdependence than to the ingroup under independence. In contrast, less xenophobic subjects allocated to both groups together a similar amount as to the ingroup under independence. These results suggest that, depending on their initial attitudes towards the outgroup, individuals will categorize a superordinate entity either more as an ingroup or more as an outgroup. 698 24 4 1994 What is the relation between the smoothness of performance within a specific realm and interest in person descriptors pertinent to that realm? Although it would be reasonable to think that competent people are also actively interested in the personalities of their competence realms, the present pair of studies shows just the opposite. Study 1, examining people from a broad range of occupations and hobbies, shows a strong relationship between competence in an area and the rejection of the utility of person descriptor language (personality traits, external person qualities)for that area. Complementing this phenomenon, an emphasis on area specific person descriptors is found to the extent that subjects are inexperienced in the performance area. The second study involves an experimentally induced threat to competence among business majors and assesses their subsequent orientation toward business relevant person descriptors (traits and external, i. e. physical characteristics). The results show that threat to competence increases subjects §s orientation toward such person descriptors, and in addition, the competence threatened group also evidences more subjectively perceived consistency among those person descriptors. The studies were carried out on the basis of a notion of static/dynamic orientation (Wicklund, 1986a, b), which provides a starting point for the thesis that incompetence is associated with concern with the personality traits and external characteristics of competent people. 699 24 4 1994 "To what extent is a competently functioning person also interested in the person descriptors associated with that competence? A thesis by Wicklund (1986a, b) charges that a dwelling on static person qualities (overt appearance; superficial traits) is often to be found among individuals who are themselves incompetent in the performance area in question: several studies in recent years have supported this thesis, and one of these provides the basis of the present work: Wicklund, Braun and Waibel (1993) found that athletes, scientists, farmers and other groups were disinclined to characterize their performance areas in terms of the static traits of the expert. In sharp contrast, respondents who were relatively non skilled in a performance area ( distant area) were inclined to depict the area in terms of static elements, such as overt appearance and traits. Each of the present subjects received two protocols from one of these previous subjects (above). In one protocol the earlier subject had depicted his own area (and thereby mentioned, on the average, relatively few static person descriptors); in the other protocol he depicted a distant performance area (and usually made reference to one or more person descriptors). The present subjects §s task was to infer the original subjects §s competence in those two areas, and given that our subjects were inactive in both areas, they came systematically to the incorrect conclusion: they reacted to protocols laden with person descriptors as signalling the author §s actual competence, a phenomenon consistent with the descriptions of technical societies in Sennett (1977). Subjects who evidenced some degree of competence in the pertinent areas did not commit this error." 700 24 4 1994 Three studies were conducted in order to investigate antecedents of individuals §s preoccupation with person descriptors, such as personality traits, physical ethnic characteristics, or external characteristics. In Studies 1 and 2 subjects had to rate, for a given list of traits, how important each of the traits was as a prerequisite for performance within an academic context. Subjects who were relatively inexperienced in writing term papers (Study 1) or in taking major exams (Study 2) showed a higher mean in rated importance of the traits than did those who were relatively experienced. However, no differences between experienced and inexperienced subjects occurred if they had to rate the same trait list with respect to each trait §s general desirability, i.e. where the traits were simply rated as such, without any reference to a performance realm. This finding clarifies an important aspect of the theory underlying this work. In the third study subjects were encouraged to make use of overt, visible aspects in describing how to recognize a foreign language speaker. The number of physical ethnic and material characteristics mentioned in subjects §s descriptions was positively correlated with the number of mistakes subjects made in a foreign language translation task, particularly when subjectively felt press with respect to translating was high and subjects §s performance in translating was salient. Implications of these findings are discussed within a conceptual framework dwelling on the societal origins of the use of person descriptor terms (Wicklund, 1986a,b). 701 24 4 1994 Children §s understanding of public ownership was examined in two studies. In the first, descriptive study, children in three age groups (5 6, 8 9, and 11 12 years) were interviewed about ownership of their school and the city §s buses. The hypothesis, that with increasing age the children §s understanding of public ownership would change from being based on physical to abstract concepts, was supported. In the second, experimental study, a different sample of children (mean age = 7.5 years) from those in Study 1 were interviewed about bus ownership. Children who thought that the bus driver owned the buses were selected and formed into friendship dyads. Prior to interaction one member of each dyad was shown a video depicting a bus driver receiving instructions from another person whereas their partner viewed a neutral video unrelated to the bus driver. Half of the dyads then discussed bus ownership, the remaining dyads discussed a neutral topic. The bus driver video alone was insufficient to enable children to infer that drivers did not own the buses. Peer discussion about bus ownership had a far greater positive effect. This effect was strongly related to the making of rejection and transaction statements that were indicative of an active reappraisal of the initial concept of bus ownership. 702 24 4 1994 A new theory of power is presented using the concept of symmetry breakdown in small and large groups. Power appears to result from the building up of conflicts within the group. Introduction and support of these conflicts requires an internal organization of the group. The organization associated complexity is a decreasing function of group size. Thus small groups have more difficulties in generating internal conflicts than large ones. This group dynamic is characterized by two states which are different in their nature. The group is first built within the paradigmatic state aimed to determine and reproduce group conformity. The group challenge is then to reach the transitional state which enriches the group possibilities through the inclusion and stabilization of internal conflicts. 703 24 4 1994 This research concerned satisfaction with outcome differences (advantageous inequity, equity, or disadvantageous inequity) as a function of the individual §s gain or loss frame, other §s gain or loss frame, the cooperative or noncooperative nature of the relationship, and their interactions. After reading a scenario, subjects rated on a satisfaction dissatisfaction soak a series of outcome pairs providing themselves and another party with outcomes. Consistent with Equity Theory, results showed that gain framed individuals found equity more pleasing than advantageous inequity, which in turn was preferred over disadvantageous inequity, but only when the decision making context was cooperative rather than noncooperative. In a noncooperative context, gain framed individuals were as pleased with equity as with advantageous inequity. Contrary to Equity Theory, but consistent with Prospect Theory, loss framed individuals were relatively insensitive to outcome differences and the nature of the relationship. Results finally suggested that advantageous inequity was preferred less when the other party had a loss rather than gain frame, albeit only under cooperative circumstances. 704 24 4 1994 According to traditional models of deindividuation, lowered personal identifiability leads to a loss of identity and a loss of internalized control over behaviour. This account has been challenged by arguing that manipulations of identifiability affect the relative salience of personal or social identity and hence the choice of standards to control behaviour. The present study contributes to an extension of this argument according to which identifiability manipulations do not only affect the salience of social identity but also the strategic communication of social identity. Reicher and Levine (1993) have shown that subjects who are more identifiable to a powerful outgroup will moderate the expression of those aspects of ingroup identity which differ from the outgroup position and which would be punished by the outgroup. Here we seek to show that, in addition, subjects who are more identifiable to a powerful outgroup will accentuate the expression of those aspects of ingroup identity which differ from the outgroup position but which would not be punished by the outgroup. This is because, when identifiable, subjects may use such responses as a means of publicly presenting their adherence to group norms and hence as a means of establishing their right to group membership. A study is reported in which 102 physical education students are either identifiable (I) or not identifiable (NI) to their academic tutors. They are asked to respond on a number of dimensions where pilot interviews show the ingroup stereotype to differ from outgroup norms. Expressions of difference from the outgroup position would lead to punishment on some of these dimensions (P items) but would not lead to punishment for others (NP items). The predicted interaction between identifiability and item type is highly significant. As expected, for NP items identifiability accentuates responses which differentiate the ingroup stereotype from outgroup norms. All these results occur independently of shifts in the salience of social identity. The one unexpected finding is that, for P items, identifiability does lead to decreased expression of the ingroup stereotype, but the difference does not reach significance. Nonetheless, overall the results do provide further evidence for the complex effects of identifiability on strategic considerations underlying the expression of social identity in intergroup contexts. 705 24 5 1994 In three questionnaire studies, we asked subjects how much compensation should be provided, by a third party, to an accident victim. We tested the hypothesis, derived from norm theory, that compensation would be greater when the injury was less to be expected, e.g. when the injury was caused by failure as opposed to success of a safety routine. To rule out the possibility that such expectation effects depended on subjects §s anticipations of the reactions of the parties involved in the accident, the parties were said to be ignorant of factors that could affect these reactions. Effects of expectation were still found, even when subjects themselves judged the accident to be equally serious in all conditions. Information about what would have happened in the absence of the cause (e.g. if the routine had succeeded instead of failed) affected compensation, as predicted by norm theory, but expectation effects were found even when this information about counterfactuals was held constant, so norm theory cannot account for all the results. We suggest that subjects are applying simple heuristics unreflectively. Subjects may also have attempted to fulfil an implicit social contract through their awards. The results cannot be explained through the hypothesis that compensation was optimal: the accident was the same, and it had no deterrent effect, so optimal compensation should be the same in all cases. 706 24 5 1994 This paper presents two empirical studies of adolescents §s peer groups and inter group processes. It is argued that the assumption according to which ingroup judgments tend to be more favourable than those about outgroups is too general. Social comparisons are hypothesized to depend largely on relative status of ingroup and outgroups. While members of superior groups are expected to favour their own group and to discriminate the outgroup, members of inferior or equal status groups are hypothesized to distinguish between ingroup and outgroup but not to discriminate the outgroup. In the first study it was predicted that members of superior groups would feel close to their group and distant from the outgroup, whereas members of equal status groups would feel close to their group but also relatively close to the outgroup. These predictions were confirmed. The closer highly identified members of equal status groups felt to be to their group the less distant they also perceived themselves to be to the outgroup. In the second study a distinction was made between evaluative and descriptive aspects of judgments and polarization of judgments. Social categorization processes were observed in evaluative components of judgments and in polarization of judgments. Descriptive components were not used to discriminate between ingroup and outgroups but just to illustrate differences between their respective activities and programmes. 707 24 5 1994 The influence of an individual §s own social value orientation on the orientation expected from others and on the learning of others §s social orientations was examined. The subjects (N = 148) were classified according to their own social value orientation. The orientations they generally expected from others were assessed as well. Each subject learned the choices of five other persons, representing the orientations altruism, cooperation, equality, individualism, and competition. With respect to subjects §s expectations of others §s orientations the triangle hypothesis was not fully supported: only individualists expected their orientation in high frequencies. The false consensus hypothesis received more support. Generally an orientation was expected more frequently by subjects who themselves had that particular orientation than by subjects with other orientations. With regard to the learning of others §s orientations support was found for the predictions derived from the triangle and the false consensus hypothesis. Cooperators and individualists were the best overall learners, followed by egalitarian and maximin subjects, and at the lowest level competitors. In addition, nearly every orientation was learned better by subjects who had that orientation than by subjects with a different orientation. 708 24 5 1994 Previous research has shown that stereotype based judgements can be attenuated through the attribution of disconfirming information to individual group members. Typically, in these studies, subjects are forced to process all the available information, including disconfirming information, before providing their impressions of the group. In the reported research, in contrast, we attempted to create a more naturalistic paradigm by allowing subjects to control the amount and nature of information they received about individual group members. Under these conditions, we expected subjects to instigate a biased information seeking strategy and display a preference for stereotype matching rather than stereotype mismatching information. Our results supported this prediction. When subjects could control the nature and amount of information they received about a target group they showed: (i) a preference for stereotype matching information and (ii) no change in their stereotypic impressions of the group. When, however, subjects were forced to process all the available information, their stereotypic evaluation of the group diminished These findings demonstrate the general resistance of stereotypes to change in naturalistic, information seeking settings. 709 24 5 1994 A variety of theorists have proposed that individuals desire to be confident in their inferences and predictions. One way this can be accomplished is by overestimating the extent to which available information provides a logic basis for such conclusions. Thus, when one §s goal is to make an accurate prediction, if information about a prior known instance has potential implications for the prediction, one may overestimate the similarity of the prior known instance to the current instance. In this way, the perceived utility of the information as a basis for prediction can be inflated To test this idea, three studies were conducted In each study, subjects were asked to judge the similarity of past instances to an upcoming instance for which an outcome prediction was required. Judging a past instance as similar to the upcoming instance should only provide a firm basis for outcome prediction if outcome information regarding the past instance is known. Therefore, it was expected that when subjects are asked to make an outcome prediction, they would judge a past instance more similar to the upcoming instance if outcome information about the past instance is known than if it is not. Support for this hypothesis was obtained along with evidence concerning the conditions under which the effect does and does not occur. 710 24 5 1994 The illusory correlation effect (ICE) refers to a tendency for people to over represent rare behaviours performed by members of an infrequently encountered (minority) group. On the basis of an empirical study (N = 245) this paper examines three procedural features that are common to studies in this field: (a) excluding subjects who assign too many behaviours to the minority group, (b) asking subjects to estimate the incidence of distinctive behaviours, and (c) submitting phi coefficients to Z transformation. Results show that the ICE is significantly lower amongst subjects who (a) are excluded and (b) estimate non distinctive behaviours and (c) that Z transformation applied to phi coefficients renders the distribution of responses non normal and does not provide a more linear index of effect strength. Implications for future research are discussed 711 24 6 1994 Recent experimental findings of subtle forms of prejudice prompted this search for a similar phenomenon outside the laboratory. In Study 1, with a sample of more than 12 000 citations by North American social scientists, names of both citing and cited authors were classified as Jewish, nonJewish, or other. Author §s name category was associated with 41 per cent greater odds of citing an author from the same name category. Study 2 included over 17 000 citations from a much narrower research domain (prejudice research), and found a similar (40 per cent) surplus in odds of citing an author of the author §s own ethnic name category. Further analyses failed to support two hypotheses differential assortment of researchers by ethnicity to research topics, and selective citation of acquaintances §s works that were plausible alternatives to the hypothesis that the observed citation discrimination revealed implicit (unconsciously operating) prejudicial attitudes. Given the sociopolitically liberal reputation of social scientists (and of prejudice researchers especially), it seems unlikely that the observed bias in citations reflected conscious prejudicial attitudes. 712 24 6 1994 "A structural equation model tested the role of degree of identification with a group (Americans) and level of collective self esteem as determinations of outgroup derogation under identify threatening and non threatening conditions. High identification and reductions in collective self esteem following a threat to that identify lead to outgroup derogation, but level of collective self esteem did not predict outgroup derogation in the no threat condition. The consequences of derogating both threat relevant (Russians) and threat irrelevant nationalities for subsequent self esteem were assessed. As predicted by social identify theory, higher amounts of derogation of the threat relevant outgroup in the identity threatened condition elevated subsequent collective self esteem. Derogation of threat irrelevant outgroups did not have this positive esteem consequence; in fact, increased derogation of irrelevant outgroups reduced subsequent self esteem. In the no threat condition, amount of derogation directed towards either type of outgroup did not significantly influence subsequent self esteem, with the overall pattern being opposite to what was observed in the threat condition. Implications for theories concerning self processes as instigators of outgroup derogation and the consequences of intergroup comparisons for collective self esteem are discussed." 713 24 6 1994 In an attempt to understand and integrate various meanings of the stereotype concept, we conducted a longitudinal study in which we measured subjects §s stereotypes of various target groups using multiple measurement techniques: trait ascription (Likert scales), group differentiation (diagnostic ratio), and deviation from group consensus. The measures were compared with regard to (1) their sensitivity to variations over time and to expected differences between social groups, and (2) their associations with degree of group contact and liking. The data suggested that trait ratings were the best performing measures, in that they were quite effective in capturing cross sectional effects of group contact and liking and were reliable over time. The diagnostic ratio was less reliable and provided a weaker replication of these effects, and the deviation from consensus measure was most effective in establishing an important longitudinal effect movement toward consensus with time. Suggestions for researchers concerning appropriate use of measures and conceptions of stereotyping are provided. 714 24 6 1994 "An experiment investigated the effects of source status (high versus low) and source §s attitude towards the target (inclusive versus exclusive) on minority influence. It was predicted that an inclusive minority in the high status source condition would primarily have a direct impact (compliance), while in the low status source condition it would have little direct or indirect influence but would stimulate autonomous cognitive work (divergence). Moreover, exclusive minorities, irrespective of status, would have a mainly indirect impact (conversion). Results appear to confirm the hypotheses with two significant qualifications: first, minority status interacts with subjects §s initial attitude, furthering or hindering indirect influence; second, an exclusive minority encourages the production of externally generated thoughts, albeit only in low status source condition. The study also provided some information on the relationship between indirect influence and divergence, and between the quantity and the quality of cognitive production." 715 24 6 1994 "Thirty two photographs of male faces, four for each combination of the presence and absence of glasses, hair, and beard, were rated by 75 judges on 23 scales, assessing the typically for 15 occupations as well as eight personal qualities. The effects of facial attributes on ratings formed characteristic profiles for the different scales. The pattern of correlations between facial attributes and factor scores from a factor analysis of the ratings indicates that the judges associated wearing glasses with intellectualism and goodness, being bald with idealism, and wearing a beard with unconventionality and goodness. In two further experiments, judges were to identify each of three faces with one of three or four occupations; the results confirmed the operativeness of the profiles from the rating experiment." 716 24 6 1994 The present article deals with the effects of the use of evaluatively biased language on attitudes, and with the role of cognitive effort. We tested whether active information processing formulating arguments on the basis of evaluatively biased language was a necessary condition for attitude change. Results of the present study support the prediction that using evaluative language can influence attitudes, but that these effects depend on the amount of cognitive effort. 717 24 6 1994 The roles of group cohesiveness and intergroup categorization of the source in minority influence were studied in a 2 (high versus low cohesiveness) x 2 (ingroup versus outgroup source) x 3 (phases) factorial design. Six subjects forming a group were confronted with a conferderate defending a minority position in a perceptual task. The results indicated a manifest influence effect (slide colour), accompanied by a latent polarization (afterimage) in the high cohesiveness/outgroup source condition, and a latent influence effect in the low cohesiveness/ingroup source condition. 718 25 1 1995 There are circumstances in which one is reluctant to express a judgment on the basis of the available information. This is for instance the case when the decision may jeopardize the integrity of the group one is a member of. In particular, ingroup members are considered less judgeable than outgroup members. This phenomenon corresponds to the ingroup overexclusion effect (Leyens and Yzerbyt, 1992). An experimental situation was designed in order to rule out an explanation of this phenomenon in terms of confirmation of hypothesis. French or Dutch speaking subjects heard recordings of 40 sentences and, depending on the specific wording of the question, decided whether the speakers belonged to the group of French speaking (i.e. Walloon) versus Dutch speaking (i.e. Flemish) Belgians or not. The 40 sentences enabled to cross three factors with five sentences in each cell: Walloon versus Flemish speakers, French versus Dutch sentences, and short versus long sentences. As predicted, subjects made most errors when ingroup members read short outgroup sentences. Most importantly, the specific wording of the question did not lead to a reversal of the pattern of errors of group identification. Subjects also took longer to make a decision about an ingroup member reading an outgroup sentence than about an outgroup member reading an ingroup sentence. Such a pattern clearly supports a motivational explanation and undermines a confirmation of hypothesis explanation of the ingroup overexclusion effect. Older accounts of ethnic identification phenomena are addressed and it is suggested that identity concerns greatly affect impression formation processes. 719 25 1 1995 "It is argued that the standard manipulation of free choice in a forced compliance situation has fostered confusion between the two different types of choices offered to subjects, namely commitment or non commitment to compliance with the experimenter and choice of counter attitudinal activity per se. From a theoretical viewpoint, the two choices have very different implications. The former is a prerequisite to dissonance arousal; the latter may bring about consonant cognitions which reduce the dissonance ratio. Two experiments which separated these two choices confirmed the above predictions, derived from a radical conception of the dissonance theory (Beauvois and Joule, 1981, 1994). The results are inconsistent with the reinterpretation of dissonance effects in self perception terms." 720 25 1 1995 This paper reports a series of four experiments conducted to gain insight into students §s social representations of the firm. The results suggested a possible revision of the central core theory. They showed that the central elements of the representation were treated differently by the subjects. More specifically, the notion of Profit and Hierarchy, both central, did not play the same role in the representation. The subjects were found to grant evaluative power to the notion of Profit but not to the notion of Hierarchy. This differentiation by evaluative potential was also found for two peripheral elements. These differences suggest that independently of their central or peripheral nature, the various elements of a representation can be placed along an evaluative continuum. By combining the evaluative dimension and the central or peripheral dimension of the elements, we obtain a two dimensional model of representations which divides discourse and cognition into four fields. 721 25 1 1995 "This paper examines three issues concerning the frequently documented negative correlation between formal education and ethnic prejudice, namely its reliability, its validity and the manner in which it is mediated. Reliability is demonstrated across three indices of ethnic attitudes in seven representative samples drawn from four European countries (West Germany, Netherlands, France, Great Britain; total N = 3788). The hypothesis that this correlation reflects only the tendency of more highly educated respondents to give more socially desirable answers and not true attitude differences was inconsistent with the finding from the survey data that educational level also correlated negatively with responses to an index of subtle prejudice. Results from an experiment employing the bogus pipeline procedure similarly refute this hypothesis, indicating that significant education related differences in expressed prejudice remain under conditions in which the tendency to give socially desirable responses is reduced. Finally, path analysis based on the survey data show that part but not all of the association between low education and ethnic prejudice is mediated by social psychological variables, particularly group relative deprivation, perceived belief incongruency, political conservatism, and acceptance of inter ethnic contact." 722 25 1 1995 "This paper develops, measures, and tests two types of intergroup prejudice blatant and subtle. Blatant prejudice is the traditional, often studied form; it is hot, close and direct. Subtle prejudice is the modern form; it is cool, distant and indirect. Using data from seven independent national samples from western Europe, we constructed 10 item scales in four languages to measure each of these varieties of prejudice. We report the properties, structure and correlates of both scales across the seven samples, and make initial checks on their validity. The cross nationally consistent results support the value of the blatant subtle distinction as two varieties of prejudice. While they share many correlates, their distinctive differences suggest better specification of these correlates of prejudice. And the blatant subtle distinction also aids in more precise specification of the effects of prejudice on attitudes toward immigrants. The paper closes with a normative interpretation of Subtle Prejudice." 723 25 1 1995 Communication scholars describe a pervasive third person effect wherein people see mass media as more likely to affect other people than themselves. Two experiments are reported demonstrating that this effect is not a universal response to the issue of social influence, but occurs in specific social comparative contexts. In Experiment 1 respondents judged the impact on self and other of three types of media content negative content, positive content, and public service campaigns. Comparison others varied on two dimensions, vagueness and closeness. A third person effect was found for both negative and positive content, but was more pronounced for negative content. The effect was also more pronounced in comparisons with vague and distant others. In contrast, respondents saw themselves as relatively vulnerable to influence from public service campaigns. Moreover, the direction of perceived self other differences varied with respondents §s perceptions of the desirability of the intended influence. In Experiment 2 respondents judged the impact on self and other of media violence and drink driving campaigns. Results confirmed a perception of relative invulnerability to negative content and indicated that comparisons with vague others, and particularly with vague distant others like the average person , facilitate such perceptions. Perceived self other differences on the issue of drink driving were less evident and varied with the perceived desirability of the intended influence. Results are discussed in terms of the ego defensive and self enhancing functions of social comparisons. 724 25 1 1995 "Heterosexual dating partner preferences were examined in a multi ethnic context. Four groups at UCLA were studied: Asian Americans, African Americans, Latino Americans, and Euro Americans. Participants completed surveys asking them to rate a typical/hypothetical opposite sex member for each of the four ethnic groups on physical attractiveness, similarity, social network approval, status, and desirability as a dating/marriage partner; social identification with the ethnic ingroup was also assessed. Members of all four ethnic groups demonstrated some degree of ethnocentrism on most measures (especially partner preferences) by rating opposite sex members of their own group higher than outgroup members rated them; however, Asians and Latinos rated opposite sex Whites as more physically attractive than typical members of their own group, and Latinos and Blacks rated Whites and Asians as higher status. Overall, Whites received more favourable ratings than any of the three minority groups. Regression analyses indicated that social network approval (by far), similarity, and physical attractiveness were (in that order) the most powerful predictors of ethnocentrism in partner preferences. Avenues of integration and interpretation between theories of interpersonal attraction and intergroup relations were considered, including the dimensionality of ingroup favouritism, and the need for stronger consideration of social influence in theories of intergroup relations." 725 25 1 1995 In a 2 x 2 x 2 design, eighty smokers were exposed to an anti smoking appeal attributed either to an expert source (superior status) or a minority source (inferior status). Subjects were either allowed or not to smoke during the experiment. In addition subjects had to memorize part of the appeal and a recall task either followed after reading the appeal (completed task) or not (uncompleted task). The results show that the expert source produces more attitude change than the minority when the tension induced by the source is weakened (either by the opportunity to smoke or task completion). In contrast the minority has more impact when subjects are not able to smoke or when the task is not completed, which is to say when the conflict has been internalized. An explanation of these effects is offered in terms of the more defensive forms of resistance involved with respect to sources of superior status compared to more assertive forms with respect to minorities. 726 25 2 1995 It is argued that social representations and similar constructs can only be conceived of as mental structures containing meta information about the group, within which the representation was formed and where it is part of social identify. The most important information will be to know the limits of its validity, that is, to know to which social group a representation pertains. Experiments on social projection have shown that people tend to project their opinions onto others, if they are perceived as being similar in background values. Such projection cannot be expected with idiosyncratic attitudes and beliefs. Consequently it is hypothesized that idiosyncratic and private attitudes, opinions, etc., are not attributed to specific social groups, whereas knowledge pertaining to social representations the subject subscribes to is projected onto the ingroup and less on the outgroup. This effect is expected to be independent of the relative number of people holding this opinion. This is what was found in a quasi experimental questionnaire study. Implications of the findings are discussed with regard to the definition and criteria of social representations and to the structure of the theory. 727 25 2 1995 Three studies explored how the influence of the availability heuristic on frequency judgement is mediated and moderated by the perceived meaning of the task, the perceived relevance of information for the task, and the salience of differential memorability of information. All studies adapted the famous names §s paradigm (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973) in which subjects are required to listen to a list of names of known personalities of both sexes and then judge the frequency of men and women. The availability heuristic (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973) posits that classes whose instances are easy to imagine or recall will be perceived as relatively frequent, so that when names of one sex are more famous and thus memorable this category will be rated as more numerous even when it occurs less frequently. Consistent with the notion that the use of availability is sensitive to task interpretation, we showed that the availability effect is eliminated over successive trials (Study 1) and moderated when task instructions render different categories salient (Study 2). In the third study if is shown that conditions which facilitate awareness of the biasing relationship between gender and frame (memorability), decrease the use of the availability heuristic by moderating frequency estimates of the more famous category. Results of these studies emphasize the context bound and strategic aspects of judgement. 728 25 2 1995 In contrast to traditional approaches that widely equate group cohesiveness with interpersonal attraction, self categorization theory argues that self categorization depersonalizes perception in terms of the group prototype, and transforms the basis of interindividual attitude (liking) from idiosyncracy into prototypicality. An implication is that while attraction in interpersonal relationships relates to overall similarity, attraction among group members is based on prototypical similarity. To test this idea, subjects (N = 219) participated in an experiment in which they reported their attitude towards an individual who would be their partner, or a fellow group member (of either group Visual or group Tactile ) for a subsequent task. Subject target similarity varied on each of two dimensions: dimension A was more prototypical of group Visual: and dimension F of group Tactile . The independent variables of social orientation (interpersonal, group Visual: group Tactile ), similarity on dimension A (A+/ ), and dimension F(F+/ ) were manipulated in a 3 x 2 x 2 design. The three hypotheses tested in this experiment were generally supported. Subjects preferred prototypically similar group members to interpersonal partners, and downgraded prototypically dissimilar group members (H1). Identification, was positively related to target evaluation (H2), more strongly for prototypically similar than dissimilar targets (H3), and the identification attraction relationship was mediated by perceived prototypical similarity. Group based effects were independent of perceptions of overall similarity. 729 25 2 1995 The minimal group paradigm (Taifel, Billig, Bundy and Flament, 1971) has been influential in the study of intergroup relations. Thus far, most minimal group experiments have divided the subjects either into two groups, or have categorized them on two separate dichotomous dimensions in cross categorization experiments. This study examines the minimal group paradigm using three distinct and independent groups. Comparison of the results with three minimal groups with those of a baseline two group experiment shows that with a three group structure there is no significant ingroup bias. It is suggested that the two group minimal group experiment shows ingroup bias because subjects access a dichotomous categorization, and that this dichotomous categorization primes a competitive orientation. A two group context may be particularly effective in evoking an us versus them contrast. Self categorization as a group member is more likely to occur in the presence of two groups whereas three minimal groups renders an us them contrastive orientation less salient. The absence of intergroup discrimination found in the present minimal group study may be limited to the behaviour of minimal or artificially created groups. In the real world of intergroup relations discrimination towards multiple outgroups is a well known phenomenon. While this study should be regarded as only preliminary research, further elaboration and specification of the conditions under which multiple group contexts may hinder intergroup discrimination is required. 730 25 2 1995 Three days prior to the 1993 Australian federal election 54 Australian university students who identified with one of the two major political parties were surveyed regarding their perceptions of media campaign impact on self and others. Results provided evidence of a third person effect (Davison, 1983) wherein respondents judged others as more influenced by the election campaign than themselves. Consistent with predictions derived from social identity theory and self categorization theory (e.g. Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher and Wetherell, 1987), political ingroup members were also judged as less influenced by campaign content than political outgroup members. Respondents who identified strongly with their preferred party judged self and ingroup members as less influenced by campaign content than did other respondents, and showed more evidence of positive intergroup differentiation. At the same time, however, these respondents exaggerated self ingroup differences, challenging the theoretical assumption that inter group differentiation is associated with ingroup assimilation. Judgements of media impact on self and other also depended on the direction of the campaign message. Respondents believed voters in general were persuaded in line with the intent of campaign content, while outgroup members were seen to be persuaded by material favouring their own side but to be uninfluenced by counter attitudinal content. Election propaganda, irrespective of direction, was seen to amplify existing party preferences in self and ingroup members. Hence the relative invulnerability of self to media impact was pronounced when respondents judged the impact of pro outgroup messages. Results suggest that perceptions of self other differences in media vulnerability are influenced by the subjectively salient social relationship between self and other, and are governed by motivational needs, such as self esteem, social identity, and differentiation from others (cf. Brewer, 1991, Hogg and Abrams, 1993). 731 25 2 1995 This paper further develops a new theory of power advanced by the authors in two previous papers (Galam and Moscovici, 1991, 1994). According to this theory power results from the build up of conflicts within a group, these conflicts requiring a degree of organizational complexity which is itself a decreasing function of group size. Within this approach, power appears to be a composite of three qualitatively different powers, institutional, generative and ecological. Levels and relationships among these for ms of power are considered as a function of the diversity of the group. There exist also three states of organization associated with power evolution. At the group initial stage is the paradigmatic state. Creation and inclusion of conflicts ave accomplished in the transitional state through the building of complexity. At a critical value of diversity, the group moves into the agonal state in which institutional power vanishes simultaneously with the fusion of generative and ecological powers. 732 25 2 1995 The positive negative asymmetry in social discrimination proposes a threshold for ingroup favouritism within the negative domain: in contrast to comparable studies dealing with in and outgroup evaluations on positive attributes, ingroup favouritism does not occur when negative attributes are used. The present study focuses on two aspects of this threshold: it investigates processes, which may influence the absence of ingroup favouritism in the negative domain, and it tests aggravating variables, which seem to be sufficient to elicit ingroup favouritism even in the negative domain. Results show that ingroup favouritism occurred within the negative domain when several aggravating conditions were included, namely high salience of size and status similarity between groups and high ingroup identification. Furthermore, subjects under minimal conditions tended to overestimate relative size as well as relative status of their ingroup. The perception of group members to belong to a high status majority is interpreted as a sufficient condition counteracting tendencies towards ingroup favouritism within the negative domain. 733 25 3 1995 "The main concern of the present study was the question whether behavioural information and traits could be accessed independently. In a modified recognition experiment person descriptions were presented; later, a behaviour or a trait was presented as test item and subjects had to decide whether the behaviour was included in the description or the trait could be inferred. The decision time for behaviours as test items turned out to be independent of the number of traits inferrable. This finding supports two memory conceptions of person memory according to which of two kinds of representations are available. One representation is trait based and in the other one behavioural information is available. This conclusion was confirmed by the result that the decision time for traits as test items is partially invariant with respect to the number of behaviours included in the person description. Distinct individual differences in the relation between decision time for traits as test items and the number of behaviours appeared which imply individual decision strategies in recognizing persons." 734 25 3 1995 One hundred and one middle managers (66 men, 35 women) evaluated themselves, ingroup (same sex) members and outgroup (opposite sex) members on both stereotypical and on contextual masculine and feminine dimensions. The results showed that men favoured ingroup members on the masculine dimensions and women favoured ingroup members on the feminine dimensions. In addition, both sexes favoured themselves over ingroup and outgroup. The results are discussed in terms of social identity theory, self categorization theory and egocentric social categorization model. 735 25 3 1995 Spontaneous references to luck (e.g. in the mass media) frequently occur in connection with narrow escapes from accidents. The hypothesis that lucky events are not always positive, to the same degree as unlucky events are negative, was tested by asking Norwegian and Polish students to describe incidents of good and bad luck from their own lives. These stories were subsequently evaluated by the narrators and by a group of judges. Ratings showed unlucky events to be uniformly negative whereas lucky events varied widely in attractiveness. Both were characterized by the idea that the outcome could easily have been a dramatically different one. In a parallel set of studies, pleasant and unpleasant experiences from students §s everyday life were collected (without specific reference to luck) and evaluated along the same dimensions. The results confirm that unlucky and unpleasant events have move in common than lucky and pleasant ones. Pleasant and unpleasant events can be imagined to have opposite alternative outcomes, but these are felt with less immediacy than in the case of luck. It is concluded that luck attributions typically occur in situations that could easily have taken a worse turn. How lucky depends upon how easily and how much worse. 736 25 3 1995 This paper describes research which provide the context for a discussion of how social representations can circumscribe identity possibilities and render feasible certaingroups evaluations. Specifically, a research approach is advocated in which Social Identity and Social Representation Theory are integrated within single complementary paradigm, (Breakwell, 1993). A brief but critical examination of both theoretical traditions is offered as the backdrop to this. A case study is described as a means of illustrating the unique potential of the integrated paradigm to predict and explain the meaning of social identity and the evaluations it affords. An investigation is then described involving 178 nurses ranging from Trainee to Charge Nurse status. Nurses were invited to use efforts to describe the meaning of their group membership. As predicted from having identified the types of social representation of nurses available, two different identity orientations emerged: a communal intelpersonal (Patient Centred) and instrumental intergroup (Professional Distinctiveness). The communal interpersonal identity orientation was most typical of the lower status trainee nurses and also female nurses. In turn, higher status nurses and also male nurses, articulated a primarily instrumental intergroup identity orientation. The evaluations signalled by group membership were also predictable from the identity orientations exhibited. 737 25 3 1995 This article reports the results of a questionnaire study that examined the relationship between regional identification and perceptual accentuation of ingroup distinctiveness in a natural field setting. Respondents were male inhabitants of the Saarland which is a small German state. Half the respondents were members of the leading political party of the Saarland, while the other respondents were members of the major opposition party. As expected, the former showed more pronounced regional identification than the latter. Our main prediction was that a higher level of regional identification would be accompanied by stronger accentuation of positive distinctiveness of the regional ingroup relative to the national ingroup. The prediction was confirmed both in terms of intergroup differentiation and perceived group homogeneity. Additional results suggest that, depending on the level of social identification, perceived group homogeneity may be either positively or negatively related to familiarity with the ingroup. Finally, we discuss the applicability of social identity theory to social contexts comprising differentially inclusive ingroups instead of mutually exclusive ingroups and outgroups. 738 25 3 1995 A large body of research suggests that extremists make more accentuated ( black and white ) judgements than moderates. This phenomenon has been explained in terms of individual differences associated with extremism or as the product of general processes of social judgement. Self categorization theory suggests that extremists represent the world in relatively polarized terms only because, and to the extent that, similar others are more similar to them and different others are more different from them than is the case for moderates. This analysis is tested and supported in three experiments (Ns = 61, 1O1, 69) which (a) manipulate subjects §s extremity and reproduce standard accentuation effects, and (b) change the configuration of the comparative features comprising the judgmental context and reverse these effects. These findings are inconsistent with individual difference explanations of accentuation and extend previous social judgemental theorizing. Implications for the conceptualization of extremism are also discussed. 739 25 4 1995 This study re examines the afterimage paradigm which claims to show that a minority produces a conversion in a task involving afterimage judgements (more private influence than public influence) as opposed to mere compliance produced by a majority. Subsequent failures to replicate this finding have suggested that the changes in the afterimages could be attributed to increased attention due to an ambiguous stimulus coupled with subject suspiciousness. This study attempted to replicate the original experiment but with an unambiguous stimulus in order to remove potential biases. The results showed shifts in afterimages consistent with the increased attention hypothesis for a minority and majority and these were unaffected by the level of suspiciousness reported by the subjects. Additional data shows that no shifts were found in a no influence control condition showing that shifts were related to exposure to a deviant source and not to response repetition. 740 25 4 1995 In the present experiment, recognition of consistent and inconsistent information was measured as a function of time of schema activation. A schema was either activated before or after encoding, or not at all. Schema activation after encoding reduced recognition of inconsistent information while schema activation before encoding enhanced it (in comparison to the no schema control condition). Recognition of consistent information appeared to be unaffected by time of schema activation. It is argued that an a posteriori activated schema inhibits access to inconsistent information. In the Discussion a tentative theoretical explanation is provided. 741 25 4 1995 In the present study a daily event recording method, the DIRO (Daily Interaction Record in Organizations), was employed for assessing social interactions, stressful events and negative affect at work. Forty one secretaries filled out the records during the course of a week. This made it possible to consider both between and within subject effects of social interactions The results showed that the social interactions of secretaries were characterized by three dimensions. intimate support, instrumental support and rewarding companionship. These three dimensions appeared to have different relationships with occupational stress. Instrumental support seemed to play the most important role in the work of secretaries, whereas rewarding companionship played no role at all in alleviating occupational stress. In the discussion some explanations are offered for this unexpected result. 742 25 4 1995 This paper reports a prospective study which applied the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to the prediction of exercise behaviour over a six month period The study addressed a number of issues which have been identified in the literature on the TPB, these being the role of prior behaviour in the TPB, the distinction between desires and self predictions, and the question of attitude variability. The findings showed prior behaviour to be the strongest predictor of exercise behaviour at six months. Contrary to expectations, the self prediction measure was not found to be a better predictor of behaviour than the desire measure. Attitude variability was found to be related to perceptions of control. However, attitude variability was not found to moderate relationships between components of the TPB. The implications of the results for the development of the TPB are discussed. 743 25 4 1995 "Previous research has shown that reminding subjects of their mortality encourages negative reactions to others whose behaviour or attitudes deviate from the cultural worldview (e.g. Greenberg, Pyszczynski, Solomon, Rosenblatt, Veeder, Kirkland and Lyon 1990; Greenberg, Simon, Pyszczynski, Solomon and Chatel 1992; Rosenblatt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski and Lyon 1989). According to terror management theory, these findings result from a heightened need for faith in the cultural worldview that is activated by reminders of one §s mortality. Study I assessed the plausibility of an alternative explanation which posits that mortality salience simply primes individuals §s values. Whereas mortality salience led to harsher bond recommendations for a prostitute, a procedure that directly focused subjects on their values did not. Studios 2 and 3 assessed the possibility that reminding subjects of any worrisome future concern would produce the same effect as a reminder of mortality. In both studies, mortality salience led to negative reactions to a deviant and had no effect on self reported affect, whereas other worrisome thoughts had no effect on reactions to a deviant but did create negative affect. Thus, consistent with terror management theory, mortality salience effects seem to result exclusively from thoughts of death." 744 25 4 1995 This paper examines the proposition that covariation information guides judgments about the dimensionality of attributions on the basis of causal principles of contrast and invariance, which are derived from Mill §s methods of difference and agreement respectively. It is argued that the standard attribution categories specified in earlier research (e.g. person, occasion and stimulus) represent just one extreme of the attributional dimensions and require the principle of contrast, whereas additional attributional categories reflecting the opposite extreme of the dimensions (e.g. external, stable, general) require the principle of invariance. In three studies, subjects were given covariation information, and were asked to rate the properties of the likely cause along the dimensions of locus, stability, globality and control. In line with the predictions, consensus with others, consistency in time, distinctiveness between stimuli and contingency of one §s actions showed the strongest effects on judgments of locus, stability, globality and control respectively. Similar results were obtained in a fourth study, where subjects had to judge the influence of eight causes with varying dimensional properties. Moreover these judgments were rated somewhat higher given causes requiring the principle of invariance rather than the principle of contrast. 745 25 4 1995 In a 2 4 6 like reasoning task, 69 subjects tested hypotheses following exposure to a low expertise source proposing an alternative hypothesis. Subjects compared self and source §s competence either independently or interdependently Results show that interdependence leads subjects to assert self validity and the source §s invalidity, and to test hypotheses through confirmation. Independence produces a conflict between incompetences, i.e. doubt concerning self and source §s validity, leading to disconfirmatory testing. 746 25 4 1995 In this reply, I criticize Bartsch and Judd §s (1993) article on several grounds. First, they under utilize the efforts undertaken in prior work to rule out the possibility of an inverse relation between group size and perceived group homogeneity as an alternative explanation of the observed ingroup homogeneity effect. Secondly, Bartsch and Judd §s design doubles and thus aggravates the confounding problem. By trying to avoid the target group size confound, they end up with two other confounds involving level of abstractness and frame of reference. Finally, I criticize Bartsch and Judd §s methodological advice to avoid within subjects comparisons of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity in minority majority contexts. Quite on the contrary, I highlight the social psychological significance of these comparisons. 747 25 4 1995 Bartsch and Judd (1993) argue that outgroup homogeneity effects occur independently of any tendency for members of minority groups to see their ingroup as more homogeneous than the majority outgroup. This argument is based on evidence of an underlying outgroup homogeneity effect in a study which purports to unconfound the roles of judged group size and ingroup outgroup judgement by presenting subjects first with a small or large ingroup (or outgroup) and then a small comparison outgroup (or ingroup). However, from the perspective of self categorization theory (SCT), such a procedure actually introduces a confound as SCT predicts that when an ingroup is judged first it should be perceived as relatively heterogeneous due to the intragroup nature of this judgemental context. Close examination of Bartsch and Judd §s data bears this point out: the tendency to see the ingroup as less homogeneous than the outgroup when the ingroup was judged first was extinguished when the ingroup was judged second even when the judged groups were of equal size. Consistent with SCT, this re analysis suggests that manifestations of outgroup homogeneity are not independent of contextual factors which determine the relative appropriateness of category based perception of ingroup and outgroup. 748 25 5 1995 What sorts of features define people §s implicit cognitive representations about the political domain in a newly emerging democracy, with no previous experience of multi party politics? This study used a multidimensional scaling (MDS) approach to investigate the dimensional structure of and individual differences in, cognitive representations of the party political space before the recent first free elections were held in Hungary. It was found that three cognitive dimensions explained subjects §s intuitive view of political parties, evaluation, conservatism, and an urban rural dimension. Significant individual differences in the use of these dimensions linked to gender, education, and city versus country background were also found. The relationship between implicit cognitive representations about parties and political attitudes and behaviour are discussed, and the implications of the findings for our understanding recent political developments in Eastern Europe are considered. 749 25 5 1995 The present research examined the influence of subjects §s own social value orientation, private or public circumstances and whether the target population was specific or general on the frequency that subjects expected their own orientation among other people. In this way, the generality of the triangle hypothesis was evaluated by varying subjects §s identifiability and the target populations §s specificity. In accordance with the triangle hypothesis, pro self people expected their orientation more frequently than pro social people. As predicted by the three tiered theory of opinion formation, subjects expected their orientation more often in public than in private circumstances. Furthermore, the triangle hypothesis was supported for the general population, but not for the specific population. In addition, support was found for the false consensus hypothesis, as subjects of each social orientation expected the occurrence of their orientation more frequently than others did. The results make new interpretations possible of previous research into the triangle hypothesis. 750 25 5 1995 Previous social categorization research has tended to treat prototypicality (the degree to which a stimulus is representative of a category) as as fixed stimulus property. In contrast, self categorization theory sees prototypicality as an aspect of the categorization process that is dependent on features of the social context within which categorization takes place. To test this view two experiments (Ns = 256, 73) examined the perceived representativeness of extreme and moderate members of the same target outgroup in conditions which manipulated the salience of intergroup division. As predicted, the extremist was seen to be relatively more representative of the outgroup than the moderate to the extent that intergroup differences were salient. In Experiment I the extremist §s message was also seen to be less important in low salience conditions and in Experiment 2 shifts in prototypicality were associated with changes in the evaluation of individual targets. Implications for the analysis of social categorization and stereotyping are discussed. 751 25 5 1995 This study focuses on the strength of the relationship between behavioural intentions and actual behaviour in a multi alternative choice context. Two separate moderating processes of intention behaviour consistency were hypothesized, i.e. the amount of reasoning during intention formation, and the degree of confidence in the intention. Involvement (as an issue specific factor), and need for cognition (as an individual difference factor) were investigated as antecedents of amount of reasoning. Confidence in the intention was predicted from the size of the consideration set (i.e. the number of alternatives that one considers for choice), and involvement. The study comprised a longitudinal two wave survey conducted before and after national elections in The Netherlands, in which pre election voting intentions were compared with actual voting behaviour. A high degree of intention behaviour consistency was found, which was significantly related to both amount of reasoning and confidence. The expected relations were found. The results extend current process models of attitude behaviour relations. Furthermore, the results indicate that processes related to the consideration set size and content account for variance in intention behaviour consistency in choice contexts that cannot be accounted for by traditional attitude behaviour perspectives. 752 25 5 1995 Abramson, Metalsky and Alloy §s (1989) revision of the reformulated model of helplessness and depression to hopelessness theory introduced the possibility of additional diatheses for depression. The present paper describes a laboratory based test of the hopelessness model which provides an opportunity to explore the role of efficacy in relation to the new model and to extend its application to anxiety. Under graduate students were asked to complete a general ability test and received false feedback which led them to believe that they had performed less well than they had anticipated. Attributional style was found to be predictive of increase in anxiety following failure feedback. The interaction Between attributional style and efficacy was found to predict depression. Among subjects who were low in efficacy attributional style was significantly related to depression. While the study provided partial support for hopelessness theory it indicates a role for the assessment of efficacy as a moderator variable within the model. 753 25 5 1995 Experimental evidence is presented supporting Nuttin §s (1985, 1987) conclusion that the name letter effect (i.e. a preference for letters occurring in the own name above not own name letters) is an affective consequence of mere ownership. We argue that evaluative conditioning (e.g. Martin & Levey, 1987) was not fully eradicated by Hoorens (1990) as an alternative explanation for the name letter effect. In the present experiment, we tried to separate evaluative conditioning from ownership induction. An essential requirement for mere ownership postulated by Nuttin (1987) is that the preferences for owned versus not owned objects are measured or obtained in absence of subjects §s awareness of their belongingness to self: This criterion was perhaps not fully satisfied. However, our results are more in agreement with the mere ownership view than with an account solely based on evaluative conditioning. The mere ownership effect (i.e. a preference for any object belonging to the self above any similar object belonging to another) is described as disclosing a purely affective self bias. 754 25 5 1995 Bouts, Spears and van der Pligt (1992) recently proposed an hierarchical correspondence model of counterfactual processing. They argue that counterfactual processing is governed by the correspondence between events and outcomes along three dimensions: the causal relationship of events and outcomes, their evaluative tone and their normality. Causal relationship, valence and normality of events and outcomes were varied in a factorial design within two story contexts. As in previous studies, subjects §s mental simulations are found to be guided by the causal relationships and by correspondence in terms of normality. rn contrast to Bouts et al. the data indicate that the evaluative tone does not have a strong impact. The findings are discussed in relation to the story used by Bouts et al. and in relation to the hierarchical correspondence model. 755 25 5 1995 Two studies were conducted to determine the conditions under which the third person effect (Davison, 1983) operates. It was hypothesized that the effect would be accentuated as target groups of others became more remote from the self A second objective was to determine whether the effect operates in the absence of overtly persuasive intent in the media. Television programmes concerned with moral themes were employed as stimuli. The results further support Davison §s claim that overestimation of media effects is greater when people imagine the responses of others whom they do not know than those of familar individuals. The results also indicate that the third person effect does operate in the absence of perceived persuasive intent, but is accentuated when bias is perceived by viewers. 756 25 6 1995 In an effort to explore the meaning of action relevant constructs and to uncover phenomenological similarities and differences among commonly hypothesized antecedents of people §s actions, 222 subjects in two studies categorized a variety of statements expressing motivations for doing things (e.g. I d like to do it, I will do it, I ll try to do it). Cluster and principal components analyses yielded an interpretable structural representation consisting of seven different behavioural antecedents. attitudinal determinants of behaviour, social normative pressures, self efficacy considerations weak motivational incentives to act, behavioural attempts to reach a goal, intentional influences on behaviour, and volitional considerations reflective of a determination to act. The results are related to previous attempts at specifying distinct antecedents of action, and implications are drawn for future research on the aetiology of human behaviour. 757 25 6 1995 Through the use of the notion of rebelliousness, the argument is raised and developed that conventional social psychological research tends to downplay investigation of intangible, fuzzy issues in favour of the study of more clearly operationalizable constructs. The thesis is developed that slippery social categories should concern us both for their own sake (because social knowing is fuzzy) and because they require of investigation analytics that have a sensitivity to the social and historical circumstances which impinge upon psychological processes. A Q methodological study into construals of rebelliousness is reported which reveals eight interpretable factors explicated as the ambivalent rebel , the anti rebel , rejecting rebelliousness: the free thinker , rebellion as social change , shockable and anti confrontational , positive support for the rebel , rebel with a cause and strong willed confrontational rebel . 758 25 6 1995 In this study the pervasiveness of racial categorization is investigated among children (10 12 years of age) in multi racial schools. Subjects were asked to sort photographs of unknown contemporaries and to indicate preferences. Skin colour, sex and facial expression were used as three characteristics which varied systematically in the pictures. The results show, first, that children preferred to use different features simultaneously instead Of a single feature only. Second, in a dichotomous classification task skin colour and sex were the most obvious visible features used for categorization. Gender was also used for explaining socially undesirable behaviour, and for indicating preferences, while race was not used in these tasks. in indicating preferences facial expression and not skin colour was used as a subordinate category. There were very few differences between ethnic Dutch, coloured and ethnic minority children in the use of skin colour or other features. 759 25 6 1995 The paper highlights the relation between positive distinctiveness and social discrimination as key concepts in Social Identity Theory. The often replicated finding of mere categorization leading to ingroup favouritism and outgroup discrimination plays a major role in supporting the view that discrimination is functional for a positive social identity. The paper confronts the mere categorization effect with recent findings which throw severe doubts on its robustness. Particularly the failure to extrapolate categorization effects to intergroup behaviour involving aversive stimuli (the positive negative asymmetry of social discrimination) leads to the plea for further specifications of SIT and its validity. 760 25 6 1995 This investigation is about the use of metaphors in the everyday understanding of conception. It is argued that the analysis of the relationship between source and target domain in a metaphor used as an objectification device can help explain how social representations are acquired collectively and individually. We expect that in popular knowledge of conception the central metaphors and images relate to the subjects §s everyday experience as social actors and sexual beings because social and sexual experience is pervasive and well understood. In an experimental questionnaire study involving 169 subjects, it is shown as hypothesized that subjects prefer to compare the process of fertilization, i.e. the role and behaviour of sperms and ovum, with sexual and sex role behaviour where the role of men is projected upon sperms and the role of women upon the ovum. This implies that sperms are seen not only as more active, but also as harder, stronger and more dominant than the ovum. These effects are stronger, the more subjects personally subscribe to a more conservative sex role orientation. In the discussion it is suggested that it is necessary to analyse the two intricately linked levels of objectification, the cognitive process of selecting specific images and the social process of the diffusion of popular knowledge, if we want to understand how common sense works. 761 25 6 1995 Additional evidence is obtained for the notion that stereotypes guide information processing and judgment inference under high processing demands. Subjects were provided with behavioural information about members of a social group. When presentation pace was high, subjects recalled more stereotype consistent information than stereotype inconsistent information, while this pattern was reversed under conditions of low presentation pace. Furthermore, judgments were more stereotypic when presentation pace was high. 762 25 6 1995 The present study investigates the effect of priming on the use of social categorizations. Using sex and race as stimulus categorizations, previous studies failed to confirm the hypothesis that priming one of the two available categorizations would enhance the use of the primed categorization relation to the not primed categorization. As suggested by Stangor, Lynch, Duan and Glass (1992), a momentary increase in accessibility may be insufficient to further enhance the use of highly accessible categorizations like race and sex, but it may be expected that priming will increase the use of categorizations which are less habitually used in daily life. The results of the present experiment support the hypothesis that, when the stimulus categorizations are weakly accessible (university major, university town), the relative use of the previously primed categorizations does indeed increase, compared to the alternative, not primed, categorization. 763 25 6 1995 Does the mood of the time (Zeitgeist) facilitate the influence minorities are able to exercise, or is it itself a direct product of minority influence? It is argued, from a social psychological definition of the minority majority relation, that the former interpretation fails to explain many of the observed effects and in particular the conversion effect. A model is offered that is consistent with the second interpretation. 764 25 6 1995 I agree with Perez et al. §s (in press) assessment of the literature on minority influence. While there are crucial differences between majority and minority influence research, I think the time has come for a reconsideration of the necessity and fruitfulness of the extreme dichotomy between majority and minority influence. The Clark (1990) study is only a step in that direction. 765 26 1 1996 In this article we show, by means of a practical example of a path model to explain opinions or attitudes and using a dataset well known in The Netherlands, that the intercorrelations of the variables may be highly dependent on the number of variables and the corresponding number of missing data involved. As a consequence, differences could arise in the results of multiple regressions and path analyses. (The role of a suppressant variable in a path model will be touched on in passing.) Subsequently, the way that the character of the sample can change when a more rigid listwise selection of cases is applied is demonstrated Since a practical example is involved, substantive arguments may be used for choosing a strategy of handling of the missing values. In our view, with reference to path models of opinions or attitudes, these arguments lead not to the use of one of the current imputation techniques or sophisticated methods to estimate the population values of the model parameters, but to what may be called a differentiated listwise selection. 766 26 1 1996 Evaluative conditioning refers to the observation that the mere paired presentation of a neutral stimulus (CS) with a liked or disliked stimulus (US) may result in the neutral stimulus itself acquiring positive or negative valence. In most studies, the CS is an autonomous, invariant stimulus, and the subject directly experiences both CS and US. In this experiment, we investigated whether evaluative conditioning can be extended to a situation wherein the CS is no more than an invariant element of a complex, variable stimulus configuration, and wherein the subject experiences the CS US co occurrences indirectly, i.e. by observing a socius who is exposed to the CS US pairings and facially expresses either liking or disliking the US. During acquisition, subjects watched video taped sequences of an actor drinking a glass containing a liquid and facially expressing either liking or disliking the drink. The stimulus element which was systematically paired with the actor §s facial expression of liking or disliking, was whether the glass contained a foot or no foot (CS), while other characteristics of the scenes were systematically varied and paired equally often with an expression of like and dislike. Next, valence ratings were obtained for pictures in which the CS element (foot/no foot) was embedded A clear observational evaluative learning effect could be demonstrated when the feature CS was embedded in objects identical to those presented during learning, but not when it was embedded in new objects. These data demonstrate the possibility of vicarious evaluative conditioning of an embedded stimulus element, but probably at a lower level of abstraction than intended. 767 26 1 1996 "It is argued here that there is not necessarily a contradiction between the general linear and equal ratio approaches to equity, and the two may be integrated to make more precise predictions. It was hypothesized that, (a) equity is best represented by a limited equal ratio rule; (b) the more a linear distribution systematically deviates from equal input/outcome ratios, the more unfair it will be judged, but (c) subjects will prefer a distribution that accords with a general linear formula in certain cases where an equal ratio distribution of available outcomes would actually infringe a preeminent or established equal ratio distribution. Four studies are presented, the results of which seem broadly to support these ideas. However, the results also suggest that equity judgments can be strongly influenced by framing effects." 768 26 1 1996 Research in several countries shows that people hold norms of emotion perception, so that socially desirable emotions are perceived as positive and moderate. Subjects also believe that positive and moderate emotions are dominant in their lives. Other research shows that increased familiarity with a social group allows a better differentiation among the members and the attributes of this group (e.g. wider variability of emotions). In the present study, we compare the relative impact of familiarity with pleasant and unpleasant groups and social norms on emotion perception. Subjects (N = 150) were to rate imagined family groups, families that they did not know well, and families that they knew very well, on perceived differentiation and variability of emotional episodes, extremity of emotional events, and global family evaluations. Results indicated that familiarity is weakly associated with perceived emotional variability in target families, and that, regardless of their familiarity with the family, subjects viewed unpleasant families as more negative, as less familiar, and as having a larger range of emotions than pleasant families. Results are discussed in terms of the idea that perception of emotions ingroups depends more strongly on social norms than either on positive negative asymmetry or on direct experience with their members. 769 26 1 1996 This paper reports an experiment in which the influence of time pressure, the social category of the target person, and emotional responses on impression formation and recognition memory was studied. It was hypothesized that under time pressure, subjects using their stereotype would process information about an outgroup target more easily than information about an ingroup target, would judge these targets more differentially, and would base their judgments of the outgroup target more on their attitudes than in a condition without time pressure. These hypotheses were to a large extent sustained. Results are discussed in terms of current models of impression formation and attitude functioning. 770 26 1 1996 The present study attempted to determine whether the impact of overlapping categorizations upon intergroup differentiation should be attributed to cognitive category differentiation processes or whether motivational social identity processes do also intervene. Experimentally created groups were placed in one of four overlapping categorization conditions: the overlapping category was either absent or it was affectively positive, negative, or neutral. These groups were also differentially evaluated by providing them with positive, negative, or no feedback. Subjects estimated then the performance of the two groups in an experimental task. Thereupon, their self esteem and their liking of the groups were also measured The presence of an overlapping category had no impact upon the performance evaluations of positively evaluated groups. Negatively evaluated groups favoured the outgroup but the presence of an overlapping category led also to a reduction of this perceived ingroup inferiority. The groups of the no feedback condition exhibited ingroup favouritism. The presence of a positive and of a neutral overlapping category reduced this bins but the presence of a negatively evaluated overlapping category strongly enhanced it. The impact of overlapping categories upon the liking measure was less pronounced. Group members §s self esteem was influenced by the experimentally manipulated factors, but these effects did not really support social identity theory. The theoretical implications of the data are discussed. 771 26 1 1996 This paper investigates two theoretical statements that are central to Social Identity Theory and Self Categorization Theory: (1) when people identify as members of a social group, they are motivated to distinguish this group in a positive sense from relevant comparison groups, and. (2) in an hierarchically organized system of possible social identities, people may define their identity at various levels, but two levels cannot be salient in the same situation. Four studies investigate whether these hypothesized processes can be traced in natural social categories. Study 1 (N = 150) found that Polish subjects had a more negative national stereotype than Dutch subjects. Study 2 (N = 160) investigated whether these national stereotypes were related to the perceived distinctiveness of national traits, and to differential levels of national and European identification for Polish and Dutch subjects. Contrary to the expectations, it was found that Polish subjects identified more strongly with their national group than Dutch subjects. Both positive and negative national traits were considered more distinctive by Polish subjects than by Dutch subjects. Moreover, Polish subjects expressed a stronger European identity than Dutch subjects. Study 3 (N = 161) replicated the findings of Study 2 under more controlled conditions. The Polish national stereotype was found to be largely based on negatively evaluated traits, and Polish subjects were more motivated to accentuate the distinctiveness of their national traits than Dutch subjects. Again, Polish subjects displayed stronger national and European identities. Furthermore, no support was found for the expectation that Polish subjects would employ some self protective strategy when such an opportunity was offered in this study. Similarly, in Study 4 (N = 40) we found no evidence that Polish subjects utilized an alternative self protective mechanism, namely group serving attributions, by means of which negative national traits could be ascribed to external circumstances. The results of these four studies are discussed in relation to Social Identity Theory, Self Categorization Theory and political/historical developments in Europe. 772 26 1 1996 This paper aims to extend the social identity approach to crowd behaviour (Reicher, 1984, 1987) in order to understand how crowd events, and crowd conflict in particular, develop over time. The analysis derives from a detailed account of a violent confrontation between students and police during a demonstration held in November 1988 the so called Battle of Westminster . It focuses on how students came to be involved in the conflict, how the conflict spread and upon the psychological consequences of involvement. This analysis is used to develop general hypotheses concerning the initiation and development of collective conflict. It is concluded that, while the social identity model is of use in understanding these phenomena, it is necessary to recognize how social categories are constructed and reconstructed in the dynamics of intergroup interaction. 773 26 1 1996 Controversy over Moscovici §s concept of social representations has focused upon the extent to which they can be viewed as enduring cognitive structures characterizing social groups and whether individual members are prisoners of their social representations, unable to duplicate the social representations of other social groups. Previous research has established a consistent gender difference in orientation toward aggression with men viewing it as an instrumental act of coercion and women as a temporary loss of self control. These two social representations, originally recovered from spontaneous conversation, have been measured with a psychometric instrument called Expagg. To examine the mutability of these representations, men and women in the present study were asked to complete the questionnaire either spontaneously or as they believed a member of the opposite sex might respond. Under conditions of same sex responding the usual significant sex difference appeared. When asked to respond as a member of the opposite sex, men accurately mirrored women §s higher expressive total score on the questionnaire but psychometric analysis revealed that there was no similarity in terms of item total correlations. Women grossly overestimated the degree of men §s instrumentality but item total total correlations revealed a considerable degree of similarity with men §s structure. The male representation whether natural or assumed showed higher internal consistency than did the female mode. The results are discussed in terms of differential modes of access to gender linked representations and the cultural dominance of a masculine and instrumental representation of aggression. 774 26 1 1996 In previous studies (e.g Bruins and Wilke, 1993) it was established that in hierarchically structured groups, power aspirations towards a high power position are stronger for the next most senior person than for lower positioned others, that, is, support was found for Ng §s (1977) bureaucratic rule. In the present study the persistence of the bureaucratic rule is demonstrated in simulated organizations with different succession rules. In addition, it appeared that when the least powerful member of the organization was assigned to a vacant high power position, members §s feelings of injustice were stronger in conditions in which the succession rule had been violated but interestingly, these feelings were not dependent on members §s own positions. 775 26 1 1996 Research by Messick et al. (1985) concerning the egocentric fairness bias was replicated using linguistic choices rather than rating scales. Subjects were asked to choose from among six frequency quantifiers to describe the estimated frequency of moral and immoral behaviours as performed by I or Other people . Results replicate the dual slope phenomenon found by previous researchers. Subjects chose quantifiers referring to higher frequencies when estimating frequencies for I moral behaviour than for Other people moral behaviour, and quantifiers referring to lower frequencies when estimating frequencies for I immoral behaviour than for Other people immoral behaviour. This I Other differentiation was greater for the immoral behaviours than the moral behaviours. 776 26 1 1996 Two theoretical positions are often used to explain the effects of negative mood on performance: the capacity view and the strategy view. The capacity position predicts a decrease of task related performance whereas the strategy view presupposes an increase if the available strategies are adequate. The assumptions of both positions are tested using the paradigm of strategic priming. A group of 22 subjects receiving a negative mood induction were compared to 26 subjects receiving a neutral mood induction. Results clearly contradict the capacity view but favour the strategy position. 777 26 2 1996 Two studies are presented which test whether justice can motivate support for government policies and authorities even when such support is not in people §s obvious personal or group interest. In the first study, White San Francisco Bay area residents §s attitudes toward Congressionally authored affirmative action policies and antidiscrimination laws were investigated. In the second study, African American San Francisco Bay area residents §s feelings of obligation to obey the law were investigated. The results from both studies show a significant relationship between evaluations of social justice and respondents §s political attitudes. More importantly, a significant relationship between relational evaluations of Congress and political attitudes is found in both studies. This relationship suggests how justice can motivate policy and government support even if such support does not yield direct personal or group benefits. Finally, the results from both studies indicate when instrumental and relational concerns will be related to political attitudes. If people identified with their particular advantaged or disadvantaged group, instrumental concerns were more strongly related to their political attitudes, but if people identified with a superordinate category that included both potential outgroup members and relevant superordinate authorities, relational concerns were more strongly related to their political attitudes. 778 26 2 1996 "Three experiments investigated how moral judgements of harmful acts and omissions are affected by information about social roles. Subjects were given vignettes in which the relationship between an actor and victim was varied along the dimensions of solidarity (e.g. friends versus strangers) and hierachy (e.g. superior versus equal; the terms are from Hamilton & Sanders, 1981). Subjects were asked to judge the morality of the actor in each case, both for a harmful omission (e.g. intentionally withholding the truth) and for an equivalent act (e.g. actively lying). Subjects judged the bahaviour worse in the act than the omission. Judgements were also affected by role relationships. The act omission difference was also greater in the low responsibility roles. Responses to the high responsibility roles seem to reflect in a consequentialist perspective, focusing on outcomes rather than prohibitions." 779 26 2 1996 "In evaluating ingroup versus outgroup members two types of information can be used. Categorizing information related to the target §s group membership and individuating information related to pieces of information specific to the target to be judged. Information integration theory (IIT, Anderson, 1981) is applied as a formal tool for predicting the judgement resulting from these different pieces of information. It is further assumed that due to a general positivity bias in evaluating own affairs judges tend to evaluate ingroup members more positively than outgroup members. By applying IIT ingroup favouritism on the level of individual targets can be predicted. More importantly, an interaction concerning an asymmetrical impact of ingroup versus outgroup membership information dependent on the individuating information §s valence can be predicted: the enhancement of ingroup members should be stronger for negative individuating information, whereas the devaluation of outgroup members should be stronger for positive individuating information. Further a negative correlation between intragroup differentiation and intergroup differentiation on the level of individual judgements is assumed. In a two (judge §s group membership. overestimator versus underestimator) by three (target §s group membership information absent; target §s group membership information present as either ingroup, or outgroup member) by three (valence of the individuating information: positive, neutral, negative) factorial minimal group design with repeated measures on the last two factors the targets §s likability had to be rated. The findings are in accord with predictions. Theoretical conclusions with respect to social judgement and to intergroup theories as well as with respect to general approaches to context effects in social judgement are discussed." 780 26 2 1996 "Potential discrepancies between felt and verbally communicated emotions elicited by two Pride events ( selected for a job among a large group and being congratulated for one §s own new partner ) were studied by means of a structured questionnaire. Italian male (n=88) and female (n=107) university students attributed felt and communicated emotions to the event protagonist P, choosing from a list of 14 emotions; the communication occurred with P §s partner or friend, or with an acquaintance. Statistical analyses of subjects §s attributions confirmed the hypothesis that felt emotions are regulated in verbal communication to others: pride, triumph, self satisfaction and excitement were de emphasized in communication; joy, satisfaction, happiness and surprise were intensified; other emotions were communicated as felt. Event type, and to a lesser extent sex of subject, significantly influenced the direction and extent of regulation. The results are interpreted as showing that the verbal communication of emotion is influenced by emotion related social norms and beliefs." 781 26 2 1996 The present studies test whether having a vested interest in a particular outcome affects perceived covariation. Vested interest was defined as a function of whether Dutch university students were in favour or against the implementation of a threatening policy (receiving lectures in English as opposed to the native Dutch). In both studies subjects were told that this policy would be tried out at either their own or another comparable university, and that the university chosen would be the one with the greatest proportion of support for the plan. In Study 1 subjects (n = 151) were presented with statements expressing pro or contra attitudes and arguments to the policy. These were ostensibly derived from students at both universities but university affiliation was not indicated. In Study 2 (n = 114) similar information was provided but the statements were attributed to students from the two universities, such that there was an equal proportion of opposition/support for the plan at both universities. We hypothesized that illusory correlations would reflect the vested interest of attitude such that students opposing the policy would overestimate the proportion of opponents to supporters at their own university compared to those in favour of the policy. The results of both studies supported our hypothesis and they also revealed attitude to be a more important predictor of illusory correlation than perceived personal consequences for themselves. The prediction that illusory correlations would be weaker in Study 2 than in Study 1, because it provides less scope for bias, was not supported. The implications of these findings are discussed. 782 26 2 1996 This study analysed the influence of social debate (group discussion) on previously held antagonistic social representations about tobacco. In the first phase of our study, we contacted 130 subjects in order to know what type of social representations they held. Two representations were found: a psychopathological representation and a critical one. After obtaining these results, and in a second phase, we randomly divided 100 subjects into 10 discussion groups, whilst another 30 subjects were assigned to the control condition (non discussion group). The group discussion (social debate) led to a convergence of previously held representations. Debate emerged as a mechanism which could reduce the distance between groups who hold previously opposing representations. 783 26 2 1996 "Studies in individualism/collectivism (Triandis, McCusker & Hui, 1990) have revealed a considerable cultural connotation of the phenomena. The aim of our investigation war; to develop a cross culturally equivalent psychometric instrument for measuring individualistic versus collectivistic orientation on the basis of the shared representation of individualism/collectivism among Bulgarians. By applying the psychosemantic methodology we extracted seven concepts which form the individualism/collectivism dimension. The proposed instrument, labelled Bulgarian individualism/collectivism (BIC) scale, consists of a preference choice between the two words in every possible pair of the seven words. Validation studies included investigation of the relationship between the BIC scale and value orientation, between the BIC scale and general views of society and political preferences, and between the BIC scale and behavioural intentions such as the intention to start a business of one §s own, the intention to emigrate, and the choice of professional vocation. Results were compared with the relationship of these variables to other measures of individualism/collectivism (scales of Triandis and Brown). The results suggest that the BIC scale reveals a more global orientation, whereas the other scales are concerned with specific everyday behaviours. A comparison between Bulgarian and American samples revealed some specificity in the Bulgarian social representation of individualism/collectivism, which can be explained by the extremely collectivistic norms of the former communist society in Bulgaria." 784 26 2 1996 "Social value orientations (SVOs) are known to influence individual behaviour in outcome interdependent settings. By extending these findings to negotiation, this research investigates the relationship between own and partners §s SVOs, negotiator strategies and outcomes. Results showed that cooperators, competitors and individualists could be distinguished in terms of initial demands and concessions. Competitors made higher initial demands and larger concessions than individualists or cooperators, suggesting that their ability to maximize outcome differences rests on whether structural features are congruent with this goal. The principal finding of this research was the demonstration that own and partners §s SVO interact to determine outcomes. Results showed that the three SVO groups differed in terms of context sensitivity: competitor outcomes were invariant across partners; individualists achieved poor outcomes in negotiations with cooperators and, reciprocally, cooperators attained high outcomes in negotiations with individualists. Additionally, individualist outcomes worsened in their last negotiation, while those of cooperators differed as a function of role and partner §s SVO. These results suggest that although the information used by individualists and cooperators differs, for both groups the cognitive representation of negotiations is a further factor influencing their outcomes." 785 26 2 1996 Research suggests that framing outcomes as gains produces stronger concern for distributive justice than framing outcomes as losses. Unfortunately, however, this prior research manipulated own and other §s outcomes only (and not own and other §s input). Hence, it remained unclear whether framing affects concern with equality everyone gets an equal share regardless whether one deserves it or not and/or equity the share one gets is a function of the proportionality of one §s own, and the other parties §s inputs. The current experiment addressed this problem. Subjects (N=94) read a scenario manipulating own and some co workers §s inputs, and subsequently rated satisfaction with pairs of outcomes providing themselves with more, equal or less outcomes than their co worker. Outcomes to oneself exceeded expectation (gain frame) or remained below it (loss frame). Corroborating and expanding prior research, results showed that people are more concerned with both equality and equity when they have a gain rather than loss frame. In addition, results revealed evidence for a self serving bias, in that people prefer equity or equality, depending on what serves best their own interests. It is concluded that frame affects the degree to which people are concerned about distributive justice. 786 26 2 1996 Issues studied by Peabody (1985) in a study of national stereotypes were investigated again in a secondary analysis of public opinion data from the general public in a number of European countries. A convergence in stereotyping among perceiver groups was shown. In contrast with Peabody §s results, strong ingroup favouritism was found. 787 26 2 1996 Outgroups are usually viewed with suspicion and expected to discriminate against the ingroup. The present study demonstrated that ingroup members attributed past discriminatory behaviour committed by individuals of unknown group membership more to outgroup members than to either ingroup members or members of a neutral group. In contrast, past egalitarian behaviour was attributed less to outgroup members than to members of a neutral group. Ingroup members also expected more discrimination from a future outgroup allocator than from a future neutral group allocator. Finally, the study showed that ingroup members §s own behaviour in allocating money became more biased in favour of ingroup members vis a vis outgroup members when the future allocator was from an outgroup rather than from a neutral group and when they had witnessed the discriminatory behaviour of an allocator in the past. 788 26 3 1996 An experimental questionnaire study was carried out in order to test partly contradictory hypotheses associated with respectively a threat discourse and a delegitimization discourse. The dependent variable was the images of the immigrant. The central independent variable was the permeability (subjects anticipated a European policy of open frontiers) versus impermeability (subjects anticipated a European policy of closed frontiers) of intergroup boundaries. The immigrants §s status (operationalized by specifying the target group either as immigrants from the Third World or from other European Union countries) was the second independent variable. Consistent with the threat discourse, the anticipation of open borders led to more negative descriptions of immigrants from Third World countries and those descriptions could be interpreted as negative reactions due to threatening insecurity. However, consistent with the delegitimization hypothesis, the anticipation of closed borders detracted considerably from the positive images of the immigrants from European countries and even involved main effects indicating that also the image of the Third World immigrants was negatively affected (in different dimensions than those associated with the negative reactions triggered by the open border policy). 789 26 3 1996 "This paper examines the way in which different speakers may construe both the context and the categories involved in a single event. This is achieved through an analysis of Margaret Thatcher §s and Neil Kinnock §s leadership speeches to their respective party conferences during the British miners §s strike of 1984 5. The analysis shows that both speakers construe the nature of the event such that their party is representative of an ingroup which encompasses almost the entire population and such that their policies are consonant with the definition of the ingroup identity. Thus their category constructions mirror the ways in which the respective leaders seek to mobilize the electorate during the strike. This analysis is used for two purposes: firstly, to argue for an integration of self categorization theory with rhetorical/discursive psychologies and hence for further research into the ways in which self categories may be contested in argument rather than determined by cognitive computations; secondly, to argue for further research into how political rhetoric may affect mass action through the ways in which collectivities are defined." 790 26 3 1996 The current paper analyses judgements regarding the decision to commute by car versus public transportation in terms of a conflict between immediate self interest and long term collective interest (i.e. social dilemma). Extending traditional formulations of rational choice theory, the present study revealed that preferences for public transportation (i.e. the presumed cooperative option) in a standard commuting situation were enhanced not only by the belief that public transportation provided a shorter average travel rime than car (i.e. the presumed noncooperative option), but also by the belief that public transportation was at least as reliable (i.e. an equal or lower variability in travel time compared to car). Moreover, paralleling prior research on experimental social dilemmas, preferences were found to be affected by a pro social concern the belief regarding the impact of cars on the level of environmental pollution. Our findings indicated that any combination of two such considerations (i.e. travel time, variability, and impact of cars on pollution) was more effective in promoting public transportation preferences than the sum of their separate effects. Finally, we obtained evidence that commuter preferences were also shaped by individual differences in social value orientations (i.e. preferences for patterns of outcomes for self and others) in that, relative to pro self commuters, pro social commuters exhibited greater preference for public transportation. 791 26 3 1996 Although there has been progress in the definition, antecedents, and consequences of individualism and collectivism, there are some fundamental issues that need to be resolved. This study examined two such issues: the dimensionality of individualism and collectivism, and the relationship of these constructs to authoritarianism. Thirty eight American undergraduates judged the similarity among 15 concepts that have previously been shown to be reflective of elements of individualism, collectivism, and authoritarianism. Multidimensional scaling revealed two dimensions: individualism versus authoritarianism and active collectivism versus withdrawal from group involvement. Unlike the conception by Hofstede (1980) that individualism and collectivism are opposites, these results strongly suggest they are orthogonal. Furthermore, authoritarianism was construed as the opposite of individualism. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed. 792 26 3 1996 In procedural justice research it has frequently been found that allowing people an opportunity to voice their opinion enhances their judgements of the fairness of a decision making procedure. The present study investigated how this voice effect is affected by the consistency over time rule, which dictates that, once people expect a certain procedure, deviation from the expected procedure will lead to a reduction in procedural fairness. Two experiments were conducted. In both experiments the independent variables manipulated were whether subjects were explicitly told to expect a voice procedure, were explicitly told to expect a no voice procedure, or were told nothing about a subsequent procedure, and whether or not subjects subsequently received an opportunity to voice their opinion. The manipulations were induced by means of scenarios in Experiment 1, and by means of the Lind, Kanfer and Early (1990) paradigm in Experiment 2. In both experiments it was found that subjects who expected a voice procedure or who expected nothing judged receiving the voice procedure as more fair than receiving the no voice procedure, but that subjects who expected a no voice procedure judged receiving the voice procedure (inconsistency) as less fair than receiving the no voice procedure (consistency), Furthermore, effects of the manipulated variables on subjects §s task performance were found in Experiment 2. 793 26 3 1996 "An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of self harvest and resource management outcome on self other attributions in a simulated commons dilemma. Ingroups of five or six, participants (n = 171) managed a limited, shared, self regenerating resource. Self attributions to ignorance, concern for others, fear, and greed were compared to the same attributions made for cooperative and noncooperative others. The attributions were made in two contexts: efficient management and rapid resource depletion. As predicted, self attributions resembled those made for similar others; heavy harvesters made similar attributions for themselves and noncooperative others, and light harvesters made similar attributions for themselves and the cooperative others. A self serving bias was evident, especially among heavy harvesters. Attributions were also influenced by the context in which they were made; stronger attributions to ignorance, fear, and greed, and weaker attributions to concern for others were made when the resource pool was rapidly depleted than when it was managed efficiently." 794 26 3 1996 "The temporal stability of attitudes toward socially relevant and irrelevant issues was examined as a function of different dimensions of attitude strength. Attitude strength was found to be a three dimensional structure consisting of Generalized Attitude Strength (defined by amount of experience with the attitude object, certainty, importance, vested interest, frequency of thinking about the attitude object, self reported and working knowledge); Internal Consistency (defined by evaluative cognitive and evaluative affective consistency); and Extremity (defined by affective and evaluative extremity). The temporal stability of an attitude was moderated by only one dimension of attitude strength. The specific dimension that moderated stability was different for different issues. Generalized Strength appeared to contribute to temporal stability of an attitude by supporting its cognitive component." 795 26 3 1996 Three experiments investigated the effects of time pressure and evaluation apprehension on the mere exposure phenomenon (Zajonc, 1968). Subjects viewed slides of abstract paintings at different frequencies of exposure and subsequently indicated their liking for the stimuli. Evaluation apprehension during the assessment phase consistently undermined mere exposure effects. Furthermore, when evaluation apprehension was high, time pressure magnified those effects. These findings were discussed in terms of the notions that (1) prior exposure may increase the sense of processing fluency associated with a stimulus (Jacoby & Kelley, 1990), (2) fluency may be interpreted as plausibility of a judgmental cue evoked by the stimulus, (3) motivational factors like time pressure and evaluation apprehension may moderate the impact of plausibility information on judgment, hence, may moderate mere exposure effects. 796 26 3 1996 A novel single attribute test between competing expectancy value models of attitude was devised using subjects §s ratings of clusters of statements located at a range of points within a three dimensional semantic space with expectancy, value and attitude as the co ordinates. The data provided strongest support for a model using bipolar scoring for evaluation and unipolar scoring for expectancy. 797 26 3 1996 Concerning national characteristics, previous work (Peabody, 1985) had generally shown agreement between student judgements and other information. The Russians were a dramatic exception. New evidence comes from ingroup judgements, where Russians were judged impulse expressive. This disagrees with earlier outgroup judgements, but agrees with other evidence about Russian national character. 798 26 4 1996 "According to McGuire §s distinctiveness theory, being a member of a numerical sex minority increases the salience of sex membership in self descriptions. The same effect is observed in descriptions of others when the target person belongs to the numerical minority. The purpose of the present experiment was to study variations in sex label salience from descriptions of male and female targets, especially as a function of the sex composition of the set of persons to which the targets belong. It was predicted that the target person §s sex would have a main effect on its salience and would interact with numerical distinctiveness on this variable. It was found (1) that the salience of the target person §s sex was greater when his/her sex was in the minority, as predicted by distinctiveness theory, and (2) that the sex of the target was more salient to female than to male subjects. There were some suggested interaction effects, such as that minority status affected the salience of male targets more than female targets; a significant distinctiveness effect on sex membership salience was observed for male targets only. These differences in the cognitive processing of the two sex categories, if confirmed, can be interpreted in terms of membership in socially hierarchized groups, in reference to research on intergroup relations." 799 26 4 1996 "The present study investigates the role of category membership, differential construal and selective exposure in consensus estimation concerning a relatively involving social categorization, namely religion. Christians, differing in their degree of religious involvement, and non believers were asked to estimate the percentage of Christians in the general population. Respondents were expected to construe the general category of Christians differentially as a function of their own (religious) behaviours. These differential construals were expected to mediate respondents §s estimates. Further, selective exposure, i.e. the religious behaviours of friends and relatives, was expected to affect the estimates. Results show a negative relationship between religious involvement and the estimated percentage of Christians, indicating a False Uniqueness Effect. As predicted, estimates were mediated by respondents §s construal of the general category; involved Christians construed this category in more narrow terms than did the other two groups and that construal was related to lower consensus estimates. Further, selective exposure was positively related to consensus estimates. Thus, construal processes and selective exposure had opposing effects on respondents §s consensus estimates." 800 26 4 1996 "The present study examined the effects of several conditions on the information flow during unstructured discussion in small groups. We build on the experimental work of Stasser and his colleagues on information sampling. The results of their research suggest that groups often fail to exchange information effectively. Three experiments with a 2 x 2 factorial design were set up to look for conditions that could facilitate the exchange of unshared information in particular. In a first study, we replicated the experiment of Stasser and Titus (1987). The main results of the original study were confirmed; additional discussion content analysis of video recorded material made further differentiation possible. Apart from the mere mentioning of items during discussion, the reactions to and the repetition of the items were analysed. In the second experiment we introduced partially shared information and we made group members aware of the unique information that they can contribute. In the third experiment the nature of the task was manipulated and an attempt was made to prevent an information bias in favour of decision supporting items. Conditions that significantly enhance the dissemination of unshared information were found. An empirical basis was gathered so that the guidelines for effective information sampling as they were laid down by Stasser (1992) could be reformulated." 801 26 4 1996 The effectiveness and validity of 11 important mood induction procedures (MIPs) were comparatively evaluated by meta analytical procedures. Two hundred and fifty effects of the experimental induction of positive, elated and negative, depressed mood in adult, non clinical samples were integrated. Effect sizes were generally larger for negative than for positive mood inductions. The presentation of a film or story turned out to be most effective in inducing both positive and negative mood states. The effects are especially large when subjects are explicitly instructed to enter the specified mood state. For elated mood, all other MIPs yielded considerably lower effectiveness scores. For the induction of negative mood states, Imagination, Velten, Music, Social Interaction and Feedback MIPs were about as effective as the Film/Story MIP without instruction. Induction effects covaried with several study characteristics. Effects tend to be smaller when demand characteristics are controlled or subjects are not informed about the purpose of the experiment. For behavioural measures, effects are smaller than for self reports but still larger than zero. Hence, the effects of MIPs can be partly, but not fully due to demand effects. 802 26 4 1996 An experiment employing a sample (N=280) of undergraduates from an urban university was designed to test the general hypothesis that the perception of justice and injustice in life events depends upon the relationship between two variables that are part of the stimulus situation: the valence of the person being observed (good or bad), and the valence of the outcome experienced by that person (positive or negative). The findings from both qualitative (analysis of spontaneous comments) and quantitative scale ratings supported the prediction that justice and injustice perceptions depend respectively on whether the signs of the person outcome valences are the same or different. Two perceptual biases were revealed by the analysis. The first was a positive outcome bias: respondents rated as more just outcomes that were positive regardless of the goodness or badness of the person in the life event. The second was a justice bias: respondents in both measures found the just life events to be more just than unjust life events to be unjust. Finally the more religious respondents perceived the life events as more just regardless of the patterns of person outcome valences than did the less religious, suggesting a third, religiosity bias. A number of theoretical implications and questions for future research were discussed, including the quantification of the hypothesis and its cross cultural generality. 803 26 4 1996 According to the third person hypothesis, people believe that the media have a greater effect on other people §s attitudes and behaviours than on their own attitudes and behaviours. A self enhancement explanation for the third person effect was tested, stating that people perceive their own responses to the media not as weaker but as more appropriate than other people §s responses. Subjects rated the relative attitudinal impact of messages that are generally considered to be desirable to be influenced by and of messages that are generally considered undesirable to be influenced by on themselves as compared to the average peer. Both attitudinal impact in the direction advocated by the message and in the opposite direction was rated. A classic third person effect was obtained in those cases in which attitudinal media impact was considered undesirable only. In cases in which attitudinal media impact was considered desirable a reversed third person effect occurred, thus supporting the self enhancement explanation and suggesting a reconceptualization of the third person effect in terms of an optimal impact phenomenon . 804 26 4 1996 Escalation situations are those in which some project or course of action has led to losses, but there is a possibility of achieving better outcomes by investing further time, money, or effort. Although this phenomenon has been studied in individuals, there has been little research which has examined it ingroups. It was hypothesized that individuals stronger in social identity would be more likely to escalate their commitment to a failing project. Groups of subjects (half whose members strongly identified and half who weakly identified with their groups) were asked to play the role of a town council whose current objective was to invest money in construction of a playground that was met with many problems. The results showed that groups that were stronger in social identity escalated their commitment to the playground. The implications of the results are discussed, along with future directions for research. 805 26 4 1996 Social identity theory predicts a link between self esteem and intergroup discrimination. Previous research has failed to find consistent support for this prediction. Much of this research has, however, been beset by a number of methodological shortcomings. These shortcomings may have hindered attempts to discern a consistent relationship between self esteem and intergroup discrimination. The current investigation sought to overcome these difficulties by utilizing, realistic groups, multidimensional measures of self esteem and testing self esteem before and after the manifestation of intergroup evaluative bias. The results demonstrate that when the members of realistic groups engage in evaluative intergroup bias, the esteem in which they hold specific self images is enhanced. Of the 13 facets of self esteem delineated by the instrument used in the present study significant increases were found in six particular domains: honesty, academic ability, verbal ability, physical appearance, religion and parental relations. Global self esteem was unaffected by the display of bias. These findings emphasize the importance of using realistic groups and domain specific self esteem when attempting to assess the role of self esteem in intergroup discrimination. 806 26 4 1996 "This study compared the effectiveness of three theoretically based conditions of intergroup cooperation in bringing about generalization of ethnic outgroup attitudes from a cooperation partner to the outgroup as a whole. Twenty seven pairs of Dutch secondary school pupils were assigned at random to work together in triads to solve two word puzzles. The triads consisted of one Turkish pupil, always a confederate, and two Dutch pupils. The three conditions varied according to whether reference was made to the ethnic background of the confederate in both an introductory conversation and in the conversation break between puzzles (High High salience); only in the later break (Low High); or not at all (Low Low). Results show no differences between conditions in attitudes towards the partner, which were quite positive. However, attitude change only generalized in the two conditions in which ethnic membership was made salient (Low High and High High, which did not differ). These findings are discussed in terms of different models of intergroup contact, and how contact may actually work." 807 26 4 1996 The present research studied changes in stereotypes, attitudes and perceived variability of national groups within a sample of U.S. college students who spent one year studying in either West Germany(1) or Great Britain. Subjects §s stereotypes and attitudes toward host country members changed significantly during their stay, whereas attitudes and stereotypes toward control nationalities did not, and neither attitudes nor stereotypes further changed during the first nine months after subjects had returned home. On the other hand, perceptions of group variability changed significantly both during the stay and after departure from the host country. Although group perceptions generally became less positive over the course of the sojourn, these changes did not seem to be due to negative intergroup contact. Rather, the more contact students reported having with best country members the more positive were their attitudes and stereotypes of the groups. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for implementing student exchange programmes. 808 26 4 1996 We tested the hypothesis, derived from terror management theory, that mortality salience would increase intergroup bias between minimal groups. After assignment to groups, participants wrote about death or a neutral topic, and rated the personality characteristics of the ingroup and outgroup. Results supported the hypothesis. 809 26 5 1996 "An experiment was carried out to examine age differences in children §s understanding of epistemic authority and its role in conversation. Two hundred and forty six children from two age groups (6 7 and 11 12 years) were asked to make an independent judgement as to the equality or inequality of two lines in an optical illusion. Experimental conditions varied; expertise in the task was given by training in a measurement algorithm and familiarity with related stimuli by being shown illusions other than the test stimulus in training. Subjects who had answered independently that the lines were equal in length were paired with a same age subject who had responded that they were unequal, and the two were then asked to arrive at agreement. Results showed that younger children rely on external features of a situation in justifying their beliefs. Gender differences in conversations suggest younger children have difficulty differentiating status and knowledge attributes of authority. Older children displayed an awareness of self as a necessarily autonomous element in the process of knowledge acquisition. Unexpected gender effects of stimulus familiarity in the process of persuasion are probably due to differences in subjects §s behavioural styles." 810 26 5 1996 "The study investigates how the characteristics of subgroups within a culture are related to the structure of parental ideas held by their members. Two subsets of social representations were suggested shared parental ideas (SPI) which are largely common to members of a group and serve the goals of individuals as group members as well as the goals of the group itself, and diffused parental ideas (DPI) which are dispersed within social groups, and are instrumental in achieving individual goals. The respondents were kibbutz and two subgroups of urban parents with high and low levels of education (N=299) which differed in the extent of exposure to mainstream compared to group specific parental ideas, the desirability of the group as indicated by its social status and the permeability of group boundaries. The findings were specific to the research task: only small differences in SPI and DPI were found among groups in a sorting task of child rearing items; but major differences were found in their responses to a similar set of items organized as a Likert style questionnaire. Only DPI and no SPI were found in the questionnaires of urban parents with low levels of education. In contrast, two similar clusters of SPI were identified in the kibbutz and among urban parents with high education. Another set of ideas was recognized as DPI in the kibbutz. The findings suggest that the Israeli urban parents with a low education did not share the parental ideas with each other, or with urban high and kibbutz parents, whereas similar parental ideas prevailed in the kibbutz and among middle class urban parents. Hypotheses were formulated regarding the group characteristics that foster the construction of SPI versus DPI by group members." 811 26 5 1996 This paper reports two experiments that examine factors influencing the detection of salary discrimination in organizations. Subjects were presented with information about the qualifications and salaries of female and male managers in 10 departments of an hypothetical company and were asked to judge the fairness of these salaries. It was hypothesized that the amount of information and the format in which it is presented influence fairness judgments. Moreover it was hypothesized that males and females differ in their fairness judgments. The two experiments corroborate these hypotheses. The results are interpreted in terms of two possible information processing biases: encoding bias and attributional bias. 812 26 5 1996 The present research investigates how a mental model derived from patterns of sentiment relations (mental clique model) interacts with social background information (membership in social categories). Testing memory for a set of sentiment relations, the data support the assumption that a strongly polarizing categorization interferes with a mental clique model derived from the learning of these sentiment relations. Such interference was claimed to occur whenever sentiment implications from the social categorization would contradict information contained in the mental clique model. In line with this reasoning, balanced triads were selectively impaired in memory as opposed to relations from unbalanced triads which did not allow construction of any clique model and which were not influenced by category interference. 813 26 5 1996 The present study examines the influence of motives in the use of stereotypical and individuating information in perceiving a target person who is an outgroup member. Subjects were given both gender stereotypical and non (or counter ) stereotypical behavioural descriptions of a target person who was always opposite sexed to the the subjects. Subjects expected either to compete or to cooperate with the target on a task described as either masculine or feminine. The findings showed that anticipated interaction (to compete or to cooperate) and the nature of task (masculine or feminine) jointly influenced whether the subjects attend to stereotypical or non stereotypical information. It is argued that this selective attention to , and consequently recall of, the target §s behavioural descriptions is influenced by the need to perceive the potential partner as competent, and the potential competitor as incompetent. Thus, self related concerns may either increase or decrease stereotyping. 814 26 5 1996 What are the social psychological processes likely to lead individuals to commit antisocial behaviour? Two experiments are presented showing that students experiencing a publicly degrading situation (a failure on a fictitious test) agreed more often than non degraded students to participate in a theft to the detriment of a fellow student or even to the detriment of a teacher. We were able to exclude an interpretation in terms of imitation or revenge and suggest that a publicly degrading situation places subjects in a kind of social dependency state which is expressed by a vulnerability to influence. These results are discussed with due regard to the criminological and social psychological literature. 815 26 5 1996 Children in majority groups hold favourable attitudes toward members of their own group, whereas those in minority groups typically hold more favourable attitudes toward majority than own group members. It was expected that when evaluating task outcomes, majority group children would display own group favouritism, and minority children would show other group favouritism or reverse ethnocentrism . In this study, white and Native Indian elementary school children saw a video of a white and native child listening to sounds and trying to identify them. One third of subjects saw white models correct more often models, and the remaining third saw both models correct on an equal number of trials. When white models were successful, children from both groups made more positive evaluations of, optimistic predictions about, and internal attributions for task outcomes. When these models did poorly, negative attributes were deemphasized and task outcomes were attributed to external factors. Success by native models was attributed to external factors and task outcomes had little influence on predictions or evaluations. When native models were unsuccessful subjects accentuated negative attributes of these models and made internal attributions for their failures. Results were discussed in terms of cognitive and motivational theories of social judgements. 816 26 5 1996 Despite recent laboratory successes in demonstrating stereotype change in response to disconfirming information, stereotypes remain resistant to change or modification. The reported research employed an information gathering methodology in which perceivers could control the amount and nature of the information they received about members of a stereotyped group prior to evaluating the group on a number of stereotype relevant characteristics. Perceivers showed a stereotype preservation bias in their information gathering (Experiments 1 and 2) and, consequently, showed no modification of existing stereotypic beliefs. Experiment 3 manipulated the salient processing goals under which perceivers gathered information and found that, under certain conditions, the stereotype preservation bias could be overcome and stereotypes moderated. 817 26 5 1996 The hypothesis was investigated that when trait inferences refer to abstract behaviour labels (i.e. conceited ) they act as a general interpretation frame and lead to assimilation in subsequent judgments of an ambiguous target, whereas when they refer to specific actor trait links (i.e. Peter is conceited ) the activated information is likely to be used as a scale anchor and contrast effects are more likely. Compared to previous studies investigated the consequences of trait inferences, this trait referent hypothesis was tested in a relatively direct way. Target judgments of participants instructed that trait implying sentences described a behaviour showed assimilation, whereas judgments of participants instructed that these sentences described a person showed contrast. 818 26 5 1996 In the present study it was predicted that men and women may differentially construe an ambiguous activity (going into town). Further, it was predicted that subjects would judge the popularity of the ambiguous activity among en and women on the basis of this differential construal and differential expectations about men and women. Results confirmed these predictions. 819 26 5 1996 This study aims to provide a picture of the present European research topics in Social Psychology, using the 339 papers presented at the 1993 General Meeting of the EAESP. The most frequent themes of research are analysed and the structure of the association of those themes are described in a two factor structure. The first factor differentiates research in terms of level analysis and the second factor contrasts types of applied research. 820 26 6 1996 This study examined the combined effects of likeability related and potency related information in an impression formation setting, using a 2 (likeability of target behaviour: high/low) x 2 (potency: high/low) design. Presumably, the behaviour of a strong, dislikeable person can produce more severe consequences than the behaviour of a weak, dislikeable or a strong, likeable person and, consequently, should be perceived as more informative. As predicted, judgements of the target person §s likeability and potency indicated that (a) dislikeable behaviour carries more weight in likeability judgements when it co occurs with strong than with weak behaviour, and that (b) strong behaviour carries more weight in potency judgements when it co occurs with dislikeable than with likeable behaviour. These results suggest that the informativeness of behaviour is not only a function of its perceived causes (i.e. underlying dispositions) but also of its potential consequences for others. 821 26 6 1996 In two studies, attributes of target groups were manipulated and then stereotypes of those groups were assessed using multiple measurement techniques. A variety of trait ascription (e.g. Likert type scales) and perceived variability (probability of differentiation, standard deviation) indexes were used. The measures were compared with regard to their sensitivity to experimentally created differences between the social groups. The data suggested that all of the mean level assessment techniques were fairly sensitive to actual differences between groups, but Likert style trait ratings were the best performing measures, in that they most consistently produced the proper ordering of means, and were most sensitive to our manipulations. The variability measures were generally unresponsive to marked differences ingroup variability across experimental conditions. Suggestions for researchers concerning appropriate use of measures and conceptions of stereotyping are provided. 822 26 6 1996 The present study (n = 154) examines the effects of expectations and stimulus information on the perception of illusory correlation. There have been few studies attempting to integrate expectation based and data (distinctiveness ) based processes. These studies suggest that data based illusory correlation can be overruled by prior expectations, but it is nor clear whether this is a consequence of a confirmation bias. In the present study, where participants were not exposed to the specific stimulus information, expectation was manipulated by stating that group B behaved more negatively than group A. Moreover, participants were provided with information contained in a statement rating task that allowed for the confirmation and disconfirmation of the prior expectations. Participants rated the desirability of these behaviours and also performed the standard illusory correlation tasks. Based on self categorization theory and Alloy and Tabachnik (1984), we predicted that in the absence of prior expectations, completing the rating task before the illusory correlation tasks would produce stronger illusory correlation than the reverse order. However, in the presence of prior expectations we expected the rating task to undermine illusory correlation, because the information obtained in this task tends to disconfirm prior expectations. Results support the predicted interaction between task order and expectation. We discuss some implications for research on confirmation bias. 823 26 6 1996 This study explored competing normative interpretations of the dilution effect: the tendency for people to underutilize diagnostic evidence in prediction tasks when that evidence is accompanied by irrelevant information. From the normative vantage point of the intuitive statistician, the dilution effect is a judgmental bias that arises from the representativeness heuristic (similarity matching of causes and effects). From the normative prospective of the intuitive politician, however, the dilution effect is a rational response to evidence presented in a setting in which Gricean norms of conversation are assumed to hold. The current experiment factorially manipulated conversational norms, the degree to which diagnostic evidence was diluted by irrelevant evidence, and the accountability of subjects for their judgments. Accountable subjects demonstrated a robust dilution effect when conversational norms were explicitly primed as well as in the no priming control condition, but no dilution when conversational norms were explicitly deactivated. Non accountable subjects demonstrated the dilution effect across norm activation conditions, with the strongest effect under the activation of conversational norms. Although the results generally support the conversational norm interpretation of dilution, the significant dilution effect among non accountable subjects in the norm deactivated condition is more consistent with the judgmental bias interpretation. 824 26 6 1996 We investigated how individuals in different mood states are influenced by category membership information, by individuating information, and by the relation of the two in an impression formation task. Subjects in different mood states received positive or negative individuating information and positive or negative category information about a target person. Experiment 1 indicates that sad subjects were influenced by individuating but not by category membership information. In contrast, happy subjects §s judgments reflected the implications of the category information as long as the individuating information was not inconsistent with the category, replicating previous research. This pattern was eliminated, however, when category inconsistent information was provided, suggesting that happy subjects related the individuating information to the category membership information. Additional experiments show that instructing neutral mood subjects to relate category and individuating information or to focus on the individuating information result in patterns that parallel the judgments of happy and sad subjects, respectively, and that these effects are only obtained when the category information precedes (rather than follows) the individuating information. Extending previous theorizing, we conclude that being in a happy mood increases the likelihood that information is processed in the light of pre existing general knowledge structures. 825 26 6 1996 A stereotype of a group can be expressed by the estimated percentage of members that possess certain personality attributes (Brigham, 1971). In a multi group design, the properties of the percentage measure were examined, and three common assumptions about stereotypes were supported. First, there was high consensus among American and Italian raters regarding the attributes of Americans, Italians, English, and Germans. Second, the perceived typicality of a trait depended largely on contrasts with other traits attributed to the same target group. Contrasts between attributions of the same trait to different groups were largely irrelevant. Third, most stereotype judgments revealed consistency biases. Compared with a Bayesian model of probability estimation, raters exaggerated the similarities between trait attributions (the percentage measure), social categorizations (percentage of people that belong to a group given they possess the trait), and Likert sealed typicality ratings. Raters underestimated the effects of the traits §s global base rates on the typicality ratings. 826 26 6 1996 In addition to proposing a new method for testing the variability of social comparison strategies, this study looks at whether and how the social value of the comparison dimensions affect those strategies. After being attributed a superior, neutral, or inferior position on a dimension with a high or low social value, subjects were told they had to select 10 persons in order to choose a working partner among 30 comparison targets. Two pieces of information (a performance and a personality trait) presented in a table on a computer screen were given as a basis for the choice. The results showed that the social value of the dimension was an important determinant of the social comparison strategies, and that variability of these strategies appeared only when inferiority was experienced on a socially valued dimension. While pointing out the relevance of the method employed, the results suggest the merits of taking the social value of comparison dimensions into account, and of studying social comparison process from a dynamic rather than static point of view. 827 26 6 1996 Studies conducted in Poland replicated a not very well known effect discovered by B. W. Johnson (1937). In his study students estimated their mood on several successive days each time comparing it to the mood they usually have. The results revealed a peculiar positive bias in that the students usually defined their mood as better than usual . Johnson §s study was replicated in Poland, where demonstration of optimism is not a cultural norm. The results suggest that Polish subjects usually define their mood as worse than usual . The generalization and limitation of this negative bias is discussed in the light of the Pollyanna Principle and related empirical studies involving Polish subjects. 828 26 6 1996 Subjects colour named sets of threat content words and neutral control words, under conditions of high or low self awareness. Threat words were colour named more slowly than neutral words, under conditions of high self awareness. This does not support the hypothesis that self referential material is preferentially processed. 829 27 1 1997 Research suggests that individuals do not respond to survey questions on the basis of a single, fixed set of psychological considerations. To the contrary, they, respond on the basis of whatever material happens to come to mind at the moment of answering. Furthermore, the particular material that comes to mind often depends upon the nature of the question and the manner in which it is posed. This has important implications when attempting to assess the independence of beliefs and emotions as predictors of global attitude judgments. When addressing this question, it is important to consider the extent to which any given measurement procedure specifically, targets emotionally relevant beliefs in memory. Past research has failed to target this specific subset of beliefs. As a consequence, beliefs have failed to fully account for the relation between emotions and global attitude judgments. Completely different findings emerge when the researcher employs decomposition and emotionally cued recall to enable respondents to generate emotionally relevant beliefs . Under these conditions, beliefs fully account for the relation between emotions and global attitude judgments. However, this only occurs when one defines and operationalizes emotionally relevant beliefs at the individual level. The theoretical and methodological implications of these results are discussed. 830 27 1 1997 An experimental study addresses the propositions that nonmaterial beliefs, including supernatural powers and transcendental moral laws, function to enhance comprehension of life events, and perform this function selectively. Informal surveys of newspaper articles and two pilot experiments consistently indicated that the beliefs in fate, God, luck, chance, just reward, and just punishment are elicited to explain life events that ale difficult to explain in material terms, and are more or less specialized in the life events they explain. In a final experiment, a sample of U.S. university, students (N=103) was presented with 12 life event cases designed to match the belief specializations and asked to interpret freely. Analysis of the reliably coded spontaneous comments confirmed both predictions. In addition, subjects who personally held a given nonmaterial belief used if mole selectively than those who did not. Finally, employing the same design and measures, a sample from North India replicated the major U.S. findings. 831 27 1 1997 In line with evidence showing that emotion involves a social sharing process ill which the subject communicates about emotional experience, this article examines the impact of being exposed to such communications. First, it was predicted that being exposed to the social sharing of an emotion is emotion inducing. Second, it was reasoned that if this holds true, then the listener should later engage in socially sharing with other persons the emotional narrative heard. Thus, a process of secondary social sharing was predicted. In two independent studies subjects recalled a situation irt which someone had shared an emotional experience with them. They then rated emotions felt while exposed to the narrative, responses adopted toward the sharing person, and extent of secondary social sharing. The predictions were supported. Exposure to a social sharing situation was confirmed as itself emotion inducing. Secondary, social sharing was recorded in 66 per cent of the cases in Study 1 and in 78 per cent in Study 2. Both studies also showed that exposure to the sharing of highly intense emotional episodes elicited more repetitive secondary social sharing and a superior number of target persons than exposure to episodes of low or of moderate emotional intensity. 832 27 1 1997 A doss sectional study within Portuguese adolescents, young adults and adults is presented in an attempt to explore the process of value meaning construction. A model of values psychological structure developed by Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) is evaluated within a sample of 600 subjects. Such a model presupposes the existence of a universal organization of values on 10 content domains or motivational types. Schwartz §s value survey was used to measure subjects §s value priorities. Results reveal the validity of the predefined motivational types on the three samples although there are some structural variations between the samples. Such variations mall be attributed to the development characteristics of each group. Cognitive developmental theory emerges as an adequate framework for the analysis of results, assuming the active role of the subject on the process of constructing personal meaning theories out of reality. 833 27 1 1997 Deviation from personal ideals and group standards has maladaptive consequences. Using insights from self categorization and social identity theories, an ordered discrepancy model of maladjustment was proposed in which simultaneously, deviating from both types of standards is associated with increased maladjustment for members of high status groups, except when such dual discrepancies imply that one is closer to one §s ideals than is one §s group. In the latter case, decreased maladjustment cart be expected. For members of low status groups, discrepancies from ideals, but not from one §s group, were expected to predict maladjustment. Patterns of deviations on dimensions of masculinity and femininity predicted maladjustment among men, a high status group, and women, a low status group, as hypothesized Implications for social identity and self categorization theories, and for gender role research, are discussed. 834 27 1 1997 Using questionnaire data concerning perceptions of the European Community (EC) in Scotland and Andalucia we explored how the EC is perceived, and a European identification adopted as a function of the salience of these regional identities. Drawing on the work concerning the concept of comparative identity (Res, Cano & Huici, 1987) it is argued that disidentification with the nation state (i.e. Britain and Spain respectively) is a usefull way of measuring the salience of such regional identities in the self/concept. We predicted that such identities would be more salient in Scotland than in Andalucia and that in Scotland the salience of subjects §s regional identities would be associated with beliefs concerning the need for strategies of regional empowerment in its relation to the nation (Britain). We further predicted that the EC would be judged as a function of this comparative identity so that in Scotland (but not in Andalucia), a European identification would be associated with what may be called social change beliefs (e.g, beliefs concerning the need for changing aspects of the region §s relationship with the nation). Supportive evidence is found for all these predictions. However, no support was found for our prediction of a correlation between the Scots §s regional identification and their European identification. The paper concludes with a discussion of the utility of the concept of comparative identity. 835 27 1 1997 According to Crocker et al. (1993) people with high collective self esteem would be primarily concerned with enhancing the self leading to positive ingroup evaluation rather than derogation of outgroups. In contrast, people with low collective self esteem would be primarily concerned with protecting the self making outgroup derogation more likely than positive ingroup evaluation. These predictions were confirmed among Dutch youth evaluating ethnic minorities. 836 27 2 1997 "Perceivers individuate cognitively the ingroup more than the outgroup; that is, perceivers use person categories to process information about the ingroup, but use stereotypic attribute categories to process information about the outgroup. This phenomenon is labelled the differential processing effect (DPE). Is the DPE moderated by relative group status? In two experiments, either high or low status members of permeable boundary groups (i.e. groups that encourage upward mobility) read through information about unfamiliar ingroup and outgroup members. Relative group status moderated the DPE. Clustering indices in recall and confusions in a name matching task indicated that high status members individuated the ingroup more than the outgroup, thus replicating the DPE. However, low status members individuated the outgroup more than the ingroup, thus reversing the DPE. A third experiment suggested that these findings are predicated on the ingroup information being stereotype consistent." 837 27 2 1997 A theoretical model for analysing persuasive attempts in discussions with special emphasis on exchanges of political opinions where alleged facts play a salient role, is outlined. It is suggested that alleged facts put forward in a discussion can be categorized according to the degree of correspondence between the participants §s judgments. A discussion which revolves around the validity of facts is characterized as an interactive sequence of mutual attempts to either transfer facts or obstruct the transfer of facts, to a category consisting of commonly accepted, reliable and relevant information. The model is applied to the politically delicate controversy over the causes for the stranding of a Soviet submarine near a Swedish naval base in 1981. The contending sides were shown to be extremely unwilling to accept facts introduced in the debate by each other, as both reliable and relevant. Results are discussed by reference to the role of preexisting beliefs in considerations of factual information. 838 27 2 1997 Data from several recent studies consistently show a positive negative asymmetry in social discrimination: within a minimal social situation tendencies cowards ingroup favouritism which usually appear in allocations of positively valenced resources are absent in the domain of negatively valenced stimuli. The present study investigates whether this valence asymmetry has any correspondence to variations in normative evaluations of positive versus negative outcome allocations. For this purpose perceptions of normative appropriateness as well as frequency expectations of outside observers regarding outcome allocations made by categorized group members were investigated. Results show that parity choices were perceived as more normatively appropriate than out or ingroup favouritism. While outgroup favouritism was judged as inappropriate as ingroup favouritism for positive resources, ingroup favouring decisions for negative resources were perceived as the least appropriate response within the minimal social situation. In addition, in contrast to results of St. Claire and Turner (1982) non categorized subjects expected ingroup favouring decisions by group members more frequently than parity or outgroup favouring choices with respect to positively valanced resources. When, however, negative resources were to be allocated outgroup favouritism was predominantly expected. Results are discussed in terms of justice considerations and are linked to a normative account of the positive negative asymmetry in social discrimination. 839 27 2 1997 The question of how political ideology influences the perception of others is central for an understanding of relations between political groups. To characterize how political positions shape social perception, 106 students were selected according to political affinity and asked to describe political groups using either psychological or sociological qualifiers. Right wing subjects were more likely to use psychological terms to describe political groups, whereas left wing ones preferred sociological descriptors. Students with a right wing position reported greatest satisfaction with psychological descriptors, while those with a left wing position were more concerned with the relevance of qualifiers for constructing an objective perception of reality. These observations confirm the existence of differing inclinations in the perception of social facts and social groups. Such perceptive/cognitive processes, linked to ideological patterns, seem to be inseparable from the contents to which they apply, and express the social positioning and the ideological orientations of their authors. 840 27 2 1997 Two studies explored the arrangements and rules which are used in the division of household tasks and their frequencies of use with different kinds of tasks. In addition, the studies analysed justice evaluations of the arrangements and rules and the covariation of justice ratings with different kinds of tasks, gender, and relative size of raters §s own contributions to the household labour. Data were obtained from two different types of household systems: households of students sharing flats and family households with adolescent children. Eight different arrangements and rules were distinguished. The frequencies of use differed significantly and were influenced by considerations of practicability, usefulness and efficiency. The Justice ratings were guided by the ideal of an equal allocation of labour and additionally shaped by functional considerations of applicability and usefulness, and self serving tendencies. 841 27 2 1997 The outgroup homogeneity phenomenon was examined by having majority group members (White Americans) judge the variability in attitudes about intergroup relations in their own group and one outgroup (African Americans). A preliminary study found the threat of the attitude statements to the group doing the judging seemed to affect whether or not participants showed outgroup or ingroup homogeneity. For the present study, statements about ethnic group relations were prerated to obtain two sets of items that aroused either high or low threat to White Americans. White students judged the homogeneity of these items for their own group and for African Americans. Outgroup homogeneity was found for the low threat items and ingroup homogeneity was found for the high threat items. This study demonstrates that the homogeneity effect depends on the threat of the attitude content to the group doing the judging. 842 27 2 1997 The joint model integrates Mill §s methods of difference and agreement for making causal attributions, and introduces a novel type of context attributions which reflect the opposite categories of the standard attribution responses provided in previous covariation research (external versus the person, general versus the stimulus, and stable versus the occasion). The joint model predicts that attributions to standard causes require Mill §s method of difference and that attributions to context causes require Mill §s method of agreement. Two empirical studies demonstrated that the joint model fitted adequately with all of subject §s standard and context attribution responses, in contrast to earlier theorizing and data involving only the method of difference (cf. Cheng & Novick, 1990) or only the method of agreement (cf. Hilton, Smith & Kim, 1995) which received less empirical support. 843 27 2 1997 Female high and low self monitors were interviewed by a female experimenter who adopted either an androgynous or a feminine guise. An analysis of responses scored for femininity yielded a significant interaction between self monitoring and interviewer guise which, when subjected to further analysis, revealed a significant simple effect for high self monitors but not for low self monitors. High self monitors scored significantly higher on femininity when with the feminine guise interviewer, but lower when with the androgynous guise interviewer. 844 27 3 1997 The distinction between individualistic (IV) and collectivistic (CV) instrumental values was compared to the distinction between competence related and moral personality traits. Study I (N=89 students) showed that IV referred mostly to competence and were self profitable, whereas CV referred mostly to morality and were other profitable in their nature. Therefore, IV were predicted to reach a relatively higher position in the value hierarchy formulated for the self, whereas CV were predicted to rank higher in the value hierarchy formulated for other people. Both hypotheses were confirmed in study 2 (N=118 high school students) in which subjects ordered 18 instrumental values of the Rokeach Value Survey according to their importance either for themselves, or for other people. 845 27 3 1997 Subjects wrote (free format) descriptions of themselves and of their romantic partners. Self esteem and publicness moderated these descriptions. In addition to a tendency of high self esteem subjects to avoid self derogatory statements more than low self esteem subjects, qualitative differences in favourable self presentation were observed While high self esteem subjects emphasized their abilities (self promotion), low self esteem subjects focused instead on their social qualities and described themselves as altruistic (exemplification). Both groups described their partners positively and used indirect self enhancement. However, the specific strategies of self enhancement differed between the groups, such that high self esteem subjects emphasized their superior abilities compared to their partners while low self esteem subjects enhanced their self worth by associating with a partner whom they described more positively than themselves. 846 27 3 1997 "In the Netherlands, two longitudinal fieldstudies (N = 202 and N = 46) were conducted on the relationship between severity of initiation and group attractiveness. Study I represents a severe initiation, Study 2 a more mild one. In these two different field conditions we aimed to test the dissonance interpretation of the effects of a severe initiation (Aronson & Mills, 1959) and a positive correlation between severity of treatment of the initiated novices and group attractiveness was expected (hypothesis I). Further, we expected that feelings of frustration and anger would mediate this relationship (hypothesis 2). On the other hand, our affiliation attraction hypothesis either predicted a positive correlation between companionship (Rook, 1987) and group attractiveness, irrespective of severity (hypothesis 3), or that companionship would mediate the severity attraction relationship (hypothesis 4). In both studies, LISREL path analyses only supported hypothesis 3. Contrary to hypothesis 1, severity experienced during the early stages of the initiation correlated with feelings of frustration and loneliness (Study 1), or depressive mood (Study 2). These feelings lasted throughout the initiation and lowered the liking for the group. Results ave discussed in tel ms of newcomers §s decisions to leave or to join the group, determined by (ij the exchange and fate control relationship between the leadership and the newcomers; (ii) the severe treatment of newcomers as a selection device and (iii) companionate exchanges among the initiated newcomers formation." 847 27 3 1997 Subjects made predictions about the likely cognitions or affective reactions that they, a well known other, and a prototypic other, would have to ink blot and pictorial stimuli. Their responses were categorized using Karniol §s (1986) 10 transformation rules. No differences between the targets of prediction were found on any of the measures when ink blot stimuli were used. For pictorial stimuli, a greater variety of transformation rules was used to make predictions about a well known other than about self, and a greater variety of transformation rules was used for self than for a prototypic other. Again, for pictorial stimuli, more predictions about a well known other were made using associations, transformation rules that represent personalized knowledge than about self, and more predictions using associations were made about self than about a prototypic other. Finally, the specific transformation rules used to make predictions about self and a prototypic other were move often the same than were the rules used to make predictions about self and a well known other. The implications of the findings for the way procedural and declarative knowledge are represented are discussed within the context of the transformation rule model. 848 27 3 1997 This article presents a construct validation of a love scale based upon a triangular theory of love. The article opens with a review of some of the major theories of love, and with a discussion of some of the major issues in love research. Next it briefly reviews selected elements of the triangular theory of love, according to which love can be understood as comprising three components intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment. Then the article presents two studies constituting the construct validation of the love scale. The construct validation comprises aspects of internal validation determination of whether the internal structure of the data is consistent with the theory and external validation determination of whether the scale based on the theory show §s sensible patterns of correlations with external measures. The data are generally, but not completely supportive of the utility of the triangular love scale. 849 27 3 1997 These two studies integrate self enhancement and ingroup bins and analyse the phenomena from the social identity theory and self categorization theory. In Study 1, the subjects (N = 181) evaluated supporters of two presidential candidates on a rating scale. In Study 2, the subjects (N = 302) evaluated either Finnish women §s and men §s positive characteristics (success condition) of negative characteristics (failure condition) which might play a role in achieving equality between the sexes in Finland. Self evaluations were conducted on the same scale as those of ingroup and outgroup evaluations. The results showed that ingroup was evaluated more positively than outgroup (hypothesis I) and that self was evaluated more positively than ingroup (in Study 2, however, this main effect, vas qualified bl? gender). As expected, group identification did not dilute self enhancement (hypothesis 2) in either of the studies but strengthened self enhancement in Study 1. Hypothesis 3 stated that self enhancement is inversely related to ingroup favouritism but the hypothesis was only partially confirmed in that the correlation was predictably negative in Study I but near zero in both conditions of Study 2. Finally, contrary to hypothesis 4, it turned our that high identified group members evaluated self and ingroup more independently than lows which contradicts the idea of depersonalization. Together the results would be plausible if we rejected the unidimensional conception of interpersonal intergroup behaviour and assumed instead that interpersonal and intel group behaviour constitute two bipolar continua. 850 27 3 1997 Two studies demonstrate that when priming stimuli consist of (1) trait concepts and person exemplars, (2) trait concepts and non person exemplars, (3) only Mon person exemplars, assimilation in judgments of an ambiguous person follows, However, when priming stimuli consist of (4) only person exemplars, contrast in judgments of both ambiguous and well known persons ensues. 851 27 4 1997 The purpose of this paper is to identify logically the types of choice points that people encounter in their interpersonal relationships. It is assumed that associated with each type of choice point is a special class of choice criterion or decision rule. Therefore, identifying the types of choice points provides a basis for distinguishing the various decision criteria that are required by interdependent life and that should be assessed in order to predict patter ns of inter personal interaction. This paper explains how these distinctions will serve to expand our thinking about social orientations. 852 27 4 1997 Kelley proposes to analyse social orientations in tel ms of decision making. Social orientations are defined by classes of decision rules which an individual adopts when entering and developing an inter action with another person. Contrary to the most traditional approach, outcome allocation decisions are only an element of a chain of decisions made by the individual. The new theory broadens our view of interactions, draws our attention to their complexity and their dynamics. On the other hand, Kelley §s man behaves as if he ol she processed information in a systematic way, perceived longterm outcomes and as if he or she controlled the interaction to achieve desirable outcomes. The vision of man as an internally consistent decision maker is questionable. Many choices made in interaction with others are spontaneous and emotion driven rather than a result of deliberate information processing. Kelley §s theory offers a highly sophisticated tool for a temporal analysis of social interactions even though it cannot be applied to the entire spectrum of intel dependence situations. 853 27 4 1997 This comment addresses Kelley §s target article that provides a model aimed at providing a broad theoretical model for all of our ongoing interpersonal life. We underline Kelley §s assertion to use abstract minimal representations for assessment purposes, but observe that similar principles should hold for theoretical models. Kelley §s theoretical model defies falsification because there are many possible problems for confounding. In addition the model is heavily influenced by the dominant game theoretical protocol in that it focuses on strategic behaviour to be found in control type relationships, thereby ignoring the affiliative type of interpersonal behaviour. Finally it is observed that although sequential temporal aspects of behaviour are integrated in the model, the model neglects the embeddedness of the dyad in other groups and organizations, thereby ignoring the long term effect of the externalities on the collective level. 854 27 4 1997 Kelley §s recent expansion of the analysis of social orientations is seen to be a logical extension of the interdependence concepts emanating from his extraordinary collaboration with the late John Thibaut. This expansion, extending the nomenclature of transitions lists to analysing the control of transition choices, is briefly summarized. The analysis holds much promise, which will be fully realized, however, only when valid assessments of the constituent components are available. 855 27 4 1997 "After reviewing some classic contributions to the truly social social psychological literature (Lewin, Horney, Festinger;), this commentary outlines how and why Kelley §s analysis extends and complements more traditional approaches to interdependence. Three strengths are emphasized, suggesting that Kelley §s analysis (a) offers a much needed situation based taxonomy for different social orientations and interpersonal phenomena, (b) serves the ecological validity of social orientations, and (c) potentially helps us understand why classical dimensions of person judgment include not only goodness versus badness, but also movement related orientations such as dominance versus submission, strength versus weakness, or activity versus passivity. Kelley §s analysis can be extended by developing further domain specific theory and methodology for examining the temporal and sequential aspects of social orientations, and by applying a means end analysis to differing social orientations identified in Kelley §s analysis. Finally, following Chuck McClintock (1972), it is argued that the field should reserve the concept of social value orientation to define allocational preferences relevant to valuing outcomes far self and others. This basic orientation should meaningfully drive the ways in which we approach interdependent others, solve interdependence problems, and utilize interdependence opportunities." 856 27 4 1997 The current research advances an inter dependence analysis of commuting decisions (i.e. commuting by car versus public transportation), delineating the determinants of an individual §s outcomes in terms of own decisions, other commuters §s decisions, and the combination or interaction of own and others §s decisions (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978). Consistent with hypotheses, findings revealed that a concern with comfort led to a higher overall personal preference for the car, and a lower overall preference for others to commute by public transportation, when compared to a concern, with travel time. Additionally, consistent, with the claim that commuter decisions are also guided by considerations broader than a concern with individual outcomes, findings revealed that individuals with prosocial orientations (i.e. those concerned with maximizing collective outcomes) in combination with high levels of trust (i.e. believing in the honesty and cooperative intentions of others) exhibited a greater overall personal preference for public transportation, and a reduced desire to avoid to avoid other commuters, relative to individuals with a prosocial orientation and low levels of trust, or a proself orientation (i.e. those concerned primarily with maximizing own outcomes), regardless of levels of trust. Finally, consistent with the current interdependence analysis, intention to commute by car was positively associated with not only overall personal preference for the cal, but also, with the desire to avoid other commuters. 857 27 4 1997 Differences in the strength of endorsement for distributively fair and unfair leaders in interpersonal and intergroup situations were measured Fair leaders were expected to receive stronger endorsements than unfair leaders in interpersonal situations. This difference, however, was expected to attenuate, if not reverse in intergroup situations wizen the unfairness favoured the ingroup. An attenuation effect obtained in Experiment 1 (N = 49) using ad hoc groups in a laboratory setting. Attenuation and reversal effects obtained, respectively, in Experiments 2 (N = 314) and 3 (N = 213) using preexisting groups (students and New Zealanders, respectively) in a scenario setting. Fairness ratings followed patterns similar to leadership endorsements in Experiments 2 and 3. Finally, Experiment 3 showed a reversal in participants §s private attitudes toward an issue about which the leader expressed an opinion. These data extend previous research on leadership endorsement and are consistent with predictions derived from Social Identity Theory (Tajfel di Turner, 1986). 858 27 5 1997 Research is reported which shows that degrading situations (e,g. a failure on a test) increase affiliative propensity. Four studies demonstrated that this affiliative tendency of degraded subjects is independent of the potential partner §s performance and independent of his/her characteristics. The partners appeared to be equally attractive whether or not they witnessed subject §s failure, and whether they were individuals or a group. On the other hand, the affiliative desires of praised subjects seem to be oriented rather towards those who benefit from a similar situation. The motivation underlying affiliative behaviour is discussed with regard to social psychological literature. It is suggested that degraded subjects §s affiliative behaviour arises from a search for support and that a socially degrading situation places the subject in a state of emotional dependency which is expressed by a non directional affiliative tendency, and vulnerability to social influence. 859 27 5 1997 Female participants described themselves via desirable and undesirable traits that they, possessed or lacked. For each trait, they then received feedback informing them whether they were similar to, or. different from a female target. After a distracting task, participants received a recognition test and completed a recall test of the traits. The traits that allowed the participant to be differentiated from the target (because they were applicable to one but not the other) were best recognized and recalled. Undesirable traits were better recognized than desirable ones. However, the picture of the target emanating fr om the recall data presents her in a very desirable way. the results are discussed within a pragmatic framework. 860 27 5 1997 "Self categorization theory posits that the perception of group members is flexible and determined by the comparative social context as well as by group membership. Subjects read about either four ingroup or outgroup target persons in the context of four additional stimulus persons who were members of either the same group as the target persons (intragroup context) or the other group (intergroup context). Individualized and attribute wise information organization was assessed on the basis of information clustering in free recall. As predicted, differential processing of ingroup information occurred as a function of the salient social context; in an intragroup context, ingroup information was organized significantly more by person than in an intergroup context. Conversely, ingroup information tended to be clustered more by attribute in an intergroup than in an intragroup context. Clustering of outgroup information was not sensitive to changes in the social context. The results indicate that the perception of group members may be based on more than group membership alone. " 861 27 5 1997 Three studies examined the role of habit on information acquisition concerning travel mode choices. On the basis of Triandis §s (1980) model of attitude behaviour relations it was expected that habit strength attenuates the elaborateness of choice processes. The studies focused on different phases in the choice process, namely the appreciation of situational cues and appreciation of choice option information. In line with expectations, if was found that, compared to weak habit participants, those who had a strong habit towards choosing a particular travel mode acquired less information and gave evidence of less elaborate choice strategies. If was attempted to break effects of habit by manipulating either accountability demands or level of attention. Although accountability demands raised the level of information acquisition, no interactions with habit were found. Enhanced attention to the choice process initially did override habit effects in a sei ies of choice trials. However, in spite of this manipulation, chronic habit effects emerged during later trials. The results demonstrate the profound effects that habit may, have on the appreciation of information about choice situations and choice options. 862 27 5 1997 "Prejudice is a pervasive and destructive social problem. Theories of prejudice distinguish between old fashioned and modern Sor ms. The former is an open rejection of minority group members; the latter is subtle and covert, with a veneer of outgroup acceptance. The present study examines the distinction in the context of contemporary attitudes to Australian Aborigines. Separate measures of each, and of other variables, were included in a random survey of the Perth metropolitan area in 1994. The two forms of prejudice were correlated (r = 0.55), but factor analysis revealed that the two constructs are separable. Further, they were distributed differently in the population, with modern prejudice being more prevalent than old fashioned prejudice (57.9 per cent scoring above the midpoint on the modern scale, and only 21.2 per cent on the old fashioned scale). Modern prejudice was predicted more strongly by social psychological variables (R 2 = 0.51) than was old fashioned prejudice (R 2 = 0.30), and the pattern of results from regression analyses differed for the two types of prejudice. Overall, the results confirm the distinction between old fashioned and modern forms of prejudice, but indicate that the two are conceptually and empirically related to one another. Comparisons with earlier research reveal the declining prevalence of old fashioned prejudice, but indicate prejudice is still a major social problem. " 863 27 5 1997 The main concern of the two studies presented here is to investigate whether the different nature of ingroup and outgroup stereotypes is reflected in different selective processing of ingroup and outgroup information. It was predicted that when processing ingroup information people will preferentially encode stereotype inconsistent information as compared to stereotype consistent information, whereas the reverse pattern will hold when people process outgroup information. In addition to selective processing, response bias due to stereotyping was studied. To measure selective processing and response bias, recognition memory measures derived from the theory of signal detection were used. Results of the two studies confirmed our main prediction. Also, response bias was demonstrated. 864 27 5 1997 The present study aimed at showing that the relationship between identification and ingroup bias is moderated by salient group norms that prescribe or proscribe differentiation in an intergroup context. A study (N=191) in which level of identification and group norms were manipulated showed that high identifiers acted more in accordance with a salient differentiation norm compared to low identifiers. When a fairness norm was made salient, however, the Expected difference was not obtained. The results are discussed in the context of the inconsistent relationships between ingroup bias and identification found in previous research. 865 27 5 1997 A partial replication of a study by Nisbett and Bellows (1977) to which a memorization condition was added showed that subjects did not have introspective access to the determinants of their judgments, but did so only in the impression formation condition. In the memorization condition, the subjects §s self reports matched the observed experimental effects. An analysis of the results showed that this was probably because the subjects §s judgments in the latter condition were based on causal theories. 866 27 6 1997 To account for the inconsistent findings from previous studies of group status and discrimination, it was hypothesized that low status groups defer to the high status outgroup on measures perceived as related to the status dimension, but favour the ingroup on status unrelated measures. Subjects randomly assigned to low, equal, or high status minimal groups allocated points to anonymous ingroup and outgroup members using distribution matrices presented as either related or unrelated to the status dimension, and also rated the two groups on traits described as either status related or status unrelated. As predicted, low status groups favoured the ingroup more on status unrelated measures than on status related measures. Furthermore, while low status groups were less discriminatory than high status groups on status related matrices, they were no less discriminatory on status unrelated matrices. In contrast to low status groups, high status groups displayed greater ingroup favouritism when matrices were related to the status dimension than they did when matrices were unrelated. The relatedness manipulation had no significant effect on the discriminatory behaviour of equal status groups. These findings are discussed in terms of implications for research, and relevance to social identity theory. 867 27 6 1997 The combined influence on ingroup bias of threat to group distinctiveness and prototypicality as a group member was examined in two studies. It was predicted, in line with social identity theory, that threat to group distinctiveness would lead to more ingroup bias. In addition, on the basis of self categorization theory it was predicted that protypical and peripheral group members would react differently to a threat to their group distinctiveness. Only group members who define themselves as prototypical group members should be motivated to defend their threatened distinctiveness by engaging in increased ingroup bias. This hypothesis was first supported in a modified minimal group setting in which threat was operationalized as overlapping group boundaries, These results were then replicated in a Second study, using better established groups, fdr whom distinctiveness threat was manipulated in terms of intergroup similarity. Moreover, some support was found in Study 2 for the prediction that the opportunity to engage in intergroup differentiation can, under restricted conditions, enhance group related self esteem. 868 27 6 1997 Baumeister, Stillwell and Heatherton (1994) argue that guilt serves primarily interpersonal functions and take issue with more traditional intrapsychic accounts gf guilty feelings, in which causality, responsibility, and blame are emphasized We examined the validity of these claims by asking 198 college students to imagine that they destroyed the valued property of either their best friend or mother, under each of three conditions of causal responsibility (accidental, foreseeable, unjustifiably intended!. They then rated the reactions they anticipated from the victim (anger, disappointment, change in impression of the perpetrator), their perceived blameworthiness, aspects of causality, and how guilty they would feel immediately after perpetrating the harm as well as an entire day later. Imagined guilt was curvilinearly related to responsibility at time I, but linearly at time 2. Results suggest that people only weigh interpersonal concerns more heavily after time has elapsed, but that both factors integrally affect feelings of guilt. 869 27 6 1997 The current research examines social psychologists §s beliefs regarding the probability of self and others to engage in desirable and undesirable actions relevant to solving dilemmas of academic practice (e.g. openly discussing versus concealing complex effects in a paper). Consistent with hypotheses, results revealed that social psychologists believed that others are more likely than they themselves to engage in undesirable actions and less likely to engage in academically desirable actions. Moreover, the probability of undesirable actions by both self and others was perceived to be greater under conditions of low rather than high perceived traceability (i.e. when others within the field are believed not to verify the appropriateness of the actions). Interestingly, but unexpectedly, this latter result was observed among faculty members but not among individuals with less research experience (i.e. graduate students). The discussion considers possible explanations for this latter finding and closes with an implication relevant to the peel review system. 870 27 6 1997 We propose here to establish the theoretical link between the concepts of attitude and social representation . We shall base our proposal on recent conceptions of the notion of attitude, and on a structural approach to representations which account for their evaluative nature. This theoretical proposal will be followed by two experiments. The first showed that attitudes towards objects ave based on the evaluative components of the representation of those objects. The second showed that a change in attitude about an object may be accompanied by changes in the evaluative dimension of its representation. 871 27 6 1997 To investigate the role of competence and morality in stereotypes, a cross national research was set up in six eastern European countries. Study I measured the perceived desirability of stereotype attributes in ingroup versus outgroup members. Across countries, biopolar Competence and Morality components emerged, It was found that the perceived desirability of ingroup attributes was primarily competence based, while desirability perceptions of outgroup attributes were mostly morality based. In Study 2, participants in the six countries rated the occurrence of competence and morality related stereotype attributes among 10 national and ethnic target groups. Study 2 also assessed general evaluative attitudes and perceptions of power and conflict in inter nation relations. Competence and morality dimensions fully explained the evaluative structure of national and ethnic stereotypes, generating a four fold typology of sinful loses, sinful winner, virtuous loser and virtuous winner stereotypes. This typology was strongly related to perceptions of power and conflict between national groups. 872 27 6 1997 People often select a substitute to replace an intended interactant, thereby revealing how they represent their social intentions. Naturally occurring substitutions preserved the relational model governing the interaction but not the characteristics of individual participants, indicating that social intentions are formulated in terms of relational rather than individual characteristics. 873 28 1 1998 Two experiments examined the effects of interpersonal and group based similarity on perceived self other differences in persuasibility (i.e. on third person effects, Davison, 1983). Results of Experiment 1 (N=121), based on experimentally created groups, indicated that third person perceptions with respect to the impact of televised product ads were accentuated when the comparison was made with interpersonally different others. Contrary to predictions, third person perceptions were not affected by group based similarity (i.e. ingroup or outgroup other). Results of Experiment 2 (N = 102), based an an enduring social identity, indicated that both interpersonal and group based similarity moderated perceptions of the impact on self and other of least liked product ads. Overall, third person effects were more pronounced with respect to interpersonally dissimilar others. However, when social identity was salient, information about interpersonal similarity of the target did not affect perceived self other differences with respect to ingroup targets. Results also highlighted significant differences in third person perceptions according to the perceiver §s affective evaluation of the persuasive message. 874 28 1 1998 Four studies investigated differences in accessibility of affective and cognitive components of attitudes. Accessibility was measured by response times on bipolar semantic differential evaluative adjectives (e.g. positive negative ) in response to how one felt and thought, respectively, about an attitude object. The evaluative items were accompanied by affective and cognitive context items, which were not analysed, but were meant to promote the retrieval of affective and cognitive evaluations respectively. Responses to affective evaluations were given faster than responses to cognitive evaluations, suggesting that affect based evaluations are more accessible in memory than cognition based evaluations. The results were obtained in two attitude domains, i.e. brand names and countries. The results support the validity of a two component affect cognition model of attitude. 875 28 1 1998 "We examined intergroup bias (more favourable evaluations of ingroups than outgroups) at the level of gender subgroups. Male and female subjects listed subgroups of men and women (e.g. career woman, mother). For each subgroup mentioned, we asked the same subjects to (a) describe the characteristics of this group in their own words (coded as positive or negative); (b) give an overall evaluative rating of this group; and (c) indicate whether they themselves belonged to this group. There was no indication that subjects §s perceptions of subgroups of their own sex were more favourable than of other sex subgroups. Within subjects §s own gender category, opt the other hand, subgroups they belonged to were described and rated more favourably than subgroups they did not belong to. These results, which can be explained by social identity motives, illustrate that subgrouping does not resolve the problem of negative outgroup stereotyping, but merely transfers it to the subordinate level. " 876 28 1 1998 Two experiments investigated the influence of priming trait concepts associated with cooperation versus competition on cooperative choices in the Ring Measure of Social Values . While models of associative memory explain priming effects on immediate associative responses, they fail to provide a sufficient account for the impact of priming an deliberate, voluntary behaviours, because the same activated concepts (e.g. strong , profit , success ) may foster opposite behavioural tendencies (i.e. raise competitive impulses or remind the individual of a cooperation norm). The hypothesis is proposed and tested that the evaluative component of the prime stimuli moderates the behavioural tendency (approach versus avoidance) elicited by the semantic printing component. Accordingly, Experiment 1 shows that both positively toned concepts linked to cooperation as well as negatively toned concepts linked to competition lead to increased cooperative choices. Experiment 2 demonstrates that simple, invariant properties of the prime stimuli are more readily extracted than more complex, interactive prime relations. In general, the priming effects are confined to subjects who lack a consistent, pre experimental value orientation. 877 28 1 1998 By regarding jealousy as a discursively constituted manifold of understandings it becomes germane to explore that multiplex through pattern analysis. In the reported Q methodological study 10 orthogonal, alternative constructions of self generated jealousy scenarios are reported and interpreted. Implications for jealousy research and the study of accounts of experience in general are discussed. 878 28 1 1998 A collective information sampling model and observations of discussion content suggest that decision making groups often fail to disseminate unshared information. This paper examines the role that a fully informed minority may play in facilitating the sampling and consideration of unshared information. University students read a mystery and then met in four person groups to discuss the case. When critical clues were unshared among three members before discussion, a fully informed fourth member (informed minority) promoted the discussion of these critical clues when participants thought the mystery had a demonstrably correct answer (solve set) but not when they thought the clue may have been insufficient to solve definitively the case (judge set). None the less, under both salve and judge sets, the informed minority increased the likelihood that the group would identify the correct suspect. Social combination, information sampling, and minority influence interpretations of the results are discussed. 879 28 1 1998 Wagner, Elejabarrieta and Lahnsteiner (1995) conclude that people use gender stereotypic attributes and sexual metaphors in describing the sperm and the ovum. The conclusion is criticized on the basis of two arguments. (1) the sperm is, in actuality, more active than the ovum and this difference is reflected in subjects judgements, (2) in their study, the researchers themselves induced (a) the person metaphor and (b) gender categories. 880 28 2 1998 "In two studies, subjects filled out a questionnaire requiring them to choose between internal and external explanations of desirable or undesirable events. They, weve also asked to fill out the same questionnaire from another person §s point of view, either a member of the ingroup or a member of the outgroup. The fir st study used students as subjects and the events were about student life. The second study used employees for subjects and the events, were about the working world. As predicted on the basis of internality nor ln theory, internal explanations, were generally found to be chosen more often when the respondent or imagined respondent was said to be a worthy person. The internality scores were the highest for oneself and for the ingroup member, regardless of the desirability of the events,. they, were the lowest for the outgroup member. These internality attribution effects do not seem to stem from the well known ingroup; favouring attributions (ultimate attribution error). Hence, the internality, norm construct, ir respective of event desirability, provides a new pathway for exploring the evaluative effects of inter group relations. " 881 28 2 1998 This study explored how causality orientations, individual differences in imagery, and reward contingency are related to performance and intrinsic motivation. Cognitive evaluation theory, as applied to both causality orientation and reward contingency, was used to make predictions about the effects of internal or external events perceived as being autonomy supportive or controlling. In the light of the fact that task contingent rewards must be salient to undermine intrinsic motivation and performance, one can suppose that high imagery may increase the controlling aspects of task contingent rewards. Moreover, research now indicates that vegetative activation correlates with levels of imagined effort, and that high imagery capabilities enhance performance in motor skills. The main purpose of this study was to contribute some arguments for imagery and reward interaction effects on intrinsic motivation and performance. As predicted, autonomy oriented subjects reported more interest and intrinsic motivation, and exhibited better performance than did control oriented individuals. Similar differences were observed in favour of high imagery individuals. Moreover, the effects of imagery were not only subject to an interaction between imagery and causality orientation, but also between imagery and reward contingency. The links between these variables are discussed in the framework of both Carver and Scheier §s (1981) motivational control theroy, and Deci and Ryan §s (1985a) cognitive evaluation theory. 882 28 2 1998 Two experiments demonstrate that thinking about a given politician may result in assimilation as well as contrast effects in evolutions of the politician §s party. In two experiments, assimilation effects were observed when an experimental categorization task elicited the inclusion of a highly respected politician in the representation formed of his party, wheres contrast effects were observed when the categorization task elicited his exclusion from the representation, with the control group falling in between. Hence, the same information may elicit assimilation as well as contrast effects, depending on its use in mental construal. 883 28 2 1998 A study is reported that examines the effects of comparative context oil central tendency and variability judgements of groups, and the evaluation of group characteristics. The central assumption is that these social judgements are not absolute, bur depend on the social context in which they are grounded. it is demonstrated that people vary their description of the ingroup in terms of central tendency and group variability as a function of the possibility of comparing the ingroup favourably with other groups in the judgemental task. In a similar vein, it is shown that the evaluation of an ingroup characteristic is not fixed, but depends on its relative favourability within the comparative context. The results of this study clearly demonstrate the importance of comparative context ingroup perception and are discussed with reference to self categorization theory and alternative models of social judgement. 884 28 2 1998 "Extending the motivational assumptions of the heuristic systematic model ( Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989), the authors hypthesized that a discrepancy between desired and actual judgemental confidence raises processing effort only if the expectancy that processing will increase confidence is high. In Experiment 1, university students expected to review information for upcoming social judgements. Desired confidence was varied through low versus high task importance. To manipulate expectancy, low versus high perceived processing efficacy was induced via feedback. As predicted, high (as compared to low ) importance participants expressed greater interest in receiving information and selected more information when perceived efficacy was high, and this effect was mediated via a heightened discrepancy between desired and actual confidence. These effects were not obtained under low perceived efficacy. In Experiment 2, students processed a persuasive message. Only high importance conditions were studied; processing efficacy and argument strength were manipulated. As predicted, high (but not low ) efficacy participants processed the message systematically, as indicated by a different impact of argument strength and by mediational path analysis. It is argued that the precision of social judgement models would benefit from an explicit consideration of processing and outcome related expectancy variables. " 885 28 2 1998 This research student judgements and inferences on human rights across democratic non democratic national contests. It is argued that when judging different countries, lay perceivers make use of representations of the country §s inhabitants. Stereotypically democratic and non democratic characteristics of national populations are employed as a basis of political judgements, especially in democratic contexts. In three studies the bases of representations of human rights §s respect and violations are investigated. In the first study 76 subjects drew inferences on the human rights situation from formal discription of countries. These are either described with a type of government ( democratic or authoritarian) or with national characteristics associated to the population ( orderly and discussing or disorderly and clashing). In study 2 (117 subjects), political and population information are crossed. In Study 3, 126 subjects evaluated the responsibility of the government and of the inhabitants in explaining the general situation in two positively and two negatively described national contests. The results show the pervasive impact of population information on political judgements. Moreover members of non democratic countries are viewed as accepting more human rights violations than members of democratic countries. This attitude inference is used by people to account for violations of human rights. Results are discussed in terms of common sense transformation of classical political theories which are grounded on universalism and essentialism. It is suggested that philosophical knowledge, much like scientific knowledge ia altered when penetrating common sense, thereby receiving specific social and ideological functions. 886 28 2 1998 In the social identity model of reactions of negative social identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1979, 1986), the concept of cognitive alternatives focuses on individual and group perceptions of the possibility of changing group memberships or improving existing ones. In the current paper, the under researched concept of cognitive alternatives is expanded so as to better encompass issues relating to the temporal dimension of social identity maintenance. Markus and Nurius §s (1986) possible selves perspective is used as a starting point for exploring the manner in which social identity maintenance is influenced by cognitions about, and social representations of, a group §s past and possible future. It is proposed that the concept of cognitive alternatives be expanded to incorporate possible social identities, which represent individual and shared cognitions about possible past group memberships, possible future group memberships, and perceptions of the possible past and future for current group memberships. The consequences of perceiving positive and negative possible social identities are examined, and methodological issues which might facilitate their empirical study addressed. 887 28 2 1998 Social dilemmas face people with various kinds of uncertainty. To extend earlier research on environmental uncertainty in resource dilemmas (i.e. uncertainty about the resource size), the present experiment examines the effects of Environmental Uncertainty (low, high uncertainty about the provision point) and Social Uncertainty (low, high uncertainty about others §s cooperation) in a public goon §s dilemma. bl line with Social Comparison Theory, it was predicted and found that Environmental Uncertainty decreases cooperation only under High Social Uncertainty, but not under Low Social Uncertainty. The detrimental effects of Environmental Uncertainty carl be counteracted by uncertainty reducing information on the provision point and/or others §s contributions as well. 888 28 2 1998 "Men §s rape myth acceptance (RMA; prejudiced beliefs that serve to exonerate the rapist and blame the victim) has been shown to correlate positively with self reported rape proclivity (RP). To explore the causal pathway underlying this correlation, two experiments were conducted in which the relative cognitive accessibility of RMA and RP was varied. Male students were asked to report their RP in the context of a scale assessing attraction toward sexual aggression (Experiment 1) or in response to five realistic date rape scenarios (Experiment 2), either before or after they filled out a 20 item RMA scale. In both studies, the correlation of RMA and RP was significantly greater in the after than in the before condition, suggesting that the belief in rape myths has a causal influence on men §s proclivity to rape. " 889 28 2 1998 Using an analogue of the layer and engineer item (Kahneman & Tversky, 1973), we compared conditions in which base rates were either presented as percentages (A), or frequencies (B), to conditions in which the natural sampling process was described additionally (C) or was directly experienced (D). We expected the likelihood of base rate utilization to increase as the presentation approaches the process of natural sampling. Accordingly, results showed that the contingency of judgments on base rates systematically increased across conditions A to D. 890 28 2 1998 A study is reported examining how motivation to detect salary discrimination influences its detection depending on the difficulty of the detection task. Subjects were presented with information about the qualifications and salaries of female and male managers in 10 departments of a hypothetical company. This information was created so that female managers were undercompensated relative to their qualifications. The main dependent variable was subjects §s ratings of gender discrimination. Independent variables were motivation and task difficulty. Based on Hull §s drive theory an interaction effect was predicted and found: when the judgement task was easy, more gender discrimination was detected when motivation to detect discrimination was high rather than low, whereas when the judgement task was difficult, more gender discrimination was detected wizen motivation to detect discrimination was low rather than high. 891 28 2 1998 The present study examines how motivated self concept changes are reflected in actual behaviour. Subjects were led to believe that either extroversion or introversion was related to success. Their preferences for others as interaction partners were then examined. The findings suggest that people seek others who confirmed the belief that they possessed the success related attribute. Self verification, as a possible strategy to confirm a desired self, was partially supported. 892 28 2 1998 Participants were exposed to the Asian disease problem (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). When the problem was subtly framed as a medical decision problem previous findings were replicated: participants avoided the risky option when the problem was framed positively, but preferred the risky option when the problem was framed negatively. This reversal of preferences was eliminated however, when the same problem was subtly introduced as a statistical problem. The results are interpreted as evidence for the impact of context cues on the representation of decision problems. 893 28 2 1998 This study investigated the effects of resource depletion on stereotyping. Participants were instructed to form an impression of a target, and whilst performing this task, they overhead a tape recorded conversation. The conversation was manipulated so that it it was more or less relevant to the participants. Results in general supported the prediction that when participants eavesdrop on a relevant conversation, attentional capacity will be diminished, and target evaluations will be stereotypic in implication. Findings are discussed in terms of contemporary treatments after of stereotyping. 894 28 3 1998 The Theory of Planned Behaviour was proposed by Ajzen (1985) in an attempt to expand the applicability of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to situations where behaviour is not under complete volitional control. However, recent research does not address the issue of the stability of intentions, yet this is considered a boundary condition of the TRA on theoretical grounds. Therefore, the purposes of the present article were, first, to make a theoretical approach to the study of the stability of behavioural intentions by discussing assumptions underlying self determination theory. Second, because, according to self determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), stability of intentions is related to the functional significance of psychological events, investigation of the functional significance of attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control was attempted through a study dealing with leisure time physical activity. Because investigation of functional significance requires instruments assessing behavioural regulations, instrument development took place. Results partially supported the validity of behavioural regulations with respect to leisure time physical activity. Furthermore, subjective norms were found to represent only the controlling dimension of functional significance. Attitudes and perceived behavioural control were found to represent both the controlling and informational dimensions of functional significance. Results are discussed in relation to assumptions underlying the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour and the Theory of Trying. Implications for theory development are made. 895 28 3 1998 This article proposes that research has failed to clarify the causal role of group cohesiveness ingroupthink because of a failure to distinguish cohesiveness from friendship. To remedy this, a conceptual distinction, based on social identity theory, is drawn between positive regard grounded in interpersonal relations (personal attraction, friendship), and solidarity grounded ingroup identification (depersonalized social attraction, true group cohesiveness) Hogg (1992). An experiment compared the roles of friendship and social attraction ingroupthink. Foul person discussion groups of friends, or socially attractive ol random groups of strangers, made decisions (N = 472). Background conditions for groupthink were established, and a wide range of subjective and behavioural measures of friendship, identification/social attraction, and the decision making process were taken. Analyses isolated effects associated with friendship/personal attraction, from those associated with identification/social attraction. Friendship was found to be weakly and negatively related to symptoms of groupthink, while group identification and social attraction were strongly and, with some exceptions, positively related to symptoms of groupthink. 896 28 3 1998 Two experiments investigated conditions under which participants drew outcome biased inferences about ingroups and outgroups. Participants read about ingroup and outgroup targets whose success or failure was influenced by an arbitrary decision rule. In Experiment 1, ingroup and outgroup members experienced two inconsistent outcomes (first success and then failure, or vice versa) despite almost identical performances. After reading about the first performance participants made outcome biased inferences, but when the role of the decision rule became obvious inferences became group serving. That is, outcomes continued to influence inferences when they cast the ingroup in a positive light (as when initial failure was followed by success) but failed to affect inferences when they were detrimental to the ingroup (as when initial success was qualified by later failure). In contrast, inferences about outgroups were outcome biased when failure followed success, but not when success followed failure. The results of Experiment 2 showed that outcome biases influenced inferences when decision rules produced outcomes that promoted the ingroup but not when they produced outcomes that hurt the ingroup. No such benefit occurred for outgroups. The results confirm the impact of motivational concerns such as ingroup bias on the occurrence of outcome biases in inferences. 897 28 3 1998 In a study that was based on a structural model of deservingness, 24 male and 80 female under graduate students responded to scenarios in which either a liked or disliked unemployed stimulus person expended either high or low effort and then either obtained employment or remained unemployed. Results showed that, when the outcome was employment, judgements of responsibility, deservingness, and pleasure about the successful outcome were higher when the stimulus person expended high effort rather than low effort. When the outcome was unemployment, judgements of responsibility, deservingness, and reported pleasure about the unsuccessful outcome were higher when the stimulus person displayed low effort rather than high effort in seeking a job and participants reported feeling less sympathetic and more annoyed with the stimulus per son and less inclined to provide financial assistance. Liking relations had most effects in the employed condition. The employed outcome elicited more reported pleasure and less resentment for the liked stimulus person and he or she was judged to be more responsible for and more deserving of employment than the disliked stimulus person. The results were discussed in relation to component balanced and unbalanced structures within the structural model and they also suggested some elaboration of the responsibility variable. 898 28 3 1998 Two experiments investigated the linguistic abstractness and confirmability of elements contained in ingroup and outgroup stereotypes. The first experiment shows that positive elements of the ingroup stereotype (Italians) and negative elements of the outgroup stereotype (Jews, Germans) tended to be particularly abstract. Also, negative elements contained in the outgroup stereotypes required relatively little evidence to be considered true but much disconfirming evidence to be rejected as false . No such bias emerged for ingroup stereotypes. The second experiment compared the abstraction of four outgroup stereotypes (Jews, Blacks, homosexuals, career women) finding the greatest abstraction for the oldest stereotype (Jews), and least abstraction for the most recent stereotype (career women) with the remaining two groups (Blacks, homosexuals) occupying an intermediate position. Results are interpreted as suggesting that stereotypes may become more abstract over time as they lose the concrete elements that are easier to disconfirm while maintaining the abstract elements that are more resistant to change. 899 28 3 1998 An experiment is reported in which the reactions of observers to the relative and absolute deprivation of others are assessed. Eighty German and 80 Italian subjects made decisions about ingroup (own nationality) or outgroup (foreign) protagonists suffering high or low relative and absolute deprivation. Results showed that subjects were more likely to take social action that violated some rule when the protagonist was in high rather than low absolute deprivation. Racist subjects were somewhat more likely to satisfy the request of a deprived ingroup protagonist whereas non racist subjects favoured the deprived outgroup. No differences emerged for non deprived protagonists. Overall, Germans tended to take social action only when the protagonist suffered high absolute deprivation whereas Italians took action regardless of degree of absolute deprivation. 900 28 3 1998 "Ethnographic work indicates that food transfer has social significance, but food transfer has not previously been considered as a nonverbal communication channel. We categorize social food transfer along two dimensions: nature of the behaviour in the transfer (X shares food with or feeds Y), and the state of the food transferred (Y §s food never contacted by X, or Y §s food previously bitten/tasted/touched by X; we call the latter food consubstantiation (shared substance)). These two dimensions generate the four conditions investigated in this study: no sharing, sharing, sharing with consubstantiation, and feeding. The social significance of these types of situations was assessed in two ways. American college students indicated in a questionnaire both the extent to which they transfer food within different relationships, and what they took to be normative among American college students. Second, a different group of students participated in an Asch impression study in which they observed a videotape of two young adults of opposite sex eating at a restaurant, with the variable across subjects being the four conditions designated above. Viewers were asked to assess the relationship between the young adults, and to rate the degree of intimacy between the adults in terms of mutual feelings and acts of intimacy (e.g. sharing drinks, touching, having sexual relations). Results from both studies are congruent, and indicate that sharing implies a positive/friendly social relationship, and feeding implies a stronger, often romantic relationship. Consubstantiation superimposed on sharing modestly increased judgments of intimacy and closeness of relationship. " 901 28 3 1998 Skowronski and Welbourne (1997) argue that raw conditional probabilities may be a flawed index of associative strength in recall, and may need to be corrected for chance before they can be safely interpreted. Three experiments examined this idea in the context of an experimental paradigm used by Hamilton, Driscoll and Worth (1989). Participants in this paradigm were asked to read items describing a social target. The items each pertained to one of several different trait concepts, or were irrelevant to those concepts. Participants later recalled the items. The data supported Skowronski and Welbourne §s conjecture. The raw conditional probabilities differed substantially from the chance adjusted probabilities. The data from a second dependent measure, inter item generation times, matched the pattern of adjusted conditional probabilities. In addition to their methodological implications, these results contradict the Complete Association Model of person representation proposed by Hamilton et al. Finally, these data raise the possibility that traditional associative models of person memory, which were based on raw conditional probabilities (e.g. Srull & Wyer, 1989), are flawed. 902 28 3 1998 Most research on liking of persons and groups has been conducted within separate paradigms, but the implicit assumption has been that the same processes govern judgments of liking or disliking regardless of the nature of the target. Departing from this assumption, we suggest a dual process hypothesis according to which people base their liking of a target per son primarily on the desirability of the person §s characteristics, whereas they base their liking of a group primarily on the degree of similarity between the group and themselves. To test this hypothesis, participants were presented with either positively or negatively valenced sketches that either described an individual pel son or a group of people. Path analyses revealed that liking of a person was best predicted by desirability ratings, whereas liking of a group was best predicted by similarity ratings. Implications of these findings for stereotype maintenance are discussed. 903 28 3 1998 This paper addresses the alternate aspect of the rationalization process. Requiring individuals to provide justification for a problematic behaviour renders its cognitive rationalization easier and makes a rationalization in act less probable. The effect of rationalization in act decreases the individual §s focus in his justification. 904 28 3 1998 We hypothesize that sharing a birthday is sufficient to create a unit relationship. Two studies demonstrated that individuals cooperated more in a prisoners dilemma game when their (fictitious) opponent shared their birthday. They also reacted more negatively to betrayal and were less sensitive to relative gains for self versus other. 905 28 4 1998 According to our reciprocal interdependence hypothesis, derived from the Behavioural Interaction model (BIM), groups in a Prisoner §s Dilemma Game (PDG) will strive more for the long term goal of mutual cooperation than inidividuals, provided that the other (programmed) opponent can be expected or tl trusted to cooperate as well. If the opponent seems to follow a con competitive ol exploitative strategy groups will behave more competitively than individuals (e.g. Rabbie et al., 1982). In other PDG research it is found that groups are almost invariably more competitive or less cooperative than individuals (e.g. Schopler & Insko 1992). Our conjecture is that this individual group discontinuity effect may be partly attributed to unique features of the experimental procedures of Schopler and Insko which induce mutual (reciprocal) cooperation between individals and mutual competition between groups. A review of the evidence seems to provide more support for the reciprocity hypothesis than for the various explanations for the discontinuity effect proposed by Schopler, Insko, and their associates. 906 28 4 1998 Traditional crowd theory decontextualizes crowd incidents and explains behaviour entirely in terms of processes internal to the crowd itself. This ignores the fact that such incidents are characteristically intergroup encounters and draws attention away from the role of groups such as the police in the development of events. This paper begins to rectify this omission through an analysis of interviews with 26 Public Order trained police concerning crowds in general and the Poll Tax riof of 31 March 1990 in particular. The analysis shows that, despite a perception of crowd composition as heterogeneous, officers perceive crowd dynamics as involving nrl anti social minority? seeking to exploit the mindlessness of ordinary people in the mass. Consequently, all crowds are seen as potentially dangerous and, in situations of actual conflict, all crowd members are seen as equally dangerous. In addition, police tactics for dealing with disorder make it very difficult to distinguish between individuals or subgroups in the crowd. This convergence of ideological and practical factors leads to rite police treating crowds in disorder as an homogeneous whole. It is argued that such action can often play an important role in escalating (if not initiating) collective conflict and is also a key component of social change in crowd contests. 907 28 4 1998 "A meta analysis (N = 229) was performed to test effects of group membership and identification on the use of (sub) categories across five of our own experiments. In each experiment a name matching paradigm was used to investigate rite extent to which (sub)categories were used to organize social information in memory. Four subcategories (male students, female students, male teachers, female teachers) were available to categorize the stimulus persons, as a result of crossing sex and academic status. Comparing findings over studies yielded (a) a strong tendency to use subtypes to organize social information in memory; (b) no support for the prediction of stronger subtyping of ingroup members than of outgroup members; (c) support for the prediction that subjects high on identification with own sex: group would use subtypes within gender categories to a lesser extent than subjects low on identification with own sex. (d) In addition, it appeared that sex and academic status were used as independent overall categorizations as well, although superordinate categorization effects were caused for a large part (75 87 per cent) by name confusions within subcategories, which suggests a preference for the use of subtypes over superordinate categories. " 908 28 4 1998 This study used 50 Natural Science and English Literature students who held differential behavioural expectations of ingroup and outgroup members to investigate evaluative, attributional and behavioural responses to power use in an Experimental research paradigm. It was hypothesized that subordinates interpret frequent power use by a superior differently depending on whether it is consistent or inconsistent with previous expectations. Frequent power use results in decreased satisfaction and negative evaluations of the superior. Attributional ratings indicated that when an outgroup member engaged in frequent power use, this negatively evaluated behaviour was attributed to the superior §s group membership, and resulted in decreased cooperation on the part of the subordinate. To the extent that frequent power use of an ingroup member was attributed to external circumstances, subordinates maintained a sense of commitment to the ingroup superior, which resulted in displays of cooperative behaviour. 909 28 4 1998 An impressive body of evidence has accumulated demonstrating that many of the judgmental errors or biases formerly thought due to purely cognitive shortcomings actually reflect the operation of communication goals and strategies that people rely upon to comprehend and generate meaningful conversation. This study examines the effects of individual differences in conversational skills on the production of biased responses using six judgmental heuristics tasks, base rate error, conjunction error, dilution effect, underuse of consensus information, primary effect, and confirmation bias. Clarke §s (1975) method of reconstruction was used to obtain two, measures of conversational sophistication.. relevance seeking and (un)responsiveness. A path analysis predicting biased judgments from the skill variables demonstrates that a combination of these variables, which we term Pragmatic Competence , is predictive of two independent subsets of the heuristics tasks. Our model provides convergent evidence with other, parametric studies for the proposition that biased social judgements are, at least in part, artifacts of participants §s reasonable (and unreasonable!) expectations concerning experimenter cooperativeness. 910 28 4 1998 Two questionnaire studies were conducted (N = 80 and N = 175) to examine the structure and the social anchoring of the organizing principles of personal and governmental involvement concerning human rights. The results indicated that these organizing principles had, as hypothesized one abstract and one applied dimension. The second study evaluated the correlations between these dimensions and values. Results were consistent with Schwartz §s (1992) model predicting both the internal structure of values and their relations with other variables. Amongst other results, self transcendence values were positively correlated with the abstract involvements and the applied personal involvement, and negatively with the applied governmental involvement. The results concerning the correlations between conservation values and the four organizing principles were the opposite. Results concerning the links between different levels of social anchorings, particularly between the value types and variables such as religious affiliation and practice political preferences, and social and political activism were also presented and discussed. 911 28 4 1998 "Schisms withingroups are extremely widespread, yet the phenomenon has been virtually ignored within social psychology. Indeed prominent theories of group process virtually, exclude the possibility of schism by presupposing the unitary nature of group identity. In this paper we offer a social psychological approach to the schismatic process based on the idea that, while group members may expect to achieve consensus, the issue of where that consensus should reside may; be a matter of argument. When differing constructions cannot be reconciled such that what one faction considers to represent group identity is seen by the another to contradict group identity, then the basis for schism exists. This approach is illustrated rising an analysis of the 1991 split of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) into two organizations, the PDS anti RC. Interviews with 26 members of these two organizations show that they produce different arguments concerning the identity of the categories involved. However, all the arguments are structured so as to construe the ingroup faction as consonant with the true identity of the PCI and the outgroup faction as dissonant with that identity. The implication of this analysis both for a social psychology of schism and for the conceptualization of group consensus are discussed. " 912 28 4 1998 Tokenism is defined as an intergroup context in which very few, members of a disadvantaged group ale accepted into positions usually, reserved for members of the advantaged group, while access is systematically denied for the vast majority, of disqualified disadvantaged group members. In a laboratory experiment, Wright, Taylor and Moghaddam (1990) found that when disadvantaged group members are denied upward mobility because of a policy of tokenism? the? did not respond with socially, disruptive forms of collective action. Instead, they chose a more benign individual non normative response. The robustness of this unexpected response to tokenism is explored in two experiments. In Experiment 1, the use of a relevant real world ingroup as the target of tokenism resulted in a pattern of responses consistent with Wright et al. §s (1990) findings. In Experiment 2, interaction with other disadvantaged group members prior to the imposition of the policy of tokenism also did not alter participants §s behavioural responses. These findings support the robustness of this pattern of response to tokenism, and strengthen concerns that tokenism may be an effective tool for reducing the likelihood of collective action directed against the discriminatory practices of the advantaged gr group. 913 28 4 1998 Vonk & van Vliet (1998) criticise the methods used in the study by Wagner, Elejabarrieta & Lahnsteiner (1995). They conclude that methodological flaws render some findings of the study invalid. It is shown that those flaws are in fact not present and that the remaining part of the conceptual critique is at least debatable. 914 28 4 1998 This research provides evidence for the generality of the Muhammad Ali effect (Allison, Messick, & Goethals, 1989), demonstrating that Dutch participants believe that the trait honesty is more descriptive of the self than of others, whereas the a ait intelligence is believed to be equally descriptive of the self and others. Congruent with proposed explanations for the Muhammad Ali effect, participants regard honesty as more desirable, more controllable, and less verifiable than intelligence. Mediation analyses indicated that the Muhammad Ali effect is stronger among participants who view honesty as more desirable than intelligence. 915 28 4 1998 Supporting a stage perspective of assimilation and contrast effects, and in contrast to an extremity conceptualization, this study demonstrated that priming moderate person exemplars before the behaviour of an ambiguous target person had been encoded results in assimilation, whereas priming such exenplars after encoding results in a small contrast effect. 916 28 5 1998 In a replication of Wright, Taylor and Moghaddam (1990a), group openness (open/minimally open/closed) and individual ability (high/low) were manipulated. Participating in their regular class groups, 114 male teenagers tried to gain access into a high status group. On their subsequent rejection, they indicated their endorsement of five behavioural options, ranging from acceptance to combinations of individual/collective and normative/nonnormative action alternatives. Overall, they preferred normative reactions, both collective and individual, to nonnormative ones. Nonnormative action, especially collective nonnormative action, was only favoured by talented subjects confronted with a completely closed high status group. These subjects were also the only ones who reported negative feelings both about their personal and about their group treatment. These results challenge previous findings and suggest a partial modification of the five stage model. 917 28 5 1998 Taken from literature on social identity theory and social comparison theory, 12 strategies of identity management were identified as possible responses to negative social identity. A taxonomy with two orthogonal axes is proposed as theoretical organization of these diverse strategies. While the first axis considers responses as being either individual or collective, the second axis refers to the distinction between behaviours and cognitions. It is assumed that the German unification process implied a lower status position of East Germans relative to West Germans on relevant comparison dimensions, and that East Germans have to deal with this threat to their identity. Hence, data of ail East German sample are used to empirically systematize identity management strategies, and thus, to test the proposed taxonomy. Results support the expected four factor. solution only for those strategies taken from social identity theory, while the responses derived from social comparison research build a fifth factor. In addition, the empirical assignments of strategies to cells of the taxonomy are only partly in line with the expected pattern. The empirical findings suggest some clarification and modifications of the proposed response taxonomy. The most important refers to a re interpretation of the taxonomy §s first axis, which now differentiates between responses according to the specific changes of the comparison parameters they imply. 918 28 5 1998 "The predictions of four social psychological theories of the relationship between cognitive style and conservatism the theory of the authoritarian personality, extremism theory, context theory, and value pluralism theory are examined in two empirical studies. Unlike previous research, these studies employ a measure of ambiguity tolerance, the Attitudinal Ambiguity Tolerance scale, which can assess cross content variability in cognitive style. The results of the two studies conflict with the expectations of all four theories. In particular, only certain aspects of conservatism were related to ambiguity tolerance toward a particular content domain; and massive variability was evident in the shape of the relationship between ambiguity tolerance and conservatism across different content domains of ambiguity tolerance. The results are discussed in terms of value conflict which arises from endorsing conservative beliefs in a liberal institutional context. " 919 28 5 1998 Although it has long been recognized that stereotypes achieve much of their force from being shared by members of social groups, relatively little empirical work has examined the process by which such consensus is reached. This paper tests predictions derived from self categorization theory that stereotype consensus will be enhanced (a) by factors which make the shared social identity of perceivers salient and (b) by group interaction that is premised upon that shared identity. In Experiment 1 (N = 40) the consensus of ingroup stereotypes is enhanced where an ingroup is judged after (rather than before) an outgroup. In Experiment 2 (N = 80) when only one group is judged, group interaction is shown to enhance the consensus of outgroup stereotypes more than those of the ingroup an apparent outgroup consensus effect . In Experiment 3 (N = 135) this asymmetry is extinguished and group interaction found to produce equally high consensus in both ingroup and outgroup stereotypes when the ingroup is explicitly, contrasted from an outgroup. Implications for alternative models of consensus development are discussed. 920 28 5 1998 This research tested the hypothesis that when individuals first answer a question about relative evaluation, i.e. the degree in which they feel they are better or worse off than comparison others and next a question about general evaluation, i.e. the general judgment of one §s situation or one §s characteristics, the correlations between both variables will be higher than when the order of the questions is reversed. In the first case individuals will use social comparison information as a reference point for making a judgement of their situation, whereas general evaluations not preceded by relative evaluations may be based on a variety of factors. The content of the questions concerned optimism with respect to one §s own prospects concerning intimate relationships, i.e. the perceived chances of having a happy intimate relationship in the future, and the perceived chance of not becoming involved in a divorce. The results of two studies a questionnaire study among students (n = 274), and a computer administered survey among single adults (n = 275) confirmed the predictions. 921 28 5 1998 An experiment employing the Twelve Angry Men paradigm was conducted to determine the role of the rate of majority defection to the minority position and the use of persuasive arguments by the minority on minority influence. Subjects were more influenced by the minority when it provided persuasive arguments by refuting the majority viewpoint than when the minority did not. More minority influence occurred when the minority obtained majority defectors than when the minority did not. Moreover, the rate of majority defection made a difference. Minority influence was not obtained with the initial acquisition of a single defector and the significant influence that occurred with the acquisition of four defectors was not further increased by the acquisition of additional defectors. The results for the number of majority defectors were generally consistent with Tanford and Penrod §s social influence model. Finally, the issue of the number of majority defectors versus the speed at which they defect is discussed. 922 28 5 1998 Social representations of the individual are examined in three post Communist Central European nations, i.e. the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary, and in three West European nations, i.e. Scotland, England and France. All sh nations share a common European history since the Renaissance and Humanism, based on such values as freedom, agency!, individual rights and individual responsibility. Many of these values were rejected by the Communist regimes in which people lived for 40 years. Extreme forms of individualism developed in certain West European nations during the same period. In view of these historical events we have asked the following questions. Do people in the post Communist countries of Central Europe, after 40 years of totalitarian collectivism, still adhere to the values of the common European heritage? What is the meaning of the individual today, in Western democracies and in Central European post Communist nations? Which issues are important for the well being of the individual and how do they relate to the political and economic circumstances of those individuals? The results show that the values of the common European heritage in Central Europe have not been destroyed and that factors relating to the well being of the individual differ between the two parts of Europe. These data are discussed in terms of the political and economic situations in Central and Western Europe, the relationship between language and social representations and the structure of social representations. 923 28 5 1998 To test the common assumption that social representations originate in ordinary communication, tell 24 person groups of American college students exchanged messages for 2 1/2 weeks, about six specific issues drawn from a 21 item questionnaire previously used by Clemence, Doise, & Lorenzi Cioldi (1994) in a cross cultural investigation on human rights. As expected, interpersonal communication led to increased spatial clustering (neighbours in social space became more similar) and enhanced correlations among these issues, leading to a more coherent factor structure of human rights conceptions. Clustering and correlation simultaneously illustrate the emergence of self organization in social systems and are taken as evidence for the social origin of social representations. These findings show how Latane §s Dynamic Social Impact Theory complements Moscovici §s Social Representation Theory, providing a mechanism for understanding how and criteria for knowing when social representations arise from communication. 924 28 5 1998 The current research examines the role of social value orientation in determining the extent to which individuals are inclined to reciprocate cooperation exhibited by others perceived as either honest, intelligent, or unintelligent. Results revealed that individuals with prosocial orientation reciprocated high levels of cooperation regardless of other §s characteristics. Individuals with proself orientation (i.e. individualists and competitors) exhibited some reciprocal cooperation toward others perceived as honest, yet took advantage of others perceived as intelligent or unintelligent. These results suggest that proselfs can be motivated to reciprocate cooperation by others if they have faith in others §s benign intentions and trustworthiness. 925 28 5 1998 The role of distinctiveness information in majority and minority influence was studied. Students read a message containing strong or weak arguments advocated by a minority or majority sour cc. The communicator §s minority (majority) status was said to be tither distinctive to the tal get topic or nondistinctive across topics. Major dependent variables were attitude judgements and cognitive responses. Across conditions, messages were processed systematically, and a majority communicator tended to be more persuasive than a minority communicator. Most importantly, high distinctiveness led to greater influence than low distinctiveness, and this effect was independent of argument strength and minority versus majority status. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed. 926 28 6 1998 This article examines the role of behavioural routines in decision making. In order to induce routines, participants were confronted with recurrent route decisions in a computer controlled trucking game, which allows for manipulation of routine acquisition and strength. During the final round of the game, time pressure and novelty in task presentation were varied as between factors, It was hypothesized that time pressure would increase the likelihood of routine maintenance and novelty would increase the likelihood of deviation. Besides individual choices, response latencies and self reports were additionally assessed to measure the amount of deliberation during decision making. Results show that time pressure strongly increased the probability of routine maintenance, even though the situation indicated the inadequacy of the routine. In contrast, novelty in task presentation provoked routine deviation and increased deliberation, as evident from response latencies and self reports. 927 28 6 1998 The question whether body movements and body postures are indicative of specific emotions is a matter of debate. While some studies have found evidence for specific body movements accompanying specific emotions, others indicate that movement behaviour (aside from facial expression) may be only indicative of the quantity (intensity) of emotion, but not of its quality. The study reported here is an attempt to demonstrate that body movements and pastures to some degree are specific for certain emotions. A sample of 224 video takes, in which actors and actresses portrayed the emotions of elated joy, happiness, sadness, despair, fear, terror, cold anger, hot anger, disgust, contempt, shame, guilt, pride, and boredom via a scenario approach, was analysed using coding schemata for the analysis of body movements and postures. Results indicate that some emotion specific movement and posture characteristics seem to exist, but that for body movements differences between emotions can be partly explained by the dimension of activation. While encoder (actor) differences are rather pronounced with respect to specific movement and posture habits, these differences are largely independent from the emotion specific differences found. The results are discussed with respect to emotion specific discrete expression models in contrast to dimensional models of emotion encoding. 928 28 6 1998 Recent research on causal inference suggests that common actions tend to be attributed to goals, whereas difficult actions, if obstructed are attributed primarily to preconditions. The present studies examine the way that the framing of causal questions influences ratings of goals and preconditions for common actions. The studies test the view that why questions favour goal explanations, by presenting causal questions framed as why questions or explain questions. Structured and free response measures were used They show that when the question is expressed as asking why an action occurs, goals are rated better than preconditions, regardless of the presence of obstacles, whereas if the question is framed as requesting an explanation of the action, preconditions are deemed better explanations than goals for obstructed actions. Goals remain better explanations when the action is unobstructed. These findings confirm the importance of the framing of causal questions for research on causal explanation, and suggest that the phrasing of causal questions influences the focus of explanations. 929 28 6 1998 The relationship between self esteem deriving from both personal and social identity and comparisons at both interpersonal and intergroup level was examined. Participants took part in individual and group brainstorming tasks which they later had the opportunity to evaluate. In the case of the individual task, participants §s own solutions were judged in conjunction with solutions provided by a member of their ingroup and a member of the outgroup. Ebr the group task, the ingroup solution was compared with an outgroup solution. Both personal and collective self esteem were found to influence these ratings, but in different ways. In terms of intergroup comparisons, participants with high personal self esteem (PSE) showed greatest ingroup bias. In contrast, this same effect was associated with low public collective self esteem (CSE), that is, people who felt that their group was viewed negatively differentiated most strongly. Furthermore, this opposition of the effects of PSE and CSE also applied to the interpersonal comparisons. Participants with high PSE self enhanced relative to participants with low PSE, while the reverse pertained for CSE scores. Participants with low private CSE rated both their own and the ingroup member §s solution more positively than the outgroup solution. An analysis is presented which explains these effects in terms of threat experienced as a result of incongruency between comparative context and optimal identity enhancement strategies. 930 28 6 1998 A series of four studies investigated systematic differences between actor and recipient interpretations and justice evaluations of negative incidents in interpersonal relationships. Due to a refined methodology, each negative incident was assessed both by the respective recipient and actor, and each participant reported incidents from both perspectives. The studies provided clear evidence of systematic recipient actor differences and showed that the quality of the relationship between the parties involved in the incidents can moderate the occurrence and shape of the differences. Significant gender differences were found showing that women respond more accusingly than men in the role of the recipient and more defensively than men in the role of the actor. 931 28 6 1998 Campbell §s (1958) concept of ingroup entitativity is reformulated as a perceived interconnection of self and others. A 2 (intergroup relations: competitive, neutral) x 3 (intragroup interaction. low, medium, high) between subjects design was used to examine (I) the effects of intergroup and intragroup relations on perceived ingroup entitativity and (2) the relation between ingroup entitativity and intergroup bias. Regardless of the relations between groups, members who experienced intragroup interaction had stronger perceptions of ingroup entitativity and stronger representations of the aggregate of ingroup and outgroup members as two separate groups than members who lacked intragroup interaction. Furthermore, perceptions of ingroup entitativity mediated the effect of the salience of the intergroup boundary on behavioural intergroup bias. These results call into question the intergroup nature of group based phenomena. An ingroup entitativity framework is presented that locates the source of group based phenomena (e.g. intergroup bias) in intragroup processes. 932 28 6 1998 This paper reports supportive evidence for a modified self categorisation model of mass social influence, whereby category definitions are determined rhetorically and the character of collective action is shaped through category arguments. The study was conducted shortly after the Gulf War and was concerned with the respective constructions of pro and anti war respondents. Respondents were first asked to recall the images of the war which had most impact on them. They were then shown 29 images of the war and asked to rate the impact of each one as well as explain why they had given such impact ratings. Finally, they were asked to select the five images which had most impact on them. The results indicated that different subjects indicated very different views of the categories opposing each other despite the fact that they were characterising the same event. Moreover, the constructions of pro and anti war subjects matched those previously having been shown to characterise the rhetoric of pro and anti war leaders. Thus pro war subjects recalled and rated highly those images that were consistent with a construction of the war as opposing the civilised world (ingroup) to Saddam Hussein (outgroup). Anti war subjects recalled and rated highly those images that were consistent with a construction of the war as opposing ordinary people (ingroup) to business and political leaders prosecuting the war (outgroup). 933 28 6 1998 In two studies, one among 94 Moroccan and 203 Turkish immigrants in the Netherlands and one among 1844 people of the Dutch majority, we examined how these groups react to four different adaptation strategies of people with a Moroccan and a Turkish background. These strategies are. assimilation (original culture is considered unimportant whereas contact with the majority is considered important), integration (both the original culture and contact with the majority are important), separation (original culture is considered important whereas contact with the majority is not), and marginalization (both the original culture and contact with the majority are considered unimportant). The respondents were confronted with a scenario (a fictitious newspaper article) representing one of the four strategies. Moroccans and Turks had to indicate whether they identified themselves with the person in the scenario. Their affective and normative reactions towards that person were also measured. Both Moroccans and Turks appeared to react most positively to integration and to identify themselves most with an integrating person. Dutch majority members were asked to estimate the percentage of Moroccans or Turks that use a particular adaptation form, and were also asked to give their affective and normative reactions towards the person in the scenario. The Dutch have positive attitudes towards assimilation and integration. Remarkably, they believe that separation, which is the least liked strategy by them, is the one chosen most frequently by the immigrants. 934 28 6 1998 "A theory that private and collective self cognitions are stored in separate locations in memory (Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991; Trafimow, Silverman, Fan, & Law, 1997) was tested with a sample of participants (Native Americans) that differed substantially from those in previous research. Two findings supported the theory. First, participants retrieved more private self cognitions when the private self rather than the collective self was primed, but retrieved more collective self cognitions when the collective self rather than the private self was primed. Second, people were more likely to retrieve a private self cognition following another private self cognition than following a collective one, but were more likely to retrieve a collective self cognition following another collective one than following a private one. " 935 29 1 1999 A questionnaire study using the 30 Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was conducted in 35 countries (N = 6791 students). The basic assumption was that human rights can be studied as social representations following the model of Doise, Clemence, & Lorenzi Cioldi (1993). The existence of a shared meaning system concerning the 30 articles in different countries was demonstrated. Individual attitudes toward the whole set of rights were proven to be highly consistent. However, individuals differed systematically in beliefs about their own and the government §s efficacy in having human rights respected. An individual level and a pancultural analysis (Kenny & La Voie, 1985, Leung & Bond, 1989) converged in the definition of four groups of respondents: advocates (most favourable responses towards human lights), sceptics (less favourable responses), personalists (high personal involvement and scepticism about governmental efficacy) and governmentalists (low personal involvement and strong belief in governmental efficacy). Analyses of anchoring started either from assessing individual positionings or from maximizing between country differences. Individual level analyses show that positionings are anchored in value choices as well as in perception and experience of social conflicts. Pancultural analyses confirm the importance of national context concerning the attitudes of scepticism of advocacy, personalism and governmentalism. 936 29 1 1999 "A survey was conducted to assess the prevalence of spontaneous social comparisons in people §s ingroup descriptions and to investigate factors involved in the choice of an outgroup comparator. The intel group context was that of different countries within the European Community (EC). Two hundred and ninety three respondents from six countries provided open ended descriptions of their own country, rank ordered the twelve EC countries, and selected two other countries for comparison purposes. Social comparisons were made spontaneously by 20% of the sample; temporal comparisons less frequently (11%). There was a general tendency for respondents to choose higher status comparators. These were still generally somewhat similar to own country except in the case of the two lowest status countries where the preference was for dissimilar (and superior) outgroups. Regression analysis revealed that threat to national identity was also correlated with comparison choice. The findings are related to classic and contemporary theories of social comparison process. " 937 29 1 1999 The present article proposes a theoretical model of factors affecting the salience of social categorizations. The model is strongly related to the accessibility x fit formulation by Brunei (1957) and to Oakes §s (1987) functional perspective on category salience. The results of an experimental sei ies using the Who said what? paradigm are presented, which examined several hypotheses derived from the model. In Study I it was shown that the salience of a social categorization with high chronic accessibility (sex categorization) was related to perceptions of issue relevance (normative Jit) and intercategory differences (meta contrast ratio). Furthermore, in line with the salience model measures to increase the situational accessibility, (i.e. a priming procedure) of categorizations with low chronic accessibility (educational group and home town categorizations) failed to affect category salience as long as participants perceived no comparative and normative Jit of these categorizations (Study II). Under conditions where comparative fit of these categorizations was perceived, however, the printing procedure successfully enhanced category salience (Studies II and III). Results are largely consistent with the hypotheses derived from the salience model and support Oakes §s functional approach to category salience. Finally, the complex interrelation between situational accessibility and perceived fit will be discussed. 938 29 1 1999 Subjective probability judgments often violate a normative principle in that the conjunction of two events is judged to be more likely than the probability of either of the two events occurring separately,. Most previous explanations of these conjunction effects have assumed that probability judgments depend on some psychological relation (e.g. representativeness) between the constituents mentioned explicitly in the stimulus information. In contrast, the present approach highlights the fundamental role of implicitly inferred information. Participants are assumed to transform the explicit stimulus information into implicit mental models in their attempt to make sense of the experimental task. Probability judgments should then reflect the degree of activation of such a mental model in memory given a set of propositions, rather than the quantitative Jit ol likelihood of the propositions themselves. Two studies are reported which provide converging evidence for the proposed mental model approach. In the first study, using graded conjunctions of one to Jive propositions, probability judgments are shown to vary as a function of the activation of a mental model rather than the likelihood of the component events. In a second study, a priming procedure is employed to activate mental models that either fit an event conjunction or do not, leading to an increase or decrease of conjunction effects in probability judgment. 939 29 1 1999 The hypotheses that children use language strategically (e.g. as in the Linguistic Intergroup Bias) and with increasing strength with age were supported in an experiment with participants ranging in age from 8 to 19 years. In a second experiment, the impact of biased language use on participants §s inferences was examined in a sample ranging in age from 5 to 11 years. It was shown for all age groups that participants §s inferences were systematically influenced by the abstractness or concreteness of a message. The implications of these findings for the communication and transmission of stereotypes at an early age ave discussed. 940 29 1 1999 Previous research has underestimated children §s capacity to understand the self presentational behaviour of other people. We argue from recent research in mental state understanding that 8 year olds should be able to attribute self presentational motives in older to explain others §s behaviour. In the present study, children aged 6 to 11 years heard stories involving emotion masking displays and were then asked to explain the motivations for those displays. Results supported our prediction. 941 29 1 1999 This paper investigates whether persons §s cognitive representations of valued group identities differ in content from their representations of their personal identity. The results showed differences between participants §s qualitative descriptions of their group identities and their personal identities. Values, emotions, and personal relationships were more often listed ingroup identity representations than in personal identity representations. 942 29 1 1999 We examined whether social group attitudes are subject to context effects. Tt was hypothesised that manipulating the context in which a group exemplar was rendered accessible would produce different effects when subjects were subsequently asked to evaluate the exemplar §s group. In our study, all subjects first expressed their opinion about the (popular) Queen Mother before indicating their attitude toward the British Royal Family. In the non redundant condition, the two questions were structured such that rite Queen Mother was expected to be included in individuals §s representation of the Royal Family, leading to a high correlation between the two judgements and a favourable evaluation of the group. Conversely, in the redundant condition, the questions were structured such that the Queen Mother was expected to be expected from individuals §s representation of the Royal Family, lending to a lower correlation between the judgements and a less favourable evaluation of the group. The results supported the hypothesis, and are consistent with the Schwarz and Bless (1992a,b) inclusion/exclusion model of assimilation and contrast. 943 29 1 1999 In this study, participants were instructed to correct for the influence of a trait priming task on their judgments of ambiguous information. The time at which correction was instigated (preinformation or postinformation) determined whether contrastive correction effects were found solely on information related ratings (preinformation conditions) or on both information related and information unrelated ratings (postinformation conditions). Assimilative trait priming effects were found when no correction instructions were given. 944 29 02-mar 1999 Subjects (N = 129) judged the favourability of 20 behaviours enacted towards either. subordinates or superiors of the actor. Likeable behaviours were evaluated more moderately when they were enacted towards superiors, indicating that subjects took into account the possibility that the actor was engaging in ingratiation. Moderately dislikeable behaviours were evaluated more negatively when they were enacted towards subordinates, suggesting that their negative meaning wins strengthened wizen the behavioural tm ger was powerless. Extremely dislikeable behaviours were evaluated negatively regardless of the persons towards whom they were enacted These results suggest that, in interpreting positive and moderate (i.e. ambiguous) behaviours, characteristics of the behavioural targets are used to determine the actor §s intentions and, thereby, the evaluative meaning of the behaviour. 945 29 02-mar 1999 To assess the influence of individual differences in empathy on predictions about the likely thoughts and feelings of prototypic and nonprototypic others, high school students completed Davis §s (1983) IRI empathy scale and made predictions about young and old, male and female targets §s likely thoughts and feelings. Predictions were categorized using Karniol §s (1986) transformation rules and the variety of rules served as the dependent measure. A greater variety of rules was used for making predictions about old targets than young ones. Subject gender did not influence the variety of rules used for making predictions. As for individual differences in empathy, individuals high versus low in overall empathy, on the Perspective Taking subscale and on the Empathic Concern subscale, used a greater variety of transformation rules for making predictions about others §s likely thoughts and feelings and differentiated more between targets in different social categories. The findings provide support for the view of empathy as a method of information gathering and illustrate the heuristic value of the transformation rule model for making predictions about others §s thoughts and feelings. 946 29 02-mar 1999 "The theory of reasoned action (TRA, Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), the theory of planned behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1985) and the theory of self regulation (TSR, Bagozzi, 1992) were applied to Italian undergraduate students §s studying behaviour. The main focus of the research was to ascertain the predictive power of past behaviour on intention and behaviour and thus test for the sufficiency of the theories. For theory sufficiency to be demonstrated, past behaviour influences on intention and present behaviour should be totally mediated by the focal variables of the theories (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and desire). It is argued that past behaviour affects intentions and present behaviour over and above attitudinal variables and that these effects will be weaker on intention for the TPB and TSR models. A structural equation approach was used to test the construct validity of measures such as the predictive validity of the theories. A total sample of 240 Italian college students participated in the research. A subsample of 90 subjects provided a self report behavioural measure one week later. Results show that past behaviour is a strong prediction of both intention and behaviour in the TRA model, while it is a weaker predictor of intention in the TPB and in the TSR models. Implications for attitude behaviour relationships are discussed. " 947 29 02-mar 1999 The study investigated participants §s judgements of the defendant §s guilt, severity of punishment and memory of information concerning a crime presented earlier, as a function of activated stereotype (positive versus negative) and cognitive load (i.e. self paced versus quick processing pace). As hypothesized, it was found that judgement of guilt, punishment and memory were affected by the activated stereotype only under high load conditions. Under these conditions, a negative stereotype of the defendant evoked higher estimates of guilt, harsher punishment and better memory of incriminating evidence than a positive stereotype, while there was no effect of stereotype valence in the low load condition. 948 29 02-mar 1999 The results of numerous experimental studies have provided ample evidence for William James §s theory that emotional conduct is a sufficient condition for the occurrence of emotional feelings. Two further questions are addressed in the study reported in this paper. First, critics have speculated that the effects of peripheral feedback from expressive bodily movement may lead to generalized diffuse pleasant or unpleasant experiences, rather than the specific emotional feelings consistent with James §s position. Second if the Jamesian account is correct, then the simultaneous combination of multiple, consistent solaces of expressive bodily feedback should result in greater magnitudes of emotional response than those caused by separate, individual sources. The results of the present study replicate those of the only other study (Duclos et al., 1989) which has demonstrated specific effects of expressive behaviours on corresponding emotional feelings. It was also possible to demonstrate, via correlational analyses, that those people who are responsive to their expressions tend to be responsive to their postures as well, since subjects in this study received manipulations of their facial expressions mid their bodily, postures. The results of this study also indicate that matching combinations of facial expressions and bodily postures result in more powerful feelings of the corresponding emotional feelings than do either expressions or postures alone. 949 29 02-mar 1999 Social psychologists studying intergroup relations acknowledge the importance of social context but remain strongly focused on the individual in both theoretical and methodological respects. The present study tries to go beyond this individualistic perspective by using multilevel analysis to address the effects of both individual and contextual variables and their interactions. Ethnic group evaluations among Dutch and Turkish children (10 13 years of age) were examined. First, the results showed that intergroup evaluations are determined not only by characteristics of the child but also by the context in which the child is situated. Second, contextual variables not only affected ingroup favouritism directly but also moderated the relationship between identification and ingroup favouritism. Third, children in classes in which the teacher pays attention to ethnic discrimination and cultural differences indicated less ingroup favouritism. Furthermore, relative group size did not affect ingroup favouritism directly, rather it was found that only children who constituted a numerical minority revealed a positive association between identification and ingroup favouritism. Additionally, at the individual level ingroup favouritism was explained by identification, the perception of the teacher §s reaction to ethnic harassment among classmates and subject ethnicity. It is concluded that a multilevel approach can make a contribution to the existing literature on intergroup evaluation and towards a more contextual social psychology. 950 29 02-mar 1999 The present study deals with social relationships in the extreme situation of the concentration camp, using Primo Levi §s If This Is a Man, written just after the author §s release front Auschwitz. This text was chosen because it is one of the most important testimonies of the Holocaust and at the same time, a work of great artistic value. An analysis of the behaviour described gives us access to otherwise irretrievable data. Three aims hale been pursued: (1) to explore and describe interpersonal and intergroup behaviour in extreme situations from the victims §s perspective, (2) to analyse these types of behaviour through social identity theory (SIT), and (3) to highlight certain observations and comments by Levi, an excellent privileged observer , which might suggest new directions of research in this field. Turning our attention to interpersonal and intergroup relations, we submitted the text to content analysis. Correspondence analysis was then carried out. The results support the importance of Tajfel §s (1981) theory for the analysis of extreme situations, but also suggest possible extensions of the present model following Levi §s theorizing. 951 29 02-mar 1999 In a field study in East Germany, predictions by Social Identity Theory concerning relations among socio structural characteristics of intergroup relations (stability.,,, legitimacy, permeability) and identity management strategies (e.g. social competition) were examined. In general, East Germans were expected to consider their status position as inferior compared to West Germans. Moreover, depending on whether they regard such a status difference as legitimate or illegitimate, as stable or unstable, and whether they perceive group boundaries as permeable or impermeable, East German participants should differ with respect to identity management strategics such as change of status relations, change of categorization, change of comparison dimension, change of comparison object and change of group membership. File hundred and seventeen participants from different regions of East Germany completed a questionnaire on various aspects of life satisfaction. A path model including stability, legitimacy and permeability as predictors, ingroup identification as mediator and identity management strategies as criteria was tested. Results ale mainly in line with assumptions on main effects derived from Social Identity Theory. However, some extensions and clarifications with respect to assimilation situations seem to be adequate. In addition, results show that ingroup identification can be regarded as a powerful mediator between perceived intergroup relations and identity management strategies. 952 29 02-mar 1999 What follows is a quasi experimental study aiming to analyse the influence of the social division of roles (especially the division between public and private spheres of activity on gender social identities. Subjects were asked to describe themselves as well as their images of the perfect or ideal person in the context of their professional activities or their close relationships. The order of presentation (self description and the description of the perfect person ) was balanced. We found that women and men perceived themselves according to the traditional gender stereotypes (women perceived themselves as more feminine while men describe themselves as more masculine). However the context in which subjects imagined themselves affected their self perceptions as well as their images of the ideal person : A public context (professional activity) elicited more masculine self images in women and men whereas private contexts (close relationships) led to more feminine images of themselves. Furthermore, the images of the perfect person varied according to which context was salient: these images were more masculine in the public context and more feminine in the private one. Finally, the asymmetry hypothesis in social comparison was confirmed. Although there was a significant correlation between self images and the image of the perfect or ideal person , this correlation was stronger when subjects described themselves first and described their images of the ideal person before. This result was interpreted as reflecting the subjects §s tendency to see themselves as prototypes in the social comparison. 953 29 02-mar 1999 Two studies investigated how behavioural information about the morality or intelligence of another person influences impressions, expectations of cooperative behaviour, and own cooperation in a mixed motive interdependence situation. Consistent with the morality importance hypothesis, results revealed that morality information influenced impressions, expectations of other §s cooperative behaviour, as well as own cooperation more strongly than intelligence information, and led to greater confidence in expectations and better recall. Consistent with the negativity effect hypothesis, negative information about morality and intelligence had more impact on impressions and interaction relevant measures than positive information. An additional finding was that people overall expected more cooperation from others than they were willing to display themselves, and that this difference was especially pronounced for unintelligent and moral targets. Explanations and implications are discussed from a behavioural adaptive perspective on impression formation. 954 29 02-mar 1999 This research concerned attitude change towards a majority or minority position as a function of convergent and divergent message processing. Results of a 2 (majority/minority support for persuasive arguments) x 3 (convergent/divergent/no processing instructions) experiment showed that recipients identified more with a majority rather than minority, and identification was positively correlated with articles on the focal, but not the related issue. More importantly, results showed that in the no processing condition, counter attitudinal majority arguments produced more positive attitudes on the focal rather than related issue, minority arguments had no effects on either issue. A similar pattern emerged under convergent processing: major it!, support produced more positive attitudes on focal than related issues, while minority support had no effect on either issue. Divergent processing instructions, finally, produced more positive attitudes on the related issue than on the focal issue, especially in the case of minority support. Unexpectedly, majority arguments under divergent processing had ilo effect on focal or related attitudes whatsoever. Overall, results support the conclusion that majority arguments affect attitudes on focal issues more than on related issues because of convergent message processing, while minority arguments affect attitudes on related issues more than on focal issues because of divergent message processing and a desire to avoid identification with the source. 955 29 02-mar 1999 Two experiments based upon Gollwitzer §s (1993) concept of implementation intentions are described. In both experiments, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and intentions from Ajzen §s (1991) theory of planned behaviour were used to measure participants §s motivation prior to an intervention in which participants made implementation intentions specifying where and when they would take a vitamin C pill each day. Behaviours were assessed by self report and pill count at both 10 days and 3 weeks in Experiment 1, and at 2 weeks and 5 weeks in Experiment 2. Results supported the view that participants who formed implementation intentions were less likely to miss taking a pill every day compared to controls. Evidence suggested that implementation intentions were effective because they allowed participants to pass control of behaviour to the environmental cues contained in the implementation intention. Implications of the study and some suggestions for future research are outlined. 956 29 02-mar 1999 The aim of this study is to show that, when examining social identification, it is both possible and important to distinguish between self categorisation, commitment to the group, and group self esteem, as related but separate aspects of group members §s social identity. This was demonstrated in an experiment (N = 119), in which Ingroup Status (high/low), Ingroup Size (majority/minority), and Group Formation (self selected/assigned group membership) were manipulated orthogonally. The results of this study confirm that these three aspects of social identity can be distinguished as separate factors in a principal components analysis. Furthermore, as predicted, the three aspects are differentially related to manipulated group features, as well as displays of ingroup favouritism. Group members §s self categorisations were only affected by the relative size of the group, while group self esteem was only influenced by group status. Affective commitment to the group depended both on group status and on the group assignment criterion. Importantly, only the group commitment aspect of social identity mediated displays of ingroup favouritism. 957 29 02-mar 1999 Abstractness and frequency of descriptions of positive and negative behaviours were examined as a function of target (self versus others), valence (positive versus negative), and type of behaviour (publicly verifiable behaviours versus not publicly verifiable behaviours). Positive behaviours of self were expected to be reported more often and more abstractly than positive behaviours of others. For negative behaviours, this pattern of effects should be reversed. Further, publicly verifiable behaviours were expected to offer less opportunity for self enhancement than private and ambiguous behaviours. ANOVA partially supported these expectations. However, the magnitude of self enhancing beliefs did not depend on the degree to which the behaviours were publicly verifiable. Implications are discussed. 958 29 02-mar 1999 In this study a questionnaire was administered via e mail to Dutch social psychologists. We asked to what extent respondents felt that a widely published plagiarism scandal involving a Dutch psychologist affected themselves and the image of their profession. As predicted, findings indicate that the impact of the scandal was dependent on the salient identity of both the perceiver ( social psychologist or psychologist ) and the stimulus targe ( clinical psychologist or psychologist ). Respondents were more affected by the plagiarism scandal when the self category that was made salient matched the category of the target of the scandal. 959 29 02-mar 1999 Self determination theory suggests that better prediction of behaviour will be observed from intentions based on attitudes than intentions based on subjective norms. Analyses of the intention behaviour relationship for both attitudinally versus normatively controlled people and attitudinally versus normatively controlled behaviours supported this hypothesis. 960 29 02-mar 1999 Under conditions of higher or lower uncertainty, college students recalled three or eight ways to improve exam performance and then estimated their likelihood of getting As on their easiest and hardest finals. Results supported the hypothesis that the availability heuristic is used only under conditions of uncertainty. 961 29 02-mar 1999 Following Self Categorization Theory, the present study argues that self stereotyping should be considered in examining the relationship between identification and ingroup bias. A study among Iranians living in the Netherlands was conducted. It was found that identification was related to self stereotyping under conditions of group threat. Further, only self stereotyping made a unique contribution to the explanation of ingroup bias. However, there was an interaction effect showing that self stereotyping was related to ingroup bias for high identifiers. Future studies on ingroup bias are advised to examine the role of bath identification and self stereotyping. 962 29 4 1999 The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour continue to receive considerable research attention, despite criticisms of their asocial conceptualisation and the rational decision making approach. Two studies were designed to assess the impact of induced mood on condom use (Study I) and food choice (Study 2). Both studies provided support for application of the theory of reasoned action to health related behaviour, and for. differential effects of mood on information processing. Study I provided support for problem focus theory, with attitudes (but not subjective norm) predicting intention in the negative mood condition. The opposite pattern of findings held for the positive mood condition (i.e. only subjective norm predicted intention). The results of Study 2 provided for ther support for the problem focus approach and for the inclusion of self identity in the theory of planned behaviour. The findings are discussed with implications for future work on mood and behavioural decision making. 963 29 4 1999 Two studies, one conducted in the Netherlands (N = 87) and one in Italy with two samples Catholic Youth (N = 41) and Young Communists (N = 41) assessed the cross cultural generality of the previously confirmed hypothesis (Pepitone & Saffiotti, 1997) that six universal nonmaterial beliefs fate, God, luck, chance, just punishment, and just reward are used selectively to interpret life events. A selective correspondence between the six beliefs and the standard life event cases specifically constructed to engage the belief specializations was predicted. All three samples showed the predicted correspondence in terms of significant ordinal correlations in a 6 nonmaterial belief x 9 life events classification. In addition, the findings ave consistent with the assumption that the degree of selective correspondence depends upon the importance of beliefs in the sample under study. 964 29 4 1999 In a field study with 295 factory employees, three hypotheses were tested: (I) Procedural injustice at work is correlated negatively with job satisfaction and psychosomatic wellbeing. (2) The perception of procedural injustice depends on the person §s chronic justice sensitivity. (3) Justice sensitivity moderates the correlation of procedural injustice with satisfaction and well being, the correlation becoming larger with increasing justice sensitivity. Procedural injustice was a defined as the discrepancy between desired (ought) and perceived (is) procedures. notice sensitivity and procedural fairness according to Leventhal §s criteria (consistency, nonpartiality, accuracy, correctability, representativeness) and one additional criterion (open information) were measured via questionnaire. Job satisfaction, number of sick days during the last six months and number of days a per son felt sick at work during the last six months served as indicators of psychosomatic well being. The first and second hypotheses were supported by the data. Partial support was also obtained for the third hypothesis: Justice sensitivity moderated the con elation of procedural unfairness with (a) the number of clays the person felt sick at work and (b) the sum of this variable with the number of sick days. 965 29 4 1999 The well documented relationship between political orientation and moral reasoning has most often been interpreted in terms of the influence of level of moral development (cf. Kohlberg, 1984) upon an individual §s political inclinations: those who have reached the conventional level (or stage 4) in Kohlberg §s terms will as a result tend to favour the political right, whereas those who progress to the principled level (stage 5) shift their political preferences to the left. An alternative, social communication view is that these different forms of moral reasoning are expressions of contrasting political identities, and differ in ideological content rather than developmental level. We compared the inferences that American and British students (n = 211) drew about the political, moral and cognitive attributes of a target who, in response to moral dilemmas, used either stage 4A, stage 4B or stage 5 mol al arguments as defined by Kohlberg. Perception of the target §s political attributes varied consistently and significantly as a function of the tal get §s moral reasoning, but there were no corresponding effects on perception of moral or cognitive attributes. The results are interpreted as supporting a social communication view of moral reasoning and its relation to political orientation, and at the same time questioning the claim that conventional (stage 4) and principled (stage 5) moral reasoning are distinct levels of socio cognitive development. 966 29 4 1999 We tested the idea that the col relation between implicit and explicit measures of prejudice depends on whether or not groups ale normatively protected against discrimination. A pilot study (N = 31) showed that 13 categories varied widely in the degree to which if is acceptable to express negative opinions about them. The main study involving 89 Catholic subjects found that explicit (reward allocation, liking ratings) and implicit measures (linguistic intergroup bias) of prejudice were correlated for the outgroup that is not normatively protected against discrimination (Islamic Fundamentalists) but uncorrelated for the outgroup that is protected (Je,vs). 967 29 4 1999 Building on a self aspect model (SAM) of the individual self and the collective self, the authors hypothesized that personally important and positive aspects of the self would facilitate the construal of a collective self. Following a self description task, research participants selected either two positive ol two negative self aspects. One aspect in each pair had to be of high personal importance and one of low personal importance. Then, measures of self categorization, perceived ingroup and outgroup homogeneity and intergroup differentiation were administered. Our hypothesis received convergent support from all measures. It is concluded that personally important and positive self aspects are very likely to function as meaningful social categories. 968 29 4 1999 Previous findings have shown that some reactions (e.g. satisfaction with feedback) are guided by self enhancement theory, whereas other reactions (e.g. perceived feedback accuracy) have been shown to follow predictions of self consistency theory. The Integrative Self Schema Model (ISSM) assumes that these effects should be moderated by the elaboration of the self schema involved This assumption was tested in an experimental study. 72 participants received fictitious feedback on different personality dimensions allegedly based on an adjective checklist. This feedback was either consistent with self perceptions, more positive than expected, or more negative than expected, and addressed highly elaborated (schematic) or less elaborated (aschematic) personality dimensions. Satisfaction, feedback accuracy and interest in further information were analysed as dependent variables. The experimental results clearly confirmed the hypotheses derived from the ISSM for satisfaction and perceived feedback accuracy. A self consistency effect regarding perceived feedback accuracy was found only for feedback on schematic dimensions but was attenuated on aschematic dimensions. A self enhancement effect regarding satisfaction was found only on aschematic dimensions. This finding was level sed on schematic dimensions. Finally, interest in further information did not follow the predictions made by the ISSM. 969 29 4 1999 Two studies examined the relationship between categorization, intergroup anxiety and intel group attitudes (intergroup bias and negative affect). Study I consisted of a survey of 236 British and Japanese nationals. Study 2 was a longitudinal study of 54 Japanese students studying in the UK. Of the three categorization variables (interpersonal, super ordinate and intergroup), only intel group categorization was shown to have a relationship to generalized intergroup attitudes. In addition, intergroup anxiety and quality of contact were associated with ingroup bias and negative affect to the outgroup. Study 2 revealed an interaction between intergroup categorization and quality of contact in predicting negative affect. Intergroup anxiety was also associated with increased intergroup categorization. It is concluded that the effects of categorization during contact are still poorly understood and that intergroup anxiety is a far more powerful variable in contact than the current literature acknowledges. 970 29 4 1999 A study of race based ingroup and outgroup judgment demonstrates the links between two models of social judgment the black sheep effect (Marques, Yzerbyt & Leyens, 1988) and expectancy violation theory (Jussim, Coleman & Lerch, 1987). White participants had a live intel action with a Black or White partner who contributed to a team success or failure at a game. Partner judgments, perceived expectancy violation, and mood changes indicated a pattern of ingroup polarization, though the race differential was reliable only when targets performed poorly. Consistent with other research, this pattern was most striking among Whites who were highly identified with their racial group. We suggest that racial identification activates favourable withingroup judgment standards which, when violated, produce mood decrements and negative evaluations. 971 29 4 1999 "Optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT; Brewer, 1991, 1993a,b) argues that people can respond to membership of an over ly inclusive group by engaging in a drive for subgroup distinctiveness. To test this, 280 subgroup members (humanities and maths science students) rated the extent to which they perceived their superordinate group university of Queensland to be inclusive. After performing a task designed to activate their superordinate category membership, participants completed a questionnaire assessing inter subgroup attitudes. Consistent with ODT, ratings of superordinate inclusiveness explained a moderate amount of variance in subgroup bias (5 8 per cent), such that the more inclusive the superordinate category was seen to be, the more bias was demonstrated. The results are discussed in terms of their relevance for ODT and their implications for promoting subgroup harmony. " 972 29 4 1999 In two experiments using the minimal group paradigm, subjects had to describe an ingroup member and an outgroup member on the BSRI. Although the targets were not categorized by sex, the results showed that the typical ingroup member was described by men as having more male traits and by women as having more female tr nits. They also showed that the lesser worth of outgroup members was associated for men with fewer male and female traits, whereas for women it was mainly associated with fewer female traits. 973 29 05-giu 1999 This study examines the relationship between alternative sources of authority which might influence a child §s moral reasoning. It returns to Piaget §s (1932) work to explore features of a child §s social relations which may act either to promote or constrain the communication and acceptance of moral knowledge. Children were asked to judge which of two boys Il,ns naughtier in one of Piaget §s moral Stories §s . Those who had independently given different responses were placed in a pal, and asked to agree a response together. An authority of status was introduced into some pairs by varying the gender composition of the dyad and contrasted with epistemic authority derived from the arguments more closely associated with moral autonomy. In the absence of an authority of status (in same sex pairs) influence through epistemic authority occurred with relative ease. When status and epistemic authority conflicted subjects took far longer to accept the legitimacy of the epistemic authority. 974 29 05-giu 1999 This paper tests a prediction front the information processing model of helplessness (Sedek & Kofta, 1990) that during exposure to uncontrollability people experience high le,eis of irreducible uncertainty. Participants were given either a solvable or unsolvable discrimination task consisting of five problems. After completion of each problem participants evaluated the probability of all solution hypotheses. Three times during the course of each problem, participants indicated the solution hypotheses they were considering at that point. As predicted (1) entropy of the hypothesis set (the uncertainty measure) was higher under unsolvable than solvable tasks, (2) a gradual reduction in the number of hypotheses was noted in the solvable but not unsolvable task condition, and (3) uncertainty was a reliable predictor of self reported cognitive difficulties with thinking production and attention. 975 29 05-giu 1999 A field experiment demonstrated that forming implementation intentions was effective in changing complex everyday behaviour, in this case establishing a healthier diet. Implementation intentions concerned a specific plan for when and how to act. The effect of implementation intentions was additive to the prediction of healthy earing by behavioural intentions to eat healthily. Implementation intentions were pitted against individual differences in counterintentional (unhealthy) habits. The effects of implementation intentions and counterintentional habits were independent, suggesting that implementation intentions did not break the negative influence of unhealthy habits, and yet managed to make those with unhealthy habits eat healthier in habit unrelated respects. 976 29 05-giu 1999 The results of this study! demonstrate that how people react emotionally to ethnic minority groups varies as a function of seif categorisation. Studying ethnic Dutch participants, it was found that participants with high social self categorisation reported more negative emotions than participants with low social self categorisation. Moreover, it was found that only among the former group of participants were ingroup stereotypes related to emotional reactions towards minority groups. The role of self categorisation, was found for both negative and positive emotions, and also for situations where the presence of ethnic minority groups had either negative or positive consequences for the ingroup. Additionally: only individual ingroup stereotypes and not cultural ingroup stereotypes were found to be related to emotions. These results support insights from self categorisation theory and illustrate the generalisation of the self categorisation process. 977 29 05-giu 1999 "The category confusion paradigm (Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff & Ruderman, 1978) was used to examine the relationship between cognitive load and the extent of social categorization. The original prediction made by Taylor et al. (1978; Experiment 2) and inferences from the cognitive miser model suggest that categorization should increase or be unaffected by cognitive fond. In contrast, it is argued that social categorization can be an effortful and resource consuming process, especially, where the representation of multiple stimuli are concerned. This leads to the prediction that social categorization should decrease with load assuming there is enough load to produce recall er rows in the first place. We obtained results consistent with this analysis in paradigms which manipulated load by means of set size (Study I) and processing pace (Study 2). " 978 29 05-giu 1999 Should stereotyping be characterised as an act of cognitive miserliness of one of rational meaning seeking? This paper uses a cognitive load paradigm to investigate the adequacy of popular resource based explanations of stereotyping in comparison to art alternative fit based or meaning based explanation, in Experiment 1, load was increased by means of concurrent tasks within a highly fitting context (where targets generally behaved bz a stereotype consistent fashion). A linear decrease in stereotyping resulted as measured by category confusions on a who said, what recognition task (Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff & Ruderman, 1978). This outcome is inconsistent with a resource based analysis of stereotyping. Experiment 2 manipulated load as stimulus exposure rime. Although load was successfully, imposed in this second experiment, stereotyping neither increased nor decreased as a function of lend. The concept of cognitive load and the importance of fit for the analysis of stereotyping are discussed. 979 29 05-giu 1999 This study reports a conceptual replication and extensions of Deschamps §s (1977) experiment concerning the effects of subcategorization on an existing dimension of physical classification. Using a computerized procedure and a more sophisticated statistical analysis, ve found support for category differentiation processes at the intra as well as inter class level of differentiation. In contrast to the original findings, we also found evidence for decategorization, a previously neglected potential outcome of multiple categorization procedures. 980 29 05-giu 1999 This article is aimed at providing further supporting evidence for the assumption that the cognitive processing of certain kinds of information is socially driven, even at very low levels of processing. More specifically, we hypothesize that knowledge associated with a social norm like the norm of internality (Jellison & Green, 1981, Beauvois & Dubois, 1988) may be more accessible in memory than Knowledge associated with a non normative register, and may therefore be processed more easily. Experiment 1 shows that adults in a cognitive overload situation who were presented either with internal attribution statements (normative) or with external attribution statements (non normative) managed to recall some of the former, but proved incapable of recalling any of the latter. Experiment allows us to show that 10 and 11 year old children (age at which the norm of internality is being acquired) in an analogous situations were not able to process internal attribution statements unless they were pretrained to detect the value associated with normative causal explanations. Experiment 3 enables us to verify that training adults in this way did not change the conclusions drawn irt Experiment I. The results as a whole are discussed in ter ms of the potential storage in semantic memory of the social value associated with normative explanation. 981 29 05-giu 1999 The goal of this research was to develop the work of Py and Somat (1991) concerning normative clearsightedness. Although they were interested in the norm of internality, they, defined normative clearsightedness as the knowledge of the normative or counter normative aspect of certain types of behaviour or certain types of judgements . However, even though they placed the concept normative clearsightedness within a broad normative perspective that goes beyond merely? the norm of internality, it remains to be explored what this broad perspective consists of. In this study, we haw turned towards the notion of individualism which testifies, just like the norm of internality, to a certain social desirability (Somat, Doisneau & Gouin, 1994, unpublished manuscript) in testing the generalizability of normative clearsightedness to other norms. the results obtained in this study demonstrate that normative clearsightedness is applicable to at least one norm other than the norm of internality. In fact, the normative clearsightedness of internal explanations seems to be associated with the normativity of individualistic beliefs. In other words, we find that subjects who are clearsighted with regard to internality are also clearsighted with regard to individualism. 982 29 05-giu 1999 Most research on social identity and relative deprivation has focused on the salience of social identity in social comparisons. In contrast, little research has studied relative deprivation in relation to one §s identification with the ingroup, and across a variety of comparison targets. Using samples of Latino and African American respondents, the present study investigated ingroup identification and relative deprivation in comparisons with Ingroup Members, Other Minorities, and Whites. High Identification respondents felt more group deprivation than Low Identification respondents in comparisons with both Other Minorities and Whites. High identification respondents also reported more personal deprivation than Low Identification respondents where comparing themselves with Whites and less personal satisfaction when comparing themselves with Other Minorities, yet they generally expressed satisfaction in comparisons with Ingroup Members. Results suggest that ingroup identification and comparison targets are important considerations for deprivation research, as one §s relationships, with targets may be associated with outcomes of social comparisons. 983 29 05-giu 1999 Previous research examined the predictions of the self enhancement theory and the selfconsistency, theory regarding reactions to self relevant feedback. In the present study two circumstances that are supposed to moderate self enhancement and self consistency motives have been examined, the elaboration of a self conception and the discrepancy, between the actual self and a personal standard. One hundred and fourteen participants received either positive, consistent, or negative feedback regarding their results on a personality test. Affective and cognitive reactions to fictitious feedback were measured as dependent variables. In accordance with prior empirical evidence, affective reactions followed the self enhancement theory and cognitive reactions Mere in line with the self consistency theory. Moreover, affective and cognitive reactions were influenced by the elaboration of a self conception and the discrepancy between the actual self and a personal standard as predicted Regarding affective reactions, the predictions of the self enhancement theory were more clearly supported when self conceptions were less elaborated or when people perceived a high self discrepancy. Regarding cognitive reactions, the predictions of the self consistency theory were more clearly supported when self conceptions were highly elaborated or when people perceived a low, self discrepancy. 984 29 05-giu 1999 Two studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that heightened membership salience, achieved by increasing the prototypicality of particular outgroup members during cooperative intergroup contact, facilitates the generalization of positive attitudes toward the outgroup as a whole. The first study (N = 64) utilized an experimental paradigm in which the perceived typicality of a target outgroup member and the perceived homogeneity of the outgroup as a whole were manipulated. Consistent with our hypothesis, results indicated that positive attitudinal generalization was facilitated by encounters with typical outgroup members. The effects of membership prototypicality were further examined in a second study (N = 293) where a survey was administered in six European Community countries. Results supported the hypothesis that membership salience moderates the impact of contact on a generalized measure of favourable orientation towards another country. 985 29 05-giu 1999 A field experiment studied the effect of extended contact through peer modelling for tolerance promotion among 1480 Finnish students (ages 13 15) in three pairs of middle schools that were matched on the proportion of foreign students (ranging from 3 per cent to 19 per cent) and randomised to control or experimental condition. In the experimental schools, printed stories of ingroup members engaged in close friendship with members of outgroups were presented in two sessions as examples of successful intergroup contact. In order to avoid subtyping, i.e. to ensure both inclusion of the ingroup member in the self and generalisation from the outgroup friend to the whole outgroup, the typicality of both the ingroup exemplar and the outgroup friend was enhanced. Intergroup attitudes were measured before and after the experimental intervention. A scale score measuring intergroup tolerance showed stability or favourable changes in experimental schools, while attitudes worsened or stayed the same in the cona ol schools. The experimental effect was significant in four statistical tests (p < 0.001 to p < 0.05). The results show that tolerance can be improved or maintained by extended contact, i.e. peer modelling of positive intergroup contacts. 986 29 05-giu 1999 This study explores the conditions under which experimentally primed anger influences both attributions of responsibility and the processes by which people make such attributions. Drawing on social functional theory, it was hypothesized that people are best thought of as intuitive prosecutors who lower their thresholds for making attributions of harmful intent and recommending harsh punishment when they both witness a serious transgression of societal norms and believe that the transgressor escaped punishment. The data support the hypotheses. Anger primed by a serious crime carried over to influence judgments of unrelated acts of harm only wizen the perpetrator of the crime went unpunished, notwithstanding the arousal of equally intense anger in conditions in which the perpetrator appropriately punished or his fate was unknown. Participants in the perpetrator unpunished condition also relied on simpler and more punitive attributional heuristics for inferring responsibility for harm. 987 29 05-giu 1999 The theoretical implications of individualism collectivism for self esteem suggest that collectivism is associated with (1) relatively higher self liking and lower self competence and (2) greater change in self liking in response to social life events. In contrast, individualism is expected to be associated with (1) relatively higher self competence and lower self liking and (2) greater change in self competence in response to achievement related life events. A 6 month prospective study comparing students in (collectivist) Spain and (individualist) Britain confirmed the expected differences in relative (adjusted) levels of self liking and self competence. The predicted differential sensitivity to social events was also confirmed. No evidence for differential sensitivity, to achievement related events, however, was found. 988 29 05-giu 1999 In line with a social support for shared self interest interpretation of competitive intergroup behaviour Schopler, Insko, Graetz, Drigotas, Smith and Dahl (1993) observed that, in the face of consistent cooperative outgroup, behaviour, two ingroup members behaved competitively, when this strategy, had been suggested by another (role playing) ingroup member. Because a comparable amount of competitive PDG choosing was observed in a no suggestion condition with two subjects and one neutral role player (single no suggestion condition), Schopler et al. assumed that the two subjects, motivated by greed, each initiated and supported competitive suggestions. Within the boundaries of Schopler et al. s, research paradigm, the present experiment aimed to rest this assumption by adding a no suggestion cooperative feedback condition with two neutral role players, rendering impossible any form of explicit social support. In this double no suggestion condition a significant reduction of competitive responding, vas observed, compared to a single no suggestion condition. Additionally it was observed that the single no suggestion condition yielded less competition than a manipulated (explicit) competitive suggestion condition. Finally, the new condition still produced more competition than a manipulated (explicit) cooperative suggestion condition. As a whole, our results are in line with predictions derived from the social support for shared self interest hypothesis. Nevertheless, alternative interpretations, calling for further research, are also proposed. 989 29 05-giu 1999 An analogous thinking task was used to test Nemeth §s Convergent Divergent theory of majority and minority influence. Participants read a (base) problem and one of three solutions (one of which is considered the best solution). They then generated solutions to a second (target) problem which shared similar structural features to the first problem. Due to the similarities between problems, the solution given to the fir st problem can be used as an analogy ill solving the second. In contrast to Nemeth §s theory, when the solution to the base problem, was endorsed by a numerical majority there was not an increase in analogy transfer in solving the target problem. However, in support of Nemeth §s theory, when the base solution was supported by a numerical minority then the participants were more likely to generate the best solution to the target problem regardless of which base solution they were given. 990 29 7 1999 Behaviours are judged by their causes (i.e. the actor §s intentions) as well as by their consequences. The present study focuses on the effects of the latter. Subjects judged behaviours that were either socially good, socially bad competent, or incompetent. The consequences of the behaviours were either (a) personal consequences for the actor, (b) interpersonal consequences for others, or (c) not mentioned. Behaviours with interpersonal consequences were judged more extremely than with personal consequences. When no consequences were mentioned the behaviours were rated similarly as in the condition with interpersonal consequences. These effects emerged regardless of behaviour valence (positive versus negative) and dimension (social versus competence related). The results suggest that others §s behaviours are judged primarily by their interpersonal implications, and that observers take the perspective of those whose outcomes may be affected by the actor. 991 29 7 1999 Insights from leader member exchange theory and social justice theory were combined to derive predictions about the effects of relative competence and power use by a move powerful other on evaluative and behavioural responses of subordinates. These predictions were tested in two experiments, using a simulated organizational structure. The main results of the first experiment (N = 73) indicate that frequency of power use is an important determinant of subordinates §s evaluations of the status quo, supporting predictions from leader member exchange theory. However, in line with a procedural justice explanation, perceived legitimacy of the superior §s behaviour and participants §s cooperative intentions were determined jointly by power use and relative competence. A second experiment (N = 152) more closely investigated behavioural responses. The findings obtained in Experiment 1 were replicated, and as predicted, interaction effects of the superior §s power use and competence were found for subordinates §s collaborative behaviour and employee turnover. Both these effects were mediated by participants §s sense of commitment to their superior. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. 992 29 7 1999 Three experimental studies were conducted to examine two alternative explanations for the widely established positive effect of social identification in promoting cooperation in social dilemmas. We hypothesised that social identification effects could be either ascribed to (1) an increase in the value assigned to the collective good (i.e. goal transformation hypothesis) or (2) an enhancement of trust in the cooperation of other group members (i.e. goal amplification hypothesis). To disentangle these two explanations, we examined the effects of social identification on the contributions to a public good of people with a different social value orientation (i.e. pre existing differences in preferred outcome distribution between self and others). Following the goal transformation hypothesis, we predicted that an increased group identification would raise contributions, in particular for people essentially concerned with their personal welfare (i.e. pro self value orientation). Alternatively, following the goal amplification hypothesis it was expected that increased group identification would primarily affect decisions of people concerned with the collective welfare (i.e, prosocial value orientation). The results of all three studies provided support for the goal transformation rather than goal amplification hypothesis, suggesting that selfish individuals can be encouraged to cooperate by increasing the salience of their group membership. 993 29 7 1999 "Implicit attributions in media coverage of wrestling; events are investigated A special feature of show wrestling is a separation in morally good fighters who win because of their intrinsic goodness and morally bad fighters who win by bending the rules. Thus, show wrestling can be characterized by the attributions it affords. Linguistic abstractness as an index of attributions of dispositionality is measured with the Linguistic Category Model (LCM; Semin & Fiedler, 1988). Analyses of published fight reports in an official wrestling magazine show that goodness and badness is indeed attributed on a stable and global level and that fights with the expected outcome are described in terms of fighters §s dispositions in contrast to fights with an unexpected outcome. " 994 29 7 1999 Can empathy induced altruism motivate a person to cooperate in a prisoner §s dilemma? To answer this question, 60 undergraduate women were placed in a one trial prisoner §s dilemma, and empathy for the other person was manipulated. Regardless of whether the dilemma was framed as a social exchange or as a business transaction, cooperation was significantly higher among those women led to feel empathy for the other than among those not led to feel empathy. Among those not led to feel empathy, the business frame reduced cooperation, lending support to the idea of an exemption on moral motivation in business transactions. Lack of a business exemption on empathy induced altruism supported the suggestion that altruism is not simply a type of moral motivation, but is a distinct form of prosocial motivation. 995 29 7 1999 Two studies investigated the effects of cognitive busyness and group variability on participants §s memory for stereotype related information, In Study 1, participants formed an impression of an experimentally created group that was either homogeneous or heterogeneous in composition. While learning about the group, half of the participants were made cognitively busy, the others were not. The results supported our prediction that stereotypical efforts on memory are moderated by both the availability of processing resources and the variability of the target group under consideration. Under optimal processing circumstances, participants §s recollections were dominated by the perceived variability of the group in question. That is, participants displayed preferential recall for stereotype consistent information when they believed the group to be homogeneous in composition, but a tendency to recall more stereotype inconsistent information when they considered the group to be heterogeneous in nature, Under suboptimal processing conditions, however, a different pattern emerged. Now, participants preferentially recalled stereotype consistent information regardless of the perceived variability of the group. These results were largely replicated in Study 2 when the perceived variability of a real social group was manipulated. We consider the implications of these findings for contemporary theories of stereotyping. 996 29 7 1999 A survey of anti poverty activists and non activists in Canada and the Philippines was conducted to assess their beliefs about the causes of poverty in developing nations. Principal components analysis revealed that the respondents §s poverty attributions could be distinguished along five main dimensions: exploitation, characterological weaknesses of the poor, natural causes, conflict, and poor government. Group breakdowns revealed several significant differences related to respondents §s countries of residence and social ideologies. A path analysis suggested that attributions fully mediated the relationship between social ideology and participation in anti poverty activism. 997 29 7 1999 High and low prejudiced participants were presented with a lecture segment in which the race of the professor (White or Black) and lecture quality (high or low) were manipulated. Consistent with predictions, low prejudiced participants were more extreme in their evaluations (more negative) and performed more poor ly on test items when presented with an expectancy violating low quality Black lecturer. High prejudiced participants were more extreme in their evaluations (more positive) and performed more poorly when presented with an expectancy violating high quality Black lecturer. 998 29 8 1999 The present experiment investigated cognitive and behavioural effects of planning (i.e. forming implementation intentions) on goal pursuit during the performance of mundane behaviours. Participants received the goal to collect a coupon halfway the hall from the lab to the cafeteria. Later, they were also given the task to go from the lab to the cafeteria. Thus participants had to attain a new goal by interrupting a mundane behaviour. Some participants enriched their goal with implementation intentions, others did not. Results showed that participants who formed implementation intentions were more effective in goal pursuit than the control group. Importantly, the data suggest that the effects of planning on goal completion are mediated by a heightened mental accessibility of environmental cues related to the goal completion task. 999 29 8 1999 Good luck implies comparison with a worse counterfactual outcome, whereas bad luck implies upward comparisons. People will accordingly describe themselves as particularly lucky after recollecting situations where they, avoided something negative, and as particularly unlucky after recollecting episodes in which they missed something positive (Study 1). Upward and downward comparisons can be created by, the way a situation develops, and are accentuated by the way a story is told. Good luck stories typically change for the better only in the last stage, whereas bad luck stories show a more steady downward progression (Study 2). This is also reflected in phrases believed to be characteristic of good luck versus bad luck stories, with good luck stories involving surprise and reference to close counterfactuals, whereas bad luck stories focus on initial normal events (Study 3). Good and bad luck imply different orders of events (negative positive versus positive negative), so by rearranging the narrative sequence, the same set of outcomes can form the basis for a good luck story as well as a bad luck story (Study 4). The final experiment (Study 5) shows that negative outcome expectations are typical for chance determined and uncontrolled situations. Under such circumstances, factual outcomes do not have to be exceptionally good to be considered as lucky. 1000 29 8 1999 Based on a conversational analysis of experimental procedures and consistent with the principle of relevance, we predicted that participants §s verbal responses will be influenced by their tacit inferences about the researcher §s epistemic goals, derived from their knowledge of the researcher §s academic affiliation. We tested this prediction in a core area of social personality and cultural psychology, causal attribution. University students provided causal attributions about mass murder cases, while the questionnaire identified the researcher. either as a social scientist ol a personality psychologist. The results indicated that attributions were overall more situational than dispositional, and as predicted, this main effect was qualified by an interaction between conversational cue and type of attribution. Thus, participants gave relatively more situational explanations when the letterhead of the questionnaire identified the researcher as a social scientist compared to when the researcher was identified as a personality psychologist. The reverse pattern emerged for dispositional attributions. Methodological and conceptual implications are discussed. 1001 29 8 1999 "The context of intergroup relations in Aotearoa/New Zealand was investigated using perceptions of history by Maori (Polynesian descended) and Pakeha (European descended) samples from university and the general public. There was strong consensus that the Treaty of Waitangi was the most important event in New Zealand §s history, but only Maori, the subordinate ethnic group, showed ingroup favouritism in their judgements regarding the Treaty. Pakeha, the dominant group, showed outgroup favouritism, and distanced themselves front past injustices using linguistic strategies. Maori students showed interest in their ethnic origins (ontogeny), rating the distant past and Polynesian history higher, and free recalling more events prior to European arrival than other groups; Maori in the general population shared a more similar perception of history to Pakeha. Both ingroup favouritism and ontogeny were found in sentence completion choices. Historical perceptions were strongly related to positions on current political issues. Results are related to social identity theory, social representations theory, and social dominance theory. " 1002 29 8 1999 "Two experiments examined whether novel, minimal ingroups are automatically associated with positive affect while outgroups do not elicit such positive evaluative default. Participants were assigned to social categories in a typical minimal group setting and subsequently, administered a masked priming task, i.e. prime words were not consciously recognized. Following either the presentation of a priori positive or negative words or the presentation of the group labels, participants classified adjectives with regard to their valence (positive/negative). In Experiment 1, a standard affective priming paradigm was realized, with response latencies as dependent measures; in Experiment 2, a response window technique was used, with errors as crucial measure. In both studies significant affective congruency effects emerged similarly for standard primes and category labels, indicating ingroup bias on an implicit level. " 1003 29 8 1999 "Social identity theory is employed to conceptualise the role of group identification in the conversion of discontent into participation in political protest. It is assumed that higher levels of group identification stimulate participation in protest on behalf of the group. Perceived characteristics of the intergroup situation such as the permeability of group boundaries, and the stability and legitimacy of intergroup relations are supposed to modify the role of group identification. Group identification is decomposed into an affective and a behavioural component. Furthermore, ingroup identification is distinguished from outgroup differentiation; and groups are defined at different levels of inclusiveness. In a longitudinal study, among Dutch farmers (n = 168) the relationship between group identification and protest participation is investigated. Group identification, be it affective or behavioural, appears to influence action preparedness. People seem to enter the protest arena with some level of group identification. This level of group identification sets the level of action preparedness. Once set, the level of action preparedness remains fairly stable over time and appears to be a strong predictor of future action preparedness and participation. Action preparedness in its turn together with the behavioural component of group identification influences actual participation in collective action. Outgroup differentiation did not have any impact on protest participation Identification with farmers in the European Union did not matter, but identification with farmers at the national or regional level did stimulate protest participation. Perceived characteristics of the intergroup situation did not have an impact on group identification, but permeability and stability did affect protest participation. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed. " 1004 30 1 2000 "Social cognitive principles underlie people §s learning about what matters in: in the social world. The benefits of these social cognitive principles reveal essential aspects of what it means to be human. But these social cognitive principles also have inherent costs, which highlight what it means to be only, human . Social cognition is social because what is lean; en concerns the social world, and where the learning takes place is in the social world. This paper reviews the benefits and costs of both sides of social cognition: (1) the cognition of social psychology principles of organization, explanation, knowledge activation : and use; and (2) the social psychology of cognition principles of shared reality role enactment, social positions and identities and internal audiences. The fact that these are inherent costs of the same social cognitive principles for which there are essential benefits affords a new perspective on social cognitive costs that is different from either the classic conflict perspective or the more current limited capacity and dual process perspectives. This trade off perspective deepens both our understanding of the true nature of these principles and our appreciation of our common humanity. " 1005 30 1 2000 "This study explored differences in levels of anti egalitarianism I had social dominance orientation among groups with different social status, and examined the degree to which these differences in anti egalitarianism varied across a number of situational and contextual factors. Consistent with both the cultural deterministic :(CD) and social dominance (SD) paradigms, when defining social status as. socioeconomic status, ethnicity, or race, differences in anti egalitarianism between members of high and low status groups were found to be contingent upon a range of contextual and situational fact Or s, such as the degree to which the two groups: varied: in social status. However, consistent with the SD perspective and the invariance hypothesis, the data also, showed that males were more anti egalitarian than females, and; that this male/female difference in social and group dominance orientation tended to be largely invariant across cultural, situational, and contextual boundaries., " 1006 30 1 2000 "Based upon a self categorisation analysis of social influence (Turner, 1991), we predicted that individuals who self categorise with the source of a communication would align their own private attitudes more closely with the source: when that source was distributively fair rather than unfair in an intragroup context. We expected this pattern to reverse in an intergroup context when the unfairness was ingroup favouring. These expectations were confirmed in a laboratory experiment (N = 101) The data suggest that neither source similarity nor source fairness serve simply as persuasion cues to which individuals thoughtlessly conform. We argue, instead that; once self categorised, individuals. (I) actively attend to an ingroup member §s behaviours and the context in which they occur, and (2) are influenced only by a source who provides some form of social identity; enhancement, either by being fair in an intragroup context (Lind & Tyler 1988) for ingroup favouring in an intergroup context (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). " 1007 30 1 2000 "Members of eight single sex groups each consisting of three pro and three anti capital punishment adherents discussed their views for 30 minutes, and, afterwards: individually rated ingroup and outgroup members on social influence ranking, prototypicality, and social attractiveness. Front the intragroup hypothesis that speaking turns ale a resource for influence (Ng & Bradac, 1993), we predicted and found that;turns were correlated strongly with influence in the intergroup context. Further, using self categorization theory (SCT, Turner, 1985), we hypothesized that social identity processes would interact with turns, especially with turns obtained through interruptions. Interruptions encoded in prototypical utterances were more strongly, correlated with social influence and phototypicality, but not social attraction, than interruptions encoded in non phototypical utterances. Further, interruption attempts enacted in prototypical utterances were found to be more likely to be successful than unsuccessful in obtaining turns. while those enacted in non prototypical utterances were more likely to be unsuccessful than successful. Additionally, interruption turns were longer when enacted in prototypical over non prototypical utterances. Overall, the findings suggest that the power/influence of language is interactively organized and constructed around salient self categorizations. " 1008 30 1 2000 "Volitional and self handicapping theories suggest that individuals use various strategies to energize the maintenance and the enactment of goals. We placed 32 golfers (16 melt and 16 women) alternately in four golf proficiency conditions using a randomized complete block design: task involvement, learning, achievement; and one on one competition goals. As expected, the path analysis showed that one on one competition goals generate irrelevant thoughts (anxiety, threat to self esteem, distraction) as well as the subsequent bringing into play of control strategies (emotional control, attentional control, self handicapping strategies). Conversely, task involvement goals not only exclude: intrusive thoughts but hinder the implementation of control strategies. These results are discussed in terms of the attentional processes induced by motivational goals and their subsequent volitional and self handicapping strategies. " 1009 30 1 2000 "The research in this article examined the consequences of a failed attempt to reduce dissonance through a self affirmation strategy. If was hypothesized that disconfirming participants §s affirmations would reinstate psychological discomfort and dissonance motivation; In Experiment I, high dissonance participants who affirmed on a self relevant value scale and received disconforming feedback about their affirmations expressed: greater psychological discomfort (Elliot & Devine, 1994) than either affirmation only participants or low dissonance/affirmation disconformed participants. In Experiment 2, disconfirmation of an affirmation resulted in increased attitude change. The results of both experiments suggested that a failed attempt to reduce dissonance reinstates psychological discomfort and dissonance motivation. We discuss how the reduction of psychological discomfort may play a role in: the success of affirmations in reducing dissonance produced attitude change. " 1010 30 2 2000 Developments in social judgment research during the last two decades have broadened the explanatory power of the information processing perspective by paying attention to the social context of human judgment, the importance of warm cognition, and the role of nonconscious processes. The application of social cognition theorizing to the formation of attitude judgments provided new insights into classic issues of attitude research, suggesting that attitudes may be fruitfully reconceptualised as temporary constructions. Implications of these developments, open issues, and potentially fruitful avenues for future research are discussed. 1011 30 2 2000 Two studies investigated relations of value priorities to measures of subjective of well being. Samples of students and adults, from Israel and former East and West Germany (N = 1261), participated in Part I. Hypothesized direct relations of nine types of values to Ir cll being, based on healthy values from the psychotherapy, literature, relations of values to needs, self determination theory, and the emotional resources needed to pursue various values were tested in each sample. Achievement, self direction, stimulation, tradition, conformity and security values correlated with affective well being, as predicted, but not, with cognitive well being. Part II tested the hypothesis that well being depends upon congruence between personal values and the prevailing value environment. Results largely supported specific hypotheses regarding the values conductive to positive and negative well being among students of business administration (n = 40) and psychology (n = 42). Hypotheses were derived from the social sanctions, environmental affordances for value attainment, and internal value conflicts likely to be experienced in each department. 1012 30 2 2000 The effects of the communication context on explanations and judgments were investigated in two experiments where participants explained a boy §s violent behaviour either to a disciplinarian or to a permissive addressee. The results of Study 1 showed that the participants §s explanatioms varied as a function of communication context, but their judgments of responsibility were Mot influenced. In Study 2, the communication demand was either subtle or blatant. The participants §s explanations varied as a function of communication context independently from the communication demand. However, participants §s responsibility judgments were influenced only when this demand was subtle. The implications of this for explanations in everyday social settings are considered. 1013 30 2 2000 A new method is presented for examining effects of emotion in the detection of change in facial expression of emotion. The method was used in one experiment, reported here. Participants who were induced to feel happiness, sadness, or neutral emotion, saw computerized 100 frame movies in which the first frame always showed a face expressing a specific emotion (e.g. happiness). The facial expression gradually became neutral over the course of the movie. Participants placed the movie, changing the facial expression, and indicated the frame at which the initial expression as no longer present on the face. Emotion congruent expressions were perceived to persist longer than were emotion incongruent expressions. The findings are consistent with previous findings documenting enhanced perceptual processing of emotion congruent information. The value of the current technique, and the types of everyday, situations that it might model are discussed. 1014 30 2 2000 The present study investigates how person based representations stored in memory can influence subsequent information processing, depending upon subjective states during recollection of those representations. The experiment consisted of two phases. In the first phase, participants incidentally learned the gender category membership of various exemplars. Exemplars were presented in the form of forename surname associations. In the second phase, the same surnames were used as primes in a name completion task. Results showed that the influence of the primes differed in relation to the exemplars §s status in memory, as assessed by a recognition memory task. Only, when the surnames looked familiar, but were not identifiable, an implicit effect of the exemplars §s original category membership emerged, selectively influencing gender congruent name completions. Results are discussed in terms of attribution processes underlying the importance of the feelings of familiarity, and the need to devote more attention to the study of phenomenological factors in human memory. 1015 30 2 2000 While demonstrations of optimistic bias are plentiful, successful attempts at eliminating the bias (debiasing) are rare. The current study attempted to debias by reducing the perceived social distance between the self and the typical own university student. Using self categorisation theory, it was predicted that rating the outgroup target (the typical student at another university) before the ingroup one would reduce the perceived social distance between the self and the latter and lead to aa reduction in optimistic bias. Both predictions were supporter, with optimistic bias being eliminated for negative events and attenuated for positive events. In the standard optimistic bias condition (ingroup first) optimistic bias was obtained for both negative and positive events. The findings provide support for perceived social distance determining optimistic bias. The implications for recent arguments that comparisons with an abstract target automatically evoke an I am better than average heuristic or necessarily entail the use od distributional judgmental frameworks are explored. Whilst the automatic linking of abstract targets with heuristic or distributional thinking is called into question, a case is made for integrating these ideas with the self categorisation approach. Where practitioners aim to reduce ideas with the self categorisation approach. Where practitioners aim to reduce optimistic bias, the findings suggest promoting the perception of the target as a fellow optimistic bias, the findings suggest promoting the perception of the target as a fellow ingroup member may help do so. 1016 30 2 2000 This study extends past research on the impact of alternatives in dyadic negotiation by (a) providing negotiators with the mere possibility to negotiate with an outside party and (b) examining the moderating role of the negotiators §s social motive. Business students engaged in face to face negotiations, which were audio taped and transcribed. None, one, or both dyad members were provided with an exit option the possibility to leave the current negotiation and start new negotiations with someone else. Dyads were also given instructions to maximise own outcomes (egoistic motive) or to consider both own and the other §s outcomes (prosocial motive). Results showed that, as expected, dyads with a one sided exit option engaged in more distributive and less integrative behaviour, adn obtained lower joint outcomes than dyads having either two sided or no exit options. However, this effect occurred only under an egoistic rather than a prosocial motive. No differences were found for negotiations with two sided exit options compared to negotiations without exit options, suggesting one §s own exit option counter balanced by the other §s escape possibility. Our results indicate that negotiators who wish to maximize personal as well as joint outcomes should try to combine a power advantage in terms of exit options with a shared prosocial orientation. 1017 30 2 2000 "Counterfactual intensity, the strength with which counterfactuals are experienced, influenced the magnitude of affective and preparative reactions. Intensity influenced reactions when counterfactual numbers were held constant for samples of participants §s actual experiences (Study 1) and contributed significantly to responses over counterfactual numbers (Study 2) and reaction tomes (Study 3) after performing laboratory tasks. This was found when participants spontaneously generated counterfactuals (Study 2), and when participants responded to counterfactual statements (Study 3). As upward counterfactuals became intense, so did greater preparation and worse moods; as downward counterfactuals became intense, so did better moods and lesser preparation. Intense moods also conversely influenced the intensity of counterfactuals (Study 3). Conceptual and methodological implications and possibilities for future research are discussed. " 1018 30 3 2000 Social psychologists possess considerable enthusiasm and expertise in the study of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination, having commenced in the 1920s and 1930s. Research and theory in the next three to four decades focused on motivation, follow oed by a reactively exclusive focus on cognition in the 1970s and early 1980s, in turn followed by a 1990s joint focus on cognition and motivation. Throughout, intra individual conflict analyses have alternated with contextual analyses, though both clearly have merit. Based on a social evolutionary viewpoint, a few core social motives (belonging, understanding, controlling, enhancing, and trusting) account for much current research on interpersonal category based responses. Trends for the future should entail more emphasis on behaviour, more sensitivity to cultural specificities and universals, as well as budding efforts on neural mechanisms of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. 1019 30 3 2000 This study examines associations of immigrants §s well being with the discrepancies they perceive between their own acculturation attitudes and the acculturation expectations of members of the host society. A hundred immigrants to Israel from the former Soviet Union reported their personal value priorities, their satisfaction with life, their attitudes towards acculturation, and their beliefs about what members of the dominant society require of them. The immigrants believed that Israelis want them to relinquish their distinctive identity and to assimilate more than they themselves wish to do. As hypothesized perceived pressure to assimilate correlated negatively with life satisfaction only among those who value conformity, but not among others. 1020 30 3 2000 In order to examine the social transmission of prejudice in the military, attitudes and beliefs of Francophone (minority) and Anglophone (majority) prospective military officers toward their own and other groups were assessed at the beginning and at the end of a four year officer training program. Consistent with social dominance theory and system justification theory, majority group members become significantly more negative toward outgroups (e.g. Francophones, civilians and immigrants) and more likely to internalize beliefs that legitimize the economic gap between Francophones and Anglophones in Canada. Moreover, as predicted on the basis of self categorization theory, the results show that identification with the category Canadian Forces Officers §s assessed at the midpoint in the program, moderates the change in intergroup attitudes and beliefs. Finally, minority group members did not internalize negative stereotypes of their own group. These results provide important evidence for the role of group socialization in the explanation of intergroup attitudes and beliefs and suggest that social identification is a key factor ingroup socialization, consistent with self categorization theory. 1021 30 3 2000 We examine the importance of group membership in stigma and its role in the effectiveness of self protective cognitions in three experiments. In Experiment I, men are asked to interact with an attractive female who will judge their value as a potential date, and either eat a mint or a clove of raw garlic prior to the interview. Although the stigmatized by garlic men discounted negative feedback and attributed it to their garlic breath, discounting and attributions were negatively correlated with self esteem. In Experiment 2, White participants were evaluated positively or negatively by a bogus partner who the participants believed had been told that the participant was either White or Black. Although participants receiving negative feedback engaged in several self protective cognitions, including attributing their negative feedback to racism, the strategies were uncorrelated with self esteem. In experiment 3, women prepared to interact via computer with a partner who expressed sexist or non sexist beliefs. In the absence of feedback, self esteem increased when their partner was sexist. In contrast with the first two experiments, perceiving the partner as prejudiced was significantly and positively, correlated with self esteem. Together, these experiments suggest that self protective cognitions find their effectiveness when stigma has a basis ingroup membership. 1022 30 3 2000 Despite the current treatment of Frederic C. Bartlert as a cognitive psychologist, his psychology was fundamentally socio cultural. More than half a century after the publication of Psychology and Primitive Culture (1923) and Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology (1932), his theoretical contribution has contemporary implications for a social psychology that takes culture seriously. This paper seeks to recover and appraise Bartlett §s social psychology in light of the recent literature on culture and psychology, and discusses his relevance for a social psychology of cultural dynamics. 1023 30 3 2000 "This study sought to identify the standards people invoke when judging the fairness or unfairness of outcomes of everyday events, and so determine whether their standards of judgment vary according to the fairness of the outcome and to their perspective, i.e, whether the outcomes ave ones they personally experienced or witnessed. The standards of fairness laypeople were found to invoke, even when unprompted, coincided with the standards social scientists have Emphasized (e.g. distributive, procedural) in their theories of psychological justice. However, laypeople emphasized these standards differently when accounting for the fairness unfairness of personal experiences versus those they had witnessed and when accounting for fair versus unfair outcomes. As predicted, they were more likely to invoke procedural and interpersonal criteria when judging the fairness unfairness of their own outcomes, but more likely to invoke distributive criteria when judging others §s outcomes. Regardless of perspective, laypeople cited procedural criteria as the major determinants of their fairness judgements; but cited procedural, distributive and interpersonal criteria as comparably influential in determining their unfairness judgments. " 1024 30 3 2000 The boundary conditions of perspective taking were explored in two experiments. Participants gave instructions on the assembly of a machine model. In Experiment I, cognitive load was manipulated, and speakers gave two instructions to different addressees with divergent knowledge. Unlike utterances produced under low load, instructions given under high load were not adapted to the addressees. Experiment II demonstrated that this load effect was partially compensated for by high accountability. Findings support a two stage model of utterance planning: the controlled processes of monitoring and adjustment operate on the output of a predominantly automatic stage of planning, Cognitive load impairs monitoring and adjustment, and leads to standard utterances that are nor adapted to the addressee §s perspective. 1025 30 4 2000 This paper reviews developments in the field of close relationships from an interdependence theory perspective. It concludes that focusing on the relational, dyadic aspects of relationships has led to a much better understanding of social cognition and of interpersonal processes. In this vein, the nature and function of relational schemas seems a particularly promising new direction for research. It encompasses recent work on self in relation to other schema structure, the organization of schemas in cognitive networks, motivated construal in service of a need for felt security, and the dynamics of attachment and dependency regulation. Despite some impressive advances in research on close relationships, however, a more social psychological emphasis on the causal influence of features of social situations on cognition and behaviour is important for the future health of the field. 1026 30 4 2000 The major purpose of this study was to determine the stability across time and social setting of children §s social participation and social withdrawal. We followed a sample of Canadian children, aged five years at the beginning of the study, for two years. Children from lower SES homes were less involved than those from the higher SES ingroup play after school and during outdoor recess. Across the full sample, social withdrawal was not very stable. There was, however, considerable stability across setting and time among extreme groups of withdrawn participants. Social withdrawal was largely unrelated to parents §s initiation of peer contacts for their children. 1027 30 4 2000 In two studies we develop and validate a Classical overt or direct and a Modern covert or subtle Racial Prejudice Scale, concerning attitudes toward immigrants, for a Swedish (Scandinavian) context. Further, we examine whether these two forms of prejudice are distinguishable. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that, although highly correlated, classical and modern racial prejudice are distinguishable. This conclusion was also supported by various construct validations. The findings are discussed in relation to other studies that compare the content and structure of modern and classical racism. 1028 30 4 2000 This paper argues that empirical, conceptual, and statistical difficulties characterise previous demonstrations that self schemas moderate the relationship between intentions and behaviour. A longitudinal study (n = 163) was designed to overcome limitations of previous research. Theory of planned behaviour variables, past behaviour, and self schemas were assessed in relation to exercise. Behaviour was followed up two weeks later. Findings showed that self schemas moderated the intention behaviour relation such that schematics weve more likely to enact their intentions to exercise compared to unschematics. Evidence suggested that the importance dimension of self schema measures was responsible for the moderator effect. Self schemas were also associated with improved prediction of behavioural intentions after controlling for the other predictors. 1029 30 4 2000 Three experiments investigated the relationship between the attributions made for stereo type relevant behaviour and stereotype based judgments. In Experiment 1 participants were presented with a short scenario describing a single stereotypic behaviour and were given either a situational or a dispositional explanation for the behaviour, before evaluating both the target and the group as a whole on stereotype based dimensions. As predicted, participants given a situational explanation for the stereotypic behaviour described the target and the group in less stereotype based terms than did baseline participants. In Experiments 2 and 3 participants were presented with a short scenario describing either a single stereotypic or counter stereotypic behaviour but were asked to provide an explanation for the behaviour, rather than being given one. As predicted, stereotypic behaviour was attributed more strongly to dispositional than situational factors and counter stereotypic behaviour move strongly to situational than dispositional factors. No overall moderation of group based beliefs relative to baseline was seen in either experiment. Correlations between the attributions and stereotype based judgments did, however, show a relationship between the strength of the attributions mde for the behaviours and stereotype based judgments. Implications for the moderation of stereotype based judgments are discussed. 1030 30 4 2000 "Although the existence of the false consensus effect is beyond all doubt, its interpretation as a judgemental bias is still a matter of debate. Krueger recently proposed a new measure for this phenomenon, called the truly false consensus effect (TFCE). This measure consists of con elating the subject §s endorsement of each item with the error he or she made in estimating the popularity of that same item; I question the validity of this measure, arguing that it could be negative even in cases where false consensus is at work. I present an inter group study, where participants made percentage estimates for various behaviours. The results yielded a significantly negative TFCE, although other measures of false consensus demonstrate that the phenomenon is present. I discuss the differences between Krueger §s studies and my own, and suggest that a better measure of false consensus might be the partial correlation between endorsement and estimated popularity, controlling for true popularity. " 1031 30 4 2000 We found that the effects on subsequent motivation of success and failure feedback are moderated by the extent to which individuals have been previously successful in promotion self regulation (achieving their ideals) and prevention self regulation (meeting their oughts). Specifically, we found that the more individuals are ideal congruent, the more their performance increases over time following success than failure feedback, whereas the more individuals are ought congruent, the move their performance increases over time following failure than success feedback. These findings have implications for research on the effects of feedback an motivation, as well as for the motivational significance of the expressions, everything to gain and everything to lose . 1032 30 5 2000 The aim of this paper is to identify the functions of social cognition in a communication context. It is argued that social cognition is for the regulation of adaptive action and makes use of external devices (e.g. language) to implement action. First, the complexity of communication as a social achievement is discussed to prepare the ground for examining the link between language, cognition and communication. The implementational devices (language) of social cognition are addressed next. On the basis of these considerations a message modulation model is proposed to conceptualize the interplay between language, cognition, motivation and communication. The application of this model to research on the transmission and maintenance of stereotypes illustrates the types of open research issues and directions that may be possible routes for future work. 1033 30 5 2000 "Sontag (1990) proposed that taking a photograph imparts social significance to the moment being captured. Two experiments were conducted to examine how the experience of being photographed affects the social relations of those who are photographed. In Experiment 1 (N = 92), unacquainted members of dyads who were photographed together and then saw the resulting image displayed greater social self categorization and greater affinity for each other than did dyads who were not photographed (p < 0.05). In Experiment 2 (N = 282), pairs of photographed strangers also displayed greater in photographs or not. This effect occurred whether pair members were explicitly framed together in photographs or not. This result was unaffected by whether the photographed strangers were shown or were not shown their photograph. Merely opening and closing the shutter of a camera was sufficient for the development of a photo bonding effect. Results are discussed in terms of how the experience of being photographed can affect interpersonal perception and relationship formation. The significance of being photographed (Milgram, 1977; Sontag, 1990) apparently is so strong that it promotes social self categorization (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987) both when people are photographed simultaneously and sequentially. " 1034 30 5 2000 What is the role of affect in the way people perceive and evaluate their material possessions? Participants induced to feel good or bad estimated the subjective and objective value of a number of consumer items they owned or wanted to own. Participants also completed the Openness to Feelings (OF) scale. As expected, mood had no effect on objective evaluations. However, we found a significant interaction between personality (OF) and mood on subjective evaluations. Individuals scoring high on Of showed a clear mood congruent pattern: They made more positive evaluations of consumer items when in a positive rather than negative mood. In contrast, people scoring low on OF showed an opposite, mood incongruent bias. Openness to Feelings moderated the mood effects regardless of whether the mood was induced using an autobiographical or a video mood induction procedure, and regardless of whether the items were owned or merely desired. The results are interpreted in terms of the cognitive mechanisms responsible for mood effects on consumer judgments, and the role of personality variables in moderating these effects is discussed. The implications of the findings for contemporary affect cognition theories, and for our understanding of the variables influencing consumer judgments are considered. 1035 30 5 2000 Power can be defined as control over people §s outcomes. using this definition, we explored the impact of power on attentional processes involved in impression formation. Because powerful individuals may want to maintain and justify their position, powerful participants should pay particular attention to negative stereotype consistent information about their subordinates. In contrast, powerless participants should devote their attention to stereotype inconsistent information in an attempt to increase their control over the social context. Study 1 directly manipulated control by assigning participants to the role of leader or subordinate ina task group. Results showed that, compared to subordinates, leaders devoted more attention to negative stereotypic attributes. Study 2 manipulated the legitimacy of power and replicated the pattern found in Study 1 but only when power was illegitimate. Our findings suggest that the experience of power can be associated with feelings of threat, especially when power is illegitimate, thereby orienting impression formation processes toward information likely to maintain the existing social structure. We discuss our results in the context of current work on motivated social cognition, social identity, and legitimisation. 1036 30 5 2000 The paper (1) presents a new contrast empathy model to capture affective reactions following a social comparison, and (2) supports the applicability of the value function to social comparisons. Relationship quality and relevance of the comparison dimension are assumed to influence the interplay between contrast and empathy effects. The application of the value function to the contrast empathy model leads to the predictions that (a) dissatisfaction looms larger than satisfaction and that (b) pity looms larger than empathetic joy. Three studies test the validity of the contrast empathy model. In all studies participants rated their satisfaction with income comparisons. Study 1 demonstrates the applicability of the value function to social comparisons. Study 2 extends the self evaluation model and supports the validity of the contrast empathy model. Study 3 replicates parts of Study 2 in a between subjects design. 1037 30 5 2000 In traditional attitude research behavioural volitions have been usually considered in isolation from the broader context that justify their formation. Most behaviours are functional to goal achievement and can be better understood and predicted by considering relevant constructs at the goal level. The interplay between behaviours and goals is the focus of this study. Constructs specified by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) are examined together with constructs proposed by the Model of Goal directed Behaviour (MGB) and two further goal constructs (goal desires and goal perceived feasibility). These theoretical ideas are tested on a sample of 104 students having a goal for body weight regulation or for studying effort. The results indicate that the inclusion of distal goal related constructs significantly improve the prediction of behavioural volitions, over and above the prediction based on behaviour related constructs. The MGB and an extended model outperform the TPB and show substantial predictive power. The implications of the findings for research on behaviours and goals are discussed. 1038 30 5 2000 "The present study investigated (a) the underlying dimensions of different measures related to identification , categorization, ingroup, bias and contact conditions, and (b) relations between two groups related to an important social controversy over time. Questionnaires were administered to veiled (minority) and unveiled (majority) Turkish female university students during the fall of 1996 and the spring of 1998. Results of factor analysis revealed three factors, namely: tolerance, including percieved outgroup, homogeneity, ingroup, bias, and individuation; identification including identification and percieved ingroup homogeneity; and contact conditions, including rating of pleasantness, frequency and feelings of anxiety. Comparison of groups over time revealed that although the minority group reported lower tolerance for outgroups than the majority the pattern was reversed in 1998. In addition, the majority reported greater negative contact contact conditions of contact in 1998 than in 1996. No time related differences were revealed for the minority with respect to reports of contact conditions. Results were discussed with respect to sensitivity of group relations to social context and to Social Identity Theory. " 1039 30 6 2000 "This article presents a critical review of Social Identify Theory. Its major contributions to the study of intel group relations are discussed, focusing on its powerful explanations of such phenomena as ingroup bias, responses of subordinate groups to their unequal status position, and intragroup homogeneity and stereotyping. In addition, its stimulative role for theoretical elaborations of the Contact Hypothesis as a strategy for improving intergroup attitudes is noted. Then five issues which have proved problematic for Social Identity Theory are identified the relationship between group identification and ingroup bias; the self esteem hypothesis; positive negative asymmetry in intergroup discrimination; the effects of intergroup similarity; and the choice of identity strategies by low status groups. In a third section a future research agenda for the theory is sketched out, with five lines of enquiry noted as being particularly promising: expanding the concept of social identity; predicting comparison choice in intergroup settings; incorporating affect into the theory; managing social identities in multicultural settings; and integrating implicit and explicit processes. The article concludes with some remarks on the potential applications of social identity principles. " 1040 30 6 2000 What makes negotiators satisfied with their outcomes? In this study, we examined whether interpersonal interdependence, in the context of multi party multi issue negotiation, affected negotiators §s satisfaction with their individual and group outcomes. We integrated principles from interdependence, social comparison, and social value theories to generate hypotheses about the social evaluative nature of satisfaction with negotiation outcomes. Controlling for differences in quality of individual outcomes, we found a positive association between satisfaction and individual outcome and a negative association between satisfaction and group outcome. Relative to those with prosocial social value orientation, negotiators with an individualistic social value orientation were less satisfied with the group outcome, regardless of induced motivational orientation. Neither motivational orientation nor an interaction between motivational orientation and social value orientation were related to satisfaction. We discuss the implications of our results for research on interdependence processes in negotiations and the role of social motives. 1041 30 6 2000 We extended existing research about self construal activation to the study of social comparisons, specifically to self other similarity ratings. Independent self knowledge substantiates the notion of dissimilarity, whereas interdependent self knowledge implies similarity with others. Therefore, perceived self other similarity was predicted to decrease after independent and increase after interdependent self knowledge priming. However, we expected such assimilation effects to occur only if the priming was subtle, but contrast effects if it was overt. In order to test this hypothesis, we developed a scrambled sentences test for priming the respective self knowledge. The unscrambled sentences described the self either in terms of independence or interdependence. The subtlety of this priming was manipulated by having participants write down either the full sentences (overt priming) or only the remaining word in each item (subtle priming). Results confirmed the predictions. Underlying cognitive processes of the effects are discussed. 1042 30 6 2000 "The present research examined the hypothesis derived from terror management theory that identifications with sports teams shield against the potential consequences of awareness of death. Experiment I demonstrated that Dutch participants who were reminded of their death expressed greater optimism about the results of the national soccer team compared to a control condition. Experiment 2 conceptually replicated this finding with American participants and college sports teams. In addition, Experiment 2 tested the hypothesis that success of a team is a prerequisite for sports fan affiliation to function as a buffer against death concerns. Before the college football season began; participants who were reminded about death expressed greater relative preference for a more salient, but less successful college football team over a national college champion basketball team compared to control participants. However, after the football team lost its first game of the season, participants who were reminded about death indicated gr eater relative preference for the successful basketball team. Results are discussed with regard to the psychological function of social identifications. " 1043 30 6 2000 Expectancy based illusory correlations have been observed in numerous experiments. Simulations using the connectionist computer model BIAS (Fiedler, 1996) show that such illusory correlations may not always reflect expectancy biases but influences of similarity via cue overlap. Cue overlap means that some of the probabilistic cues that indicate the presence of one variable are also indicative of another variable. In an experiment, participants learned two novel concepts pertaining to a fictitious painter and a fictitious artistic style in separate runs. Both concepts were defined by multiple probabilistic cues observable in paintings. For half the participants, the cue systems underlying the perception of the two concepts overlapped whereas for the other half they did not. In addition, we manipulated whether or not participants expected a positive contingency between artist and artistic style. In the second part of the experiment, a series of paintings was presented that constituted an objective zero correlation between artist and artistic style. Participants §s subsequent contingency judgments were assessed by direct and indirect measures. Data analyses revealed main effects for expectancy induction and cue overlap but no interaction on the direct measure and nearly identical results on the indirect measure. Thus, cue overlap and expectancy induction independently triggered the development of illusory correlations. 1044 30 6 2000 We tested the hypothesis that the activation of the motivational systems of approach or avoidance by body postures and taste influences residual attention during the process of encoding differentially valenced words. In Experiment I, participants were asked to stand upright or kneel while learning either positive or negative adjectives. To measure participants §s differential cognitive capacities, a dual task paradigm was used including a finger dexterity test as a secondary task. We were able to show that participants performed worse on the secondary task compared to a baseline assessed before if there was incompatibility between postures and the valence of the information. In Experiment 2, we replicated the results with bitter and sweet taste instead of bodily positions. It is our contention that the activation of approach or avoidance systems by bodily states prepares the organism for information of differential valence. 1045 30 6 2000 Previous work has shown that people often underestimate their task completion times (Buehler, Griffin, & Ross, 1994). The present research examined whether this optimistic bias may be reduced through the formation of implementation intentions. In an experimental study, participants were requested to complete an assignment within a specified time period. Half of these participants made implementation intentions about where and when they would complete the assignment. The remaining participants were simply given the goal of completing the assignment. The results showed that furnishing participants §s goals with implementation intentions led to (a) more optimistic completion predictions, (b) an even greater increase in actual rates of goal completion, and, consequently, (c) a significant reduction in optimistic bias in completion predictions. Furthermore, the reduction in optimistic bias among implementation intention participants was found to be mediated by a smaller number of interruptions while working on the assignment. Together, these findings attest to the importance of implementation planning in overcoming unrealistic optimism in task completion predictions. 1046 31 1 2001 A new task goal elicits a feeling of pride in individuals with a subjective history of success, and this achievement pride produces anticipatory goal reactions that energize and direct behaviour to approach the task goal. By distinguishing between promotion pride and prevention pride, the present paper extends this classic model of achievement motivation. Regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) distinguishes between a promotion focus on hopes and accomplishments (gains) and a prevention focus on safety and responsibilities (non losses). We propose that a subjective history of success with promotion related eagerness (promotion pride) orients individuals toward using eagerness means to approach a new task goal, whereas a subjective history of success with prevention related vigilance (prevention pride) orients individuals toward using vigilance means to approach a new task goal. Studies 1 3 tested this proposal by examining the relations between a new measure of participants §s subjective histories of promotion success and prevention success (the Regulatory Focus Questionnaire (RFQ)) and their achievement strategies in different tasks. Study 4 examined the relation between participants §s RFP responses and their reported frequency of feeling eager or vigilant in past task engagements. Study 5 used an experimental priming technique to make participants temporarily experience either a subjective history of promotion success or a subjective history of prevention success. For both chronic and situationally induced achievement pride, these studies found that when approaching task goals individuals with promotion pride use eagerness means whereas individuals with prevention pride use vigilance means. 1047 31 1 2001 "What if participants in a one trial prisoner §s dilemma know before making their decision that the other person has already defected? From the perspective of classic game theory: a dilemma no longer exists. It is clearly in their best interest to defect too. The empathy altruism hypothesis predicts, however that if they feel empathy for the other then a dilemma remains: self interest counsels defection; empathy induced altruism counsels not. This motivational conflict should lead at least some empathically aroused individuals not to defect. To rest this prediction. we placed 60 undergraduate women in a one trial prisoner §s dilemma in which they knew the other had already defected Among those not induced to feel empathy very few (0.05) did not defect in return. Among those induced to feel empathy for the other, almost half (0.45) did not defect. These results underscore the power of empathy induced altruism to affect responses in a prisoner §s dilemma. " 1048 31 1 2001 Anglo Americans and Mexican Americans were asked to list five of their traits and five of their group memberships. They were also asked to rank (relative to each other) and rate (on an absolute scale) the importance of these traits and groups. Consistent with the distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures, Mexican Americans ranked and rated their groups as being more important than did Anglo Americans. In addition, although participants from both cultural groups gave greatly decreased ratings for less important groups, this decrease was more pronounced for Anglo Americans than for Mexican Americans. Finally, the data indicated that the perceived importance of group memberships is only weakly related to their cognitive accessibility. 1049 31 1 2001 Two experiments explored the differential information processing that occurs when perceivers encounter multiple categorizable individuals. participants were required to recall specific information from previously encountered bogus newspaper stories. Across two experiments it emerged that participants differentially recalled target attributes as a function of positive versus negative story context and multiple dimensions of group membership. Specifically different dimensions of categorization were dominant for positive and negative evaluative domains. These findings provide an important qualification to the positive negative asymmetry effect in intergroup discrimination when multiple dimensions of categorization are available. In addition, comparison of the observed effects in different cultural settings suggests the need to consider contextual influences when considering intergroup phenomena with real social group memberships. Finally, in line with previous work, a dissociation was observed between explicit and implicit measures of intergroup bias. The findings are considered within the wider context of work into social categorization and intergroup relations. 1050 31 1 2001 Drawing from both social justice and deprivation research, we conceptualize expressions of sense of deprivation (equated with sense of injustice) as a three faceted structure defined by mode of experience, social reward, and social sphere of allocation. To empirically verify the fit between this conceptual structure and the actual configuration of people §s deprivation reactions, we use a research model of two modes of experience (cognition and emotion), three classes of rewards (instrumental, relational and symbolic), and two social spheres of allocation (school and society at large). A Similarity Space Analysis (SSA) of 17 measures (that represents this model with data collected among Israeli adolescents) reproduced the three dimensional structure of sense of deprivation, although not all hypothesized affinities and distances between measures were empirically reconstructed. 1051 31 1 2001 This study considered whether participants §s tendency to conform to a group norm could be influenced by priming them with categories associated with either conformity or anarchy. Participants were primed with one of two categories: accountant prime , punk prime (plus a baseline no prime ). They then participated in a variant of the Asch (1951) conformity paradigm. Results indicated that punk primed participants conformed significantly less than did accountant primed participants, with the mean for the no prime condition lying in between the two. Accountant primed participants conformed to the group norm more than did the no prime participants. In addition, the performance of punk primed participants was comparable to that of participants who performed the judgment task in isolation ( solo condition). This indicates that conformity pressures did not affect estimates for punk primed participants. Implications of these findings are discussed. 1052 31 1 2001 The present research examined the influence of trust, accountability: and self monitoring on individual decision makers §s willingness to contribute in a give some game and in an experimental public goods dilemma. Previous research has shown that trust and contributions are positively related such that high trusters generally contribute move than low trusters. The present research questions the pervasiveness of this relation by arguing that low trusters may increase their contributions to the same level as those of high trusters, but only under circumstances where their decisions are highly identifiable to their interaction partner(s). Both studies showed that strong perceptions of trust, high accountability and high self monitoring influenced contributions positively in line with predictions, individuals low in trust contributed up to the same level as high trusters when accountability was high rather than loin Moreover, this interaction between trust and accountability was only: found among those classified as high self monitors. Our results suggest that the well known positive relation between trust and contributions may take a different form when situational cues and individual predispositions are taken into account. 1053 31 2 2001 "This research investigated a situation where a fictitious company distributed contaminated meat that led to serious food poisoning. Participants (N= 241) responded to scenarios that varied information about knowledge of risk (aware, unaware) and freedom of action (free to act, constrained by higher authority). They provided judgments concerning compliance, foreseeability, negligence, recklessness, seriousness of offense, responsibility, deservingness, angel; sympathy, harshness/leniency of penalty, compensation, jail sentence, and community service. They also completed Altemeyer §s Right Wing Authoritarianism Scale. Results implied that high authoritarians were less sensitive and less responsive to information about the risk of contamination and more sensitive and more responsive to information about constraints from the higher authority when compared with low authoritarians. These interaction effects involving authoritarianism and the two contextual variables occurred for judgments that related to the organizations and to the executive officers within them. These differences in the reactions of high and low authoritarians to the contextual cues were interpreted as reflecting the effects of value differences and possible differences in the way information was subsequently processed. " 1054 31 2 2001 "Two studies provide support for the group justification approach to stereotyping (Tajfel, 1981; Huici, 1984). This approach contends that stereotypes not only serve cognitive functions for individuals but also provide a means of justifying prior intergroup discrimination. Study I investigated whether the content of the Scottish ingroup stereotype changes due to the prior expression of intergroup discrimination. Scottish students were primed with either a differentiation or a fairness §s ingroup norm and completed two intergroup judgement tasks. Other Scottish students were primed only with a differentiation ingroup norm, while a control group received no prime or judgement tasks. Only participants who experienced the differentiation ingroup norm prime and the intergroup judgement tasks changed the content of their ingroup stereotype as an attempt to justify their discriminatory behaviour. Study 2 examined whether Scottish students would use both positive ingroup and negative outgroup stereotypes to rationalize intergroup discrimination. Students who experienced a differentiation ingroup norm prime and intergroup judgement tasks showed the highest level of superior recall for positive ingroup and negative outgroup stereotype consistent words compared to stereotype neutral words. This finding suggests that the expression of intergroup discrimination activates the use of both positive ingroup and negative outgroup stereotypes. Together the findings of these two studies provide empirical support for the notion that stereotypes serve social as well as cognitive functions. " 1055 31 2 2001 "Contrary to most other research conducted in the minimal group paradigm tradition, Bornstein, Crum, Wittenbraker; Harring, Insko and Thibaut (1983a) found little evidence of ingroup favouritism when they employed a revised measurement system (i.e. the Multiple Alternative Matrices; MAMs). The current experiment examined whether Bornstein et al. §s effects could be attributed so norms that prohibit intergroup discrimination, which are made salient by framing the outcome values in the intergroup allocation task as monetary payment. We manipulated the salience of prohibitive norms by varying whether participants allocated on the MAMs monetary payment, bonus money or feelings. participants more strongly associated having to be fair and equal with payment than with bonus or feelings and category members made fewer allocations that maximized the ingroup §s relative and absolute profit and more allocations that minimized intergroup differences when allocating monetary payment than when allocating bonus money or feelings. " 1056 31 2 2001 "The statistical law of large numbers prescribes that estimates are more reliable and accurate when based on a larger sample of observations. This effect of sample size was investigated on causal attributions. Subjects received fixed levels of consensus and distinctiveness covariation, and attributions were measured after a varying number of trials. Whereas prominent statistical models of causality (e.g. Cheng & Novick, 1990; Forsterling, 1992) predict no effect of sample size, adaptive connectionist models (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1988) predict that subjects will incrementally adjust causal ratings in the direction of the true covariation the more observations are made. In three experiments, sample size effects were found consistent with the connectionist prediction. Possible extensions of statistical models were considered and simulated but none of them accommodated the data as well as connectionist models. " 1057 31 2 2001 Three studies examined the notion that computer mediated communication (CMC) cart be characterised by high levels of self disclosure. In Study One, significantly higher levels of spontaneous self disclosure were found in computer mediated compared to face to face discussions. Study Two examined the role of visual anonymity in encouraging self disclosure during CMC. Visually anonymous participants disclosed significantly more information about themselves than non visually anonymous participants. In Study Three, private and public self awareness were independently manipulated, using video conferencing cameras and accountability cues, to create a 2 x 2 design (public self awareness (high and low) x private self awareness (high and low). It was found that heightened private self awareness, when combined with reduced public self awareness, was associated with significantly higher levels of spontaneous self disclosure during computer mediated communication 1058 31 2 2001 "Within the crossed categorization paradigm we examined the consequences of cooperative and personalized contact under conditions that promoted attention to unique attributes of team members (decategorization) versus conditions that emphasized their category memberships. As predicted, when the rule for composing teams emphasized one or both of the experimentally induced dimensions of category distinction, ethnocentric bias generalized to members of another team as a function of category similarity. When, instead, the rule emphasized team members §s unique attributes, shared ingroup memberships no longer moderated bias towards members of another team Instead, there was an equivalence pattern in the evaluative ratings of the four targets (ingroup/ingroup; ingroup/outgroup; outgroup/ingroup; outgroup/outgroup) of the crossed categorization paradigm. " 1059 31 3 2001 In studies on the Outgroup Homogeneity Effect (OHE), a common measure is percentage estimates. A possible difficulty is that percentage estimates are also sensitive to the False Consensus Effect (FCE). I present an experiment aimed at analysing how these two phenomena interact. Engineering and business students indicated whether behaviour descriptions were true or false for themselves, then estimated the percentages of members of each group who would self ascribe the same items. In order to bring the OHE to light while controlling for self ascription, an item per item analysis is necessary In such an anal?:sis, the OHE must appear as over attribution of any item by members of the group for which the item is not typical. I examined whether this effect appeared among subjects, oho either did or did not ascribe each item to themselves. This was done through an ANOVA where items were entered as the random factor The False Consensus and the Outgroup Homogeneity effects both showed up in this analysis, bur they, interacted with each other in such a way that they could be different aspects of the same phenomenon. The consequences of this unexpected finding for the definition of the OHE are discussed. 1060 31 3 2001 An archival analysis was conducted on the ethnophaulisms for ethnic immigrant groups us a function of the size and the familiarity of those groups. Cognitive representation was operationalized as the degree of complexity in, and the valence of the ethnophaulisms applied to ethnic immigrant groups in the United States during each of 15 consecutive 10 year time periods. Group size was operationalized as the number of first generation persons in these ethnic groups during each of these same 15 10 year rime periods. Familiarity was operationalized in terms of the number of rimes each ethnic immigrant group was mentioned in social histories and popular songs for each of these same 15 10 year rime periods. Ethnophaulisms for smaller groups tended to be less complex and more negative and ethnophaulisms for less familiar groups fended to be less complex and more negative. Analyses delineate the interrelations between ethnic immigrant group size, ethnic immigrant group familiarity, and the cognitive representations of these groups. The implications of these results for research on intergroup perceptions are discussed. 1061 31 3 2001 "Three studies assessed the influence of differential perspective taking on counterfactual thinking. In Study I male and female subjects were asked to play the role of respectively, perpetrator and victim in a rape case, and to give their own account of the event. Analysis of spontaneous counterfactuals showed a main tendency to focus on actions more than inactions and on controllable more than uncontrollable elements. However this tendency was moderated by the subject §s role and the counterfactual target. While victims focused on perpetrators §s controllable actions more than on their own. perpetrators did not focus on victims §s controllable actions more than on their own; they focused on victims §s controllable inactions instead. In Study 2, where males and females were asked to reverse their roles, and where prompted as well as spontaneous counterfactuals were analysed, the same results were found. Further evidence for generality of these results, was found in Study 3, where an assault case instead of a rape case was taken into account. These findings support the view; that counterfactual mutability map be influenced by role based motivations, as well as by role based expectations regarding how active a party is supposed to have been in an event. " 1062 31 3 2001 This study examines the effect of a major event (terrorist attacks) on the stereotypic perceptions, attitudes and affects of 119 Israeli adolescents (56 males and 63 females of 5th and 8th grades) toward three target groups: (ai Palestinians, who still have conflictive relations with the Israelis (Palestinian extremists carried out the attacks), (b) Jordanians, who have peaceful relations with the Israelis and (C) Arabs, in general, who are considered a subcategory including Arabs of all nations. The questionnaires were administered to the same adolescents three times. during a relatively peaceful spell in Israeli Palestinian relations: one day following two terrorist attacks, and three months thereafter In the last administration adolescents §s need for closure was also measured. Adolescents §s perceptions, attitudes and affect toward the three target group were differentiated relating to Palestinians most negatively and to Jordanians most positively Also, following the terrorist attacks, stereotypic perceptions and attitudes changed in a negative direction, in relation to all the three groups: again with expressed differentiation among the three groups. In the third measurement, some measures remained negative, but some changed to be more positive. Only few effects of age were detected and several significant correlation with need for closure were found. These results indicate that stereotypes and attitudes toward outgroups are context dependent, influenced by events: thus they serve as a seismograph to the quality of intergroup relations at any given time. 1063 31 3 2001 "Although it has become common to suggest a conceptual distinction between traditional and contemporary forms of prejudice, Pettigrew and Meertens have actually attempted to distinguish the two empirically and developed measures to gauge each. Replication of their study: on the distinction between blatant and subtle prejudice, discloses a number of methodological flaws that have led to debatable substantial conclusions. We found two distinct measures, however substantially different from the ones proposed by Pettigrew and Meertens. Our model shows, by all available indices, a better fit to the data: a first broad factor labelled general prejudice. and a small second factor labelled perceived cultural differences. The first factor is well explained by a number of social characteristics; the second is rather poorly explained and has a rather poor discriminatory power. The first one has strong effects on some consequential variables whereas the second has hardly any effects. Other evidence, considered to be crucial by Pettigrew and Meertens, contains other methodological flaws, i.e. the neglect of interdependent items. After this correction. their piece of evidence turns out to be artificial. As a benefit to future research, we try to clarify conditions for distinguishing empirically and conceptually between traditional and contemporary prejudice. " 1064 31 3 2001 With no theory and the use of different methods and assumptions, Coenders and his colleagues not surprisingly produce a different analysis of prejudice from ours of 1995. But we see no reason to withdraw our claims for both the concept and measurement of subtle prejudice. By obscuring our theoretical structure and offering none of their own, our critics follow their empirical preferences to reach a meaningless solution, In doing so, they disregard the social psychological literature on prejudice especially that of Rokeach and Tajfel. Moreover their reanalysis of the 1988 Eurobarometer survey data does not replicate our analysis in important ways. We answer their objections to our use of orthogonal varimax rotation and our demonstrations of the predictive value of the Subtle Prejudice Scale, and we show that when tested appropriately our theoretically derived model performs as well as and often significantly better than their atheoretical model. We also find the six conditions set down by Coenders et al. for differentiating the two forms of prejudice are largely met by our analysis. Finally, repeated replications by other investigators in ten countries with diverse outgroups and new samples support both our original analysis and the usefulness of our Blatant and Subtle Prejudice Scales. 1065 31 3 2001 "We hypothesized that the consequences of upward social comparisons are mediated by independent versus interdependent content of self construals. independent self construals emphasize personal uniqueness; thus comparison to an outstanding other should undermine one §s sense of uniqueness and lower current self evaluations. Conversely, interdependent self construals focus on interpersonal connectedness. Hence, interdependent individuals should be able to bask in the reflected success of a personally; relevant other in an upward comparison task, thus increasing self evaluations. In a study involving 66 US undergraduates the latter predictions were supported. The psychological dimension of interdependence predicted differential outcomes of upward social comparisons, bur this was not the case for the dimension of independence. Also, differential consequences of social comparison were more pronounced for current self evaluations than for participants §s possible selves. " 1066 31 4 2001 "Individuals advancing the status quo in partisan conflict are more favourably evaluated compared to individuals advocating change (Keltner & Robinson, 1997). We explore two aspects of this intergroup bias:first, a target effect whereby groups who aim to change the status quo are judged more negatively than those favouring its preservation; and second, an observer effect whereby those favouring the status quo define the conflict in terms of the status quo versus change to a greater extent than those advancing change. We sought to extend our understanding of these partisan effects via a minimal group induction of partisanship in the laboratory. In our study,, participants viewed a negotiation between two group representatives, where half of the groups either defended the status quo or advocated change. As predicted, partisan observers: (a)favoured the negotiator advancing the status quo (consistent with the target effect), (b) were more likely, to attribute actions to the negotiators as stemming from their status quo versus change preference when they themselves were aligned with the status quo rather than change (consistent with the observer effect), and (c) when aligned with the status quo, expected a more effortful conflict than those seeking change (consistent with the observer effect). It is suggested that these biased perceptions are basic to intergroup, partisan processes involving change. " 1067 31 4 2001 In a study among sociotherapists, the affective consequences of social comparison were examined and related to professional burnout and to individual differences in social comparison orientation. Participants were confronted with a bogus interview with an upward versus a downward comparison target. Upward comparison generated more positive and less negative affect than did downward comparison. Increasing levels of burnout were accompanied by, less positive affect in response to upward comparison. Moreover the higher the level of burnout, the more negative affect a description of a downward comparison target evoked, but only, among individuals high in social comparison orientation. Finally,, the higher the level of burnout, the higher the identification with the downward target, and the lower the identification with the upward target. However this last effect did occur only, among those low in social comparison orientation. Those high in social comparison orientation kept identifying with the upward target, even when they, were high in burnout. 1068 31 4 2001 It was hypothesized that participants who strongly, identify with the ingroup and receive unfavourable feedback about their group in one domain would compensate on alternative dimensions. A group of emergency medical service volunteers received negative, positive or no feedback on their volunteer organization and were asked to rate the ingroup and an outgroup on dimensions alternative to the feedback. As predicted, high identifiers showed an increase in ingroup favouritism after negative feedback (i.e. compensation) and a decrease after positive feedback (i.e. modesty effect). In contrast, low identifiers distanced themselves from the ingroup after negative feedback and accentuated self ingroup similarity, after positive feedback. Results are discussed in relation to a schema maintenance model through compensation (Seta & Seta, 1993) and social identity theory. 1069 31 4 2001 The extent to which group members contribute effort efficiently, i.e. to the extent that their efforts add to the group product, or equally to their fellow worker is investigated as a function of group members §s expectations about future interdependence. An experimental set tip was employed in which (1) participants were able to determine what would be an efficient and what would be tin equal amount of effort to exert, and (2) in which efficiency and equality required different levels of effort: Participants worked on a physical motor production task and expected to work with a partner twice (continued interdependence) or only on the first task (no continued interdependence). Before working on the first task, they, received information about their relative task ability, (high versus low) and information about their partner §s effort expenditure (high versus low). It is argued and demonstrated that group members expecting continued interdependence are likely, to equal their fellow worker §s effort expenditure, whereas group members expecting no continued interdependence are likely, to exert effort efficiently. The results are discussed from various theoretical perspectives. 1070 31 4 2001 Despite the continuing interest in social transitions among social scientists, there has been little analysis of the impact of societal change on personal relationships. One important factor in helping individuals deal with the stresses associated with rapid transitions is social support. In our first study, 450 manual workers, students and entrepreneurs in Russia, Georgia and Hungary, completed structured questionnaires assessing demographic and value predictors of the perception of support availability and the support they obtained to deal with changes in their societies. In our second study, the same respondents participated in semi structured interviews investigating the relationship between their work lives and support networks. Our findings demonstrate the importance of culture, occupation and values for both the perception and reception of support, and underline the multifaceted manner in which different work experiences in different nations influence support networks. 1071 31 4 2001 According to the psychological essentialism perspective, people tend to explain differences between groups by attributing them different essences. Given a pervasive ethnocentrism, this tendency implies that the human essence will be restricted to the ingroup whereas outgroups will receive a lesser degree of humanity. Therefore, it is argued that people attribute more uniquely human characteristics to the ingroup than to the outgroup. The present article focuses on secondary emotions that constitute such characteristics. Study 1 showed that members of high and low status groups attribute more positive secondary emotions to the ingroup than to the outgroup. Study 2 verified that the differential attribution extended also to negative secondary emotions. No exemplars of emotions were provided in Study, 3. Instead, participants had to estimate the means of two distributions of numbers that supposedly, represented characteristics of the ingroup and of the outgroup. The results of this third experiment illustrated the reluctance to attribute secondary emotions to the outgroup. The findings are discussed from the perspective of psychological essentialism. 1072 31 4 2001 We hypothesised that people would strategically alter their perceived intragroup variability on ingroup threatening traits in order to maintain positive perceptions of their self and their ingroup. Specifically, we predicted that people would perceive (1) greater relative outgroup homogeneity and (2) greater general intragroup variability on ingroup negative and outgroup positive traits. We confirmed the outgroup homogeneity prediction in a minimal group experiment (N = 80) and a gender group experiment (N = 164). In a second gender group experiment (N = 137), we found that ingroup size moderated this effect: only minority group members showed the predicted pattern of outgroup homogeneity. Evidence for the general intragroup variability prediction was less conclusive. We discuss the results in terms of variability, strategies. 1073 31 4 2001 Recent research suggests that judgmental anchoring is mediated by a selective increase in the accessibility of knowledge about the judgmental target. Anchoring thus constitutes one instance of the judgmental effects of increased knowledge accessibility. Such knowledge accessibility effects have repeatedly been demonstrated to be fairly durable, which suggests that the effects of judgmental anchoring may also persist over time. Consistent with this assumption, three experiments demonstrate that judgmental anchors influence judgment even if they were present one week before the critical judgment is made. In fact, the magnitude of anchoring was found to remain undiminished over this period of time. 1074 31 4 2001 This study investigates how stereotypes are formed and whether stereotype formation is reduced by the prevalence of multiple categorizations. Illusory correlations between the desirability of behaviours and two dimensions of social categorization, both containing a majority, and a minority category, were assessed in single categorization and crossed categorization conditions. In the single categorization conditions, the usual illusory, correlation in favour of the majority, category was obtained. In the crossed condition, the combination of the two majority, categories was positively, discriminated from the remaining three combinations, while no differences were found among the latter A source monitoring analysis of assignment frequencies replicated earlier findings that illusory, correlations are due to an evaluative guessing bias, rather than to enhanced memory, for individual instances of behaviour The results show inconsistencies with a distinctiveness based and a social categorization account of illusory correlations, but they, can be explained in terms of information loss. 1075 31 5 2001 "This article notices that social comparison theory has developed from being a focused theoretical statement on the use of others for self evaluation into a lively and varied area of research encompassing many different paradigms, approaches and applications. A recent renaissance in social comparison theory is described in which links were established with social comparison work from before Festinger §s (1954) classic paper and in which various new methods and theoretical models were developed. More recently, an enlightment of social comparison theory seems to occur in which an integrative effort is made to link social comparison processes to more general principles that underlie our Psychological functioning. Four trends in this enlightment are described: (1) the movement of social cognition to the centre stage of social comparison research; (2) the interest in more biological perspectives, including evolutionary theory; (3) the focus on the role of individual differences such as social comparison orientation (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999) in moderating the responses to social comparison; and (4) an emphasis on the social context of social comparisons, in particular the influence of social groups and social identity. " 1076 31 5 2001 We examined cardiovascular responses indicating challenge and threat during social comparisons. Experiment I manipulated comparison direction (i.e. upward/downward) within a cooperative social interaction, during which we measured cardiovascular responses, evaluations of demands and resources, and self reports. Participants interacting with upward comparison partners evaluated the task as more threatening (demands relative to resources) than participants cooperating with downward comparison partners. Moreover, participants cooperating with upward comparison partners exhibited cardiovascular reactivity consistent with threat (i.e. increased ventricle contractility, no changes in cardiac output, and vasoconstriction). In contrast, participants interacting with downward comparison partners exhibited challenge responses (i.e. increased contractility, increased cardiac output, and vasodilation). This basic finding was extended in Experiment 2 with the examination of a classic moderator of social comparison, attitudinal similarity, of the comparison partner Participants paired with attitudinally dissimilar partners exhibited exacerbated reactions relative to participants paired with attitudinally similar partners. That is, relative to similar partners, dissimilar partners engendered greater threat responses during upward comparisons and a tendency toward greater challenge responses during downward comparisons. These results are discussed within an assimilative/contrast model of social comparisons. 1077 31 5 2001 Based on a Selective Accessibility (SA) model of comparison consequences, it is suggested that the self evaluative effects of social comparisons depend on the nature of the hypothesis that is tested as a starting point of the comparison process. If judges test the hypothesis that they are similar to the standard, then standard consistent self knowledge is rendered accessible so that self evaluations are assimilated towards the standard. If judges test the hypothesis that they are dissimilar from the standard, however standard inconsistent self knowledge is made accessible so that self evaluations are contrasted away from the standard. These predictions are tested by, inducing participants to test for similarity versus dissimilarity to the standard via a procedural priming manipulation. Consistent with the SA model, assimilation occurs if participants are procedurally primed to focus on similarities to the standard, whereas contrast results if they, are primed to focus on dissimilarities. These findings suggest that similarity versus dissimilarity testing is a crucial determinant of assimilation versus contrast. It is proposed that distinguishing between these two alternative hypotheses may, provide an integrative framework for an understanding of the self evaluative consequences of social comparisons. 1078 31 5 2001 "Two laboratory studies explored how self rated unhappy and happy students balance hedonically conflicting social comparison information, and tested whether unhappy students would be relatively more sensitive to hedonically consistent unfavourable information. In both studies, students working in teams of four competed against one other team on a novel verbal task. First, unhappy participants showed relatively greater sensitivity to undiluted unfavourable feedback aboutgroup standing (e.g. your team lost ; Study 1) and aboutgroup and individual standing (e.g. your team lost and you were placed last; Study 2). Second, unhappy students were more reactive than happy students to individual social comparison information in the context of relative group feedback. In Study 1, the moods and self assessments of unhappy individuals (but not happy ones) after news of team defeat appeared to be buffered by the additional news of personal triumph. In Study 2, unhappy students showed relatively larger decreases in mood and ability assessments after unfavourable than after favourable individual feedback (i.e. ranking last versus first), regardless of whether they, additionally learned that their teams had won or lost. The role of students §s attributions and perceptions of their personal contribution was also explored. Implications of these findings for the links among social comparison, cognitive processes, and hedonic consequences are discussed. " 1079 31 5 2001 A total of 122 individuals, including those clinically, depressed and nondepressed, were exposed to a description of a target who overcame his or her depression either through active coping (high effort), or seemingly by itself (low effort). Participants first completed the Beck Depression Inventory and the Iowa Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure. As predicted, among the nondepressed, with increasing levels of social comparison orientation, a high effort target evoked a relatively more positive mood change, and a low effort target a relatively more negative one. In contrast, among the depressed, with increasing levels of social comparison orientation, a low effort target evoked a relatively more positive mood change, and a high effort target a relatively more negative one. The implications are that exposure to active role models may worsen a depression, and that social comparison orientation may have clinical implications. 1080 31 5 2001 "The purpose of the present experiment was to demonstrate how the classical similarity hypothesis (Byrne, 1971; Festinger 1954) can be moderated by an individual difference variable called social comparison orientation (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999). This variable distinguishes people who exhibit different degrees of uncertainty about reality and self knowledge. Based on prior studies on ability and opinion comparisons, we predicted that attitudinal similarity would not affect interpersonal attraction in high comparison orientation individuals. Because of uncertainty and confusion about their self knowledge, these people should be attracted to both similar and dissimilar others. In contrast, we expected an effect of attitude similarity in low comparison orientation individuals because they, do not exhibit this type of uncertainty. They should be only attracted to similar others who agree with them. The results confirmed this prediction and suggested some directions for future studies. " 1081 31 5 2001 Blanton and colleagues (1999) found that children who nominated a comparison target in several courses chose same sex students who slightly outperformed them in class. This had a beneficial effect on children §s course grades, which were also independently predicted by comparative evaluation (i.e. how the children evaluated their relative standing in class). These phenomena were examined at two time periods with a more detailed record of comparison choices while including several psychological moderators (i.e. closeness to and identification with the comparison targets, perceived academic control, importance of academic domains). The present findings (1) replicate those found earlier by Blanton and colleagues, (2) offer evidence that children compare upward with close friends with whom they identify as a means of self improvement, (3) show that this identification is more likely to occur when children perceive control over their standing relative to the comparison target, and (4) suggest that the effects of comparison level choice (i.e. the level typical of the persons with whom one chooses to compare) diminish over time. 1082 31 5 2001 This paper investigates social comparisons in people with schizophrenia. Stigma theories often suggest that people with stigmatized conditions face a chronic threat to self esteem and that they respond to this in a variety of ways, one of which is by using ingroup downward comparisons. We analysed the spontaneous social comparisons used by, participants in semi structured interviews. A wide range of comparison dimensions, target others, and groupings were used, most of which did not represent a category of people with schizophrenia in more negative terms than those without the illness. Participants presented themselves positively, referring to downward and lateral comparisons more often than upward comparisons. In addition, although downward comparisons did refer to people with schizophrenia, they were more likely to refer to others who did not have schizophrenia, and to dimensions which were not related to mental illness. It is suggested that investigations of the relations between stigma and self need to take account of the multiple identities and dimensions of comparisons available to people for construing themselves and the social context. 1083 31 5 2001 Outperforming others can be satisfying, in part because it allows us to make self enhancing social comparisons against those we have surpassed. However competitive success can clash with relational goals, leading outperformers to experience discomfort when they believe that their superior status poses a threat to the outperformed person (Exline & Lobel, 1999). Two studies revealed that relationship factors play a critical role in responses to superior status. Relationship rifts and avoidance were common in conflictual or hostile relationships, whereas empathic concerns and appeasement predominated in closer more satisfying relationships. Negative responses to superior status were largely, independent of private feelings of pride and happiness. These data complement existing social comparison research by suggesting that outperformance, while privately satisfying, can cause problems when it poses an interpersonal threat. Furthermore, relationship factors appear to be important determinants of the specific emotional and behavioural responses of outperformers. 1084 31 6 2001 Previous research obtained inconsistent findings as to whether implicit and explicit measures of prejudice are related. According to our view, some of these inconsistencies are due to whether implicit measures assess exclusively the strength of association between the social category and the evaluation or the activation of the social category in addition. Derived from recent theorizing we suggest that it is especially associative strength between the social category and its evaluation that determines the endorsement of prejudice assessed in explicit measures. To test this assumption we used the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to assess the associative strength of German students §s prejudice towards Turkish people and the Blatant and Subtle Prejudice Scale (BS scale) as an explicit measure of prejudice. We obtained evidence for prejudice at a relative level in that the category of Turks was more closely associated with a negative evaluation and the category of Germans more closely associated with a positive evaluation. In line with our assumptions the implicit measure was correlated with the explicit measure in that the stronger the representation of Turks was associated with a negative evaluation the more prejudiced individuals responded in the explicit prejudice measure. Using a trait assignment technique, we found that neither associative strength nor the endorsement of the prejudice in the explicit measure were related to the contents of the stereotype. 1085 31 6 2001 The present research examines the relation between perceived intergroup distinctiveness and positive intergroup differentiation. It was hypothesised that the distinctiveness differentiation relation is a function of group identification. In two studies group distinctiveness was varied and level of identification was either measured (Study 1) or manipulated (Study 2). Results support the prediction that low group distinctiveness leads to more positive differentiation for high identifiers, although we found less support for the prediction that increased group distinctiveness leads to enhanced positive differentiation for low identifiers. The difference in emphasis between social identity theory and self categorisation theory concerning the distinctiveness differentiation relation is discussed and the importance of group identification as a critical factor of this relationship is stressed. 1086 31 6 2001 Research examining the relationship between the allocentrism ideocentrism cultural variable and cooperation in social dilemmas is inconsistent. This relationship is considered in the context of social values within the prisoner §s dilemma (PDG) in two studies. We hypothesised that allocentrics (relative to ideocentrics) would more likely express the social value of minimising differences rather than maximising joint outcomes. In Study 1 the hypothesis was supported. Study 2, including British and Malaysian respondents, replicated and extended these results to rankings of PDG outcomes. These findings are integrated with previous research, in particular to explain mixed results concerning allocentrism and cooperation. 1087 31 6 2001 Pity is viewed as a function of two classes of perceived stimulus features and their interaction: the extent to which a person (when still healthy and nonsuffering) is perceived as vulnerable to physical harm, and the perceived intensity of his or her current suffering. Consistent with this view, Experiment I (N = 141) showed that participants §s pity reactions to photographs of persons expressing pain were influenced by age related, sex related, and postural vulnerability cues. Experiment 2 (N = 258) manipulated both target §s vulnerability by varying the muscularity of the same adult male stimulus and the intensity of suffering. As predicted, an interaction of vulnerability and suffering was found. Implications for the study of helping behaviour are discussed. 1088 31 6 2001 The results of an experiment supported the hypotheses that (1) for men high in hostile sexism, exposure to sexist humour creates a perceived social norm of tolerance of sexism relative to exposure to nonhumorous sexist communication or neutral humour, and (2) due to this relaxed normative standard in the context of sexist humour, men high in hostile sexism anticipated feeling less self directed negative affect upon imagining that they had behaved in a sexist manner. Finally, exposure to sexist humour did not affect the evaluative content of men §s stereotypes of women relative to exposure to neutral humour or nonhumorous sexist communication for participants high or low in hostile sexism. 1089 31 6 2001 "Two hundred and thirty four persons were surveyed to assess personality aspects (action versus state orientation, need for cognition, faith in intuition) and emotional aspects of their attitudes towards the NATO military intervention in the Kosovo war in the spring of 1999. Additionally, in an imagined scenario they were asked to decide whether they would sign a petition addressed to the German government protesting against military intervention. Three ways of dealing with this decision were differentiated: (1) decisive action, (2) avoiding the decision conflict, and (3) elaborating the decision problem with the goal of building up feelings to guide action (amplification). Correlations between the variables were evaluated using path analysis in order to predict the decision strategy from personality dimensions and attitude variables (ambivalence, involvement). High action orientation caused low attitude ambivalence and high personal involvement in the topic. Strong ambivalence prevented swift action and supported a tendency towards elaboration and amplification of feelings. Involvement had a favourable effect on action readiness and a negative effect on conflict avoiding strategies. Moreover; it moderated the effects of ambivalence on the preference for conflict management strategies. The results confirm theoretical approaches that stress the importance of affect for acting and deciding. " 1090 31 6 2001 Given the relationship between uniformity of views, premature adoption of a preferred solution and poor decision making, many suggestions have been aimed at fostering dissent, including the usage of a devil §s advocate. The hope is that such a mechanism will stimulate the kinds of reconsideration, better information processing and decision making as has been found to be stimulated by authentic dissent. In a prior study comparing these two processes, devil §s advocate appeared to foster thinking that was primarily aimed at cognitive bolstering of the initial viewpoint rather than stimulate divergent thought. While that study left the actual position of the DA unknown, the present study compared conditions where the devil §s advocate position was known (and consistent or inconsistent with the assigned position) or unknown. It further utilized quantity and quality of solutions as a dependent measure rather than simply cognitive activity. Results indicated that the authentic minority was superior to all three forms of devil §s advocate, again underscoring the value and importance of authenticity and the difficulty in cloning such authenticity by role playing techniques. 1091 31 6 2001 Crossed categorization typically refers to the crossing of two dichotomous social dimensions, resulting in four groups (double ingroup, two mixed groups, and double outgroup). This paper reports the results of a meta analysis comparing the effects of crossed categorization on intergroup evaluations with the effects of simple categorization on intergroup evaluations. The crossed categorization paradigm is shown to increase or decrease ingroup bias, depending on how ingroup bias is defined in the crossed categorization paradigm. Moreover, just as in simple categorization, ingroup bias in crossed categorization is shown to be greater when the proportionate size of the ingroup is smaller. However, contrary to the patterns established in simple categorization, the reality of the group categorizations does not increase ingroup bias in crossed categorization. We discuss the implications of these results for future research on intergroup evaluations. 1092 31 6 2001 A quasi experimental field study was conducted in order to test the generalizability of emotional response categorization (Niedenthal, Halberstadt, & Innes Ker, 1999) to naturally induced emotions and to new stimuli in a different language (i.e. French). Individuals were recruited at two weddings to perform a triad task, which assesses the use of semantic and emotional relations in categorization. A manipulation check demonstrated that invitees were feeling intense happiness. Control participants, who reported feeling rather neutral, were recruited from among individuals walking down the street on an average day. Results replicated Niedenthal et al. §s (1999) original finding such that participants who were feeling strong emotion (happiness) used emotional equivalence to a significantly greater degree than did participants in a neutral state. 1093 32 1 2002 This paper focuses on methodological aspects of group polarization research and has two well defined parts. The first part presents a methodological overview of group polarization research together with an examination of the inadequacy, under certain circumstances, of the traditional parametric approach usually used to test this phenomenon based on pre test/post test means comparison across groups. It is shown that this approach will produce masks effects when groups are heterogeneous with regard to the observed change from pre test to post test. The second part suggests an alternative methodological approach based on logit models for the analysis of contingency tables from a categorization of the variable kind of shift . This approach is illustrated and compared with the parametric approach with a simulated data set. 1094 32 1 2002 Previous research ingroup decision making has found that in situations of a hidden profile (i.e. the best choice alternative is hidden from individual members as they consider their pre discussion information), unshared information is disproportionately neglected and sub optimal group choices are highly, likely. In an experimental study, three person groups decided which of three candidates to select for a professorial appointment. We hypothesised that minority, dissent in pre discussion preferences improves the consideration of unshared information ingroups and increases the discovery rate of hidden profiles. As predicted, consideration of unshared information increased with minority, dissent. The expectation of an improvement of group decision quality was partially, supported. In diversity, groups (i.e. each member prefers a different alternative) consideration of unshared information and group decision quality, was significantly, higher than in simple minority, groups. Results are discussed in the light of theories of minority influence. The benefits of using the hidden profile paradigm with minority, and diversity, groups for theory development in the area of group decision making are highlighted. 1095 32 1 2002 This paper focuses on the psychology of the voice effect (the effect that people show more positive reactions when they are allowed an opportunity to voice their opinion in the decision making process than when they are denied such an opportunity), It is argued that it is important to ask about what decisions people tire allowed voice. More specifically, results of two experiments suggest that when participation in decision making is appropriate (i.e. voice is allowed about decisions that are relatively, important to participants) the voice effect is found: People §s procedural judgements and other reactions are more positive following voice as opposed to no voice procedures. However when participation in decision making is inappropriate (i.e. voice is allowed about decisions that are unimportant to participants) no effect or even a reversal of the voice effect is found. These people do not react differently or even react more negatively following voice as opposed to no voice procedures. It is concluded that these results further our insights into the Psychology of procedural, justice in general and voice in particular 1096 32 1 2002 People are likely to evaluate their group §s standing on an ability dimension by comparing the Performance level of their own group with that of an outgroup. However in addition to contrasting performance outcomes, they may also compare the specific circumstances under which both groups have performed. From a related attributes perspective, we argue that the outcome of such a comparison is a crucial determinant of the extent to which the relative success or failure of one §s group can be ascribed to its superior or inferior ability respectively, and hence of the degree to which the relative position of one §s group on the performance dimension in question can be perceived as legitimate and stable (i.e. as justified and unlikely to change). Accordingly, the present research shows that information concerning performance related circumstances has an impact on a wide range of reactions to the relative performance of one §s group, varying from the experience of positive and negative affect, to motivational responses such as changes in collective efficacy beliefs for performance improvement, individual effort on behalf of the ingroup, and the tendency to hinder the future performance of an outgroup. 1097 32 1 2002 "Founded upon the theories of Independent Interdependent Self Construal and I C, the main goal of this study was to test, via air adapted IOS Scale, whether Anglo Canadians were more independent than Mainland Chinese in construing their relationship with family members and friends. Strong cultural differences were found in self family connectedness, but not in self friends connectedness. Chinese were closer to their family members than Canadians, but Canadians were as close to their friends as Chinese. In both samples, gender difference was found in self friends connectedness, but not in self family connectedness. In the Canadian sample, females were closer to their friends than males, while in the Chinese sample, mates were closer to their friends than females. In conclusion, this study contributes to the field in three ways. First, the finding that Canadians are as connected as Chinese to their close friends unprecedentedly contests one fundamental assumption of the theories of independent interdependent self construal (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) and I C (Hofstede,1980; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asia & Lucca, 1988) that individualists (e.g. Anglo Canadians) are more independent than collectivists (e.g. Chinese) on all dimensions of human relations. Second, the proposition (Cross & Madson, 1997) that Western males and females differ in the same way individualists and collectivists differ in their self construal is not supported. Finally, the adaptation of the IOS Scale proposes a refreshing direction in cross cultural research. Graphic, representations may be less susceptible to cross cultural misconstrual than verbal statements since the former involves little or no translation from one language to another " 1098 32 1 2002 We examined collective self esteem and personal self esteem as a function of anticipated changes in one §s prototypicality, within a valued ingroup. In Study, 1 (N=80), all participants received information that they, it ere currently peripheral group members. Expectations for the future were then manipulated, with some expecting to become more prototypical and others expecting they, would be even more peripheral in the future. In addition, the source of future movement (either the group or the self) was varied. It was found that when the group was the source of movement, those who expected to shift to a more prototypical position in the future had higher collective self esteem than those who expected to change to an even more peripheral position. In contrast, those who anticipated an even more peripheral position had higher personal self esteem than those who expected to become more prototypical in the future. In Study, 2 (N=100), intragroup position at present (peripheral versus prototypical) and future intragroup position (peripheral versus prototypical) were manipulated orthogonally. It was found that future expectations only affected self esteem among those with an insecure current identity, but not among those who were currently, prototypical of the ingroup. In addition, ingroup favouritism was mediated by, self esteem changes among those it hose identity, was insecure. The importance of a dynamic framework for investigating group processes is stressed. 1099 32 1 2002 In Study, 1, 24 participants generated sentences expressing ways of dealing with positively and negatively valued noun stimuli (objects and humans). They were instructed to begin each sentence with One+auxiliary verb. The auxiliary was to be selected from a set including auxiliaries expressing high (must) and low (can) necessity. As predicted on the basis of a minimal nonsocial model of behavioural adaptation, higher necessity was associated with negative stimuli than with positive stimuli. In Study 2, this effect was replicated using trait adjectives as stimuli. Consistent with the model, the effect was produced by stimulus valences belonging to an approach avoidance related evaluative dimension other profitability . However additional effects, involving an alternative evaluative dimension self profitability , were not fully accounted for by the model. They suggested that genuine social factors were involved that, however were only required to explain some marginal effects. 1100 32 1 2002 We explored whether values focused on money, image, and popularity are associated with lowered well being, even in environmental circumstances supportive of such values. To this end, we administered three widely, used measures of a materialistic value orientation to 92 business students in Singapore. As expected, those students who had strongly, internalized materialistic values also reported lowered self actualization, vitality, and happiness, as well as increased anxiety, physical symptomatology, and unhappiness. Results are consistent with past research suggesting that some types of values may, be unhealthy. 1101 32 2 2002 In five studies we show that the introduction of the Euro influences price estimations and the perception of salaries among people in Germany. People confronted with wages given in Euros compared to the German Mark (DM) showed a reduced willingness to face long distances to get to work when accepting a job offer. When asked to price various consumer goods appropriately, they estimated higher prices if they used the Euro currency compared to price estimations made in DM. This phenomenon only occurred with regard to the Euro, but not in comparison with other currencies (cf. the British Pound and Austrian Schilling). The differing price estimations between the Euro and the German Mark were not influenced by participants §s attitude towards the Euro. Moreover, it turned out that they depended on how the judgement context was framed. Only if participants expected to make price estimations for shops in their home country, Germany, did the familiar nominal DM figures serve as an anchor heightening the estimated prices in Euro. The same effect disappeared if participants were instructed to make their price estimations for shops in a foreign country (Ireland). 1102 32 2 2002 This study examined the impact of the acculturation strategy preferences of both immigrants and host society on intergroup relations. It was expected that integration would lead to the best outcome for both groups. Moreover, it was tested whether the relative fit between host society and immigrant strategy preference would predict intergroup relations. The predictive power of two different operationalisations of fit was compared. School students (193 German host society members and 128 immigrants to Germany) participated in a questionnaire study Findings revealed that both acculturation strategies of one group and relative fit between immigrant and host society strategy, preference were predictive of intergroup relations. In general, a strategy of integration was associated, with more favourable intergroup relations in both groups, and a mismatch between host and immigrant preferred strategies yielded the most negative outcomes. 1103 32 2 2002 Three studies were conducted to investigate the power of group norms of individualism and collectivism to guide self definition and group behaviour for people with low and high levels of group identification. Study 1 demonstrates that in an individualist culture (North America), those who identify, highly with their national identity are more individualist than low identifiers. In contrast, in a collectivist culture (Indonesia) high identifiers are less individualist than low identifiers. Study 2 manipulates group norms of individualism and collectivism, and shows a similar pattern on a self stereotyping measure: High identifiers are more likely to incorporate salient group norms prescribing individualism or collectivism into their self concept than low identifiers. Study 3 replicates this effect and shows that high identifiers conform more strongly to group norms, and self stereotype themselves in line with the salient norm than low identifiers when their group is threatened Hence, the findings suggest that when there is a group norm of individualism, high identifiers may show individualist behaviour as a result of conformity to salient group norms. 1104 32 2 2002 In a 2 x 2 design, after listing important personal reasons for smoking, 70 smokers were randomly told either that they had sufficient reasons for smoking (low internal constraint to change) or that they did not have sufficient reasons (high internal constraint to change) and were exposed to an anti smoking message from a source with either expert (high external constraint to change) or non expert (low external constraint to change) status. The main dependent variable was change in intention to give up smoking. The analyses revealed the predicted interaction between external and internal constraint: High internal constraint increased non expert influence but not expert influence. Supplementary analysis showed that, when internal constraint was high, non expert influence was related to the perceived quality of the message whereas when internal constraint was low, expert influence was related to the source §s perceived motivation to inform, i.e. rather than to convince. These results were predicted on the basis of the link that targets establish in social influence settings between constraints to change that are internal (i.e. related to their personal beliefs, feelings or attitudes) and those that are external (i.e. related to the characteristics of the persuasive communication such as the status Of the source). 1105 32 2 2002 According to the account by comparative distinctiveness, minorities draw attention by virtue of their relative size, leading to more individuation and more stereotyping of their members. Using the Who said what? paradigm by Taylor Fiske, Etcoff, and Ruderman (1978) in Klauer and Wegener §s (1998) modified version, relative group size of gender categories and age categories was varied in a pilot study and a main experiment, respectively. In the pilot study, memory for discussion statements and in both studies, memory for individuating information increased as subgroup size decreased. Rating measures obtained in the main experiment revealed most stereotyping of minority, members. The findings thereby support major predictions of the account by comparative distinctiveness, but demonstrate dissociations between different modes of category based processing, i.e. category memory, reconstructive category use, and stereotyping. 1106 32 2 2002 A study is reported which examines the relations between ambivalence toward the ingroup and the outgroup. The basic assumption was that ambivalent attitudes in intergroup contexts contribute to satisfying two competing motivations of group members, i.e. establishment of positive distinctiveness for the ingroup and conformity, to the fairness norm. Participants were asked to evaluate the ingroup and one other group by using unipolar (positively and negatively valenced) affect and cognition based items. We predicted an interaction effect of target group (ingroup versus outgroup) and attitude domain (affect based versus cognition based) on ambivalence. Additional hypotheses were formulated taking separately into account the positive and the negative unipolar items. We expected that on positively valenced items the ingroup would be favoured over the outgroup on both affect and cognition based evaluations. Besides, we predicted that on negatively valenced items, the ingroup would be favoured over the outgroup on affect based evaluation but not on cognition based evaluation. Results indicated support for the predictions and shed light on the moderating role played by attitude domains on both ambivalence and ingroup favouritism. 1107 32 2 2002 Two experiments were designed to explore whether encoding information in reference to a group would facilitate the later recall of that information to the same extent as encoding with reference to the self. In both experiments, participants encoded adjectives with reference to the self semantic properties, or a group and were subsequently given a surprise free recall test. In Experiment I (N = 37), the participants §s university served as the reference group. In Experiment 2 (N = 41), the participants §s family served as the reference group. In both experiments, self reference resulted in better recall than semantic processing, replicating the typical self reference effect (SRE). More importantly, strong evidence for a group reference effect (GRE) was found in that group reference resulted in better recall than semantic processing and in fact facilitated recall to the same extent as self referencing. The existing explanations (schemas, organization, elaboration, mental cueing, and evaluation) for the SRE were compared with regard to their viability in accounting for the GRE patterns. We discuss additional features that may be important in the explanation of the SRE and suggest future directions for research on group referencing. 1108 32 2 2002 In general, attitudes towards nations have a fair amount of reciprocity: nations either like each other are relatively indifferent to each other or dislike each other Sometimes, however international attitudes are asymmetrical. In this study, we use social identity theory in order to explain asymmetrical attitudes. Parting from social identity theory, asymmetrical attitudes can be predicted to occur most likely between countries that are linguistically either similar or closely related, but differ in size. Europe, more than any other continent, offers a rich variety of nations which represent natural conditions for our study, such as size and degree of linguistic similarity. In order to test hypotheses derived from social identity theory, we asked respondents (N = 405) from (Dutch and French speaking) Belgium, France, Germany, and The Netherlands to fill out a questionnaire on three large nations (Germany, Great Britain, France) and three smaller ones (The Netherlands, Belgium, and Denmark). Results strongly supported hypotheses and confirm that a social identity approach may help to better understand international attitudes. 1109 32 3 2002 "Three experiments were conducted examining group members §s responses to criticism from ingroup and outgroup members. In Experiment I a, Australians read scripts of a person making either negative or positive comments about Australia. The speaker was identified as coming from either Australia (ingroup member) or another country (outgroup member). Responses indicated an intergroup sensitivity effect; that is, while ingroup criticisms were tolerated surprisingly well, outgroup criticisms were met with sensitivity and defensiveness. This pattern was replicated using the identity of university student (Experiment 1b). Experiment 2 demonstrated that the intergroup sensitivity effect is driven by perceptions that ingroup criticisms are seen to be more legitimate and more constructive than are outgroup criticisms. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for intragroup and intergroup relations. " 1110 32 3 2002 In a longitudinal questionnaire field study on psychological consequences of German unification, the intergroup situation between East and West Germans was investigated. Data were collected in 1996 and 1998. The sample consisted of 585 East Germans and 387 West Germans who had never lived in the other part of Germany. It was assumed that East Germans §s social identity is threatened due to their fraternal deprivation in comparison with West Germans. It was predicted that East Germans would employ ingroup bias as an identity, management strategy in order to protect their emotional well being against harmful consequences of fraternal deprivation. In line with this prediction, it was found that (a) East Germans feel fraternally deprived compared to West Germans on important quality of life dimensions, (b) they display ingroup bias vis a vis West Germans, (c) ingroup bias increases with increasing East German identity, (d) ingroup bias is determined longitudinally by relative deprivation, and (e) ingroup bias buffers the effect of relative deprivation on mental health over time. As expected, ingroup bias and the effects of ingroup bias were larger for the dimension of personal integrity than for the dimensions of sympathy and competence. Ingroup bias is interpreted as compensatory self enhancement. West Germans feel fraternally privileged compared to East Germans and consider their advantages to be undeserved. Unexpectedly, West Germans display outgroup bias on the stereotype dimensions of integrity. This bias is interpreted as an effort to appease the moral outrage of East Germans and to silence their own guilty conscience due to undeserved advantages. 1111 32 3 2002 Two studies are reported that examine whether fairness judgments in dyadic exchange situations are influenced by descriptive ingroup norms or the interdependence structure of the exchange situation. In both studies, these factors were varied within a minimal group categorization paradigm. Results showed that ingroup norms affected fairness judgments when participants interacted with another group member and interaction outcomes could be affected by this partner However in interactions with group members who could not influence the outcome of the partners no effects of ingroup norms were observed. Together the results suggest that persons do not simply assimilate their fairness judgments to the normative context of their group, but adapt fairness judgments rather strategically to the expected behaviour of their interaction partner in order to maintain general equality or reciprocity principles. 1112 32 3 2002 The use of linguistic abstraction in self presentation was examined. Participants, whose goal it was to be liked by recipients, presented their political views to an audience of two people. Participants learned beforehand that the two recipients had the same political views as the participant, that both had different political views from the participant, or that one had similar views to and one had dissimilar views from the participant. Theorising that variations in the degree of linguistic abstractness used by participants when describing their political views were related to their social goals, it was hypothesised that participants would describe their political views at a higher level of linguistic abstractness when communicating with a similar agreeing audience than when communicating with a mixed audience. Results confirmed this hypothesis. The role of linguistic abstractness in achieving self presentational goals is discussed. 1113 32 3 2002 This work focuses on the influence of implicit theories on recognition judgments. We argue that to understand how a recognition task is solved, it is necessary to study inferential processes because individuals might use their metamnestic knowledge ( I would have known that! ) as a basis for replacing missing recollective experiences with inferential processes (Strack & Bless, 1994). In the present study, individuals §s preexisting implicit personality theory (Dweck, 1996) was measured and was identified as a moderating variable for the use of metamnestic knowledge. After participants had studied word lists their metamnestic knowledge concerning these lists was manipulated. The results of a subsequent recognition task revealed that individuals used these metacognitively based inferences only when they assumed personal stability ( entity theory ). Participants who believed in personal variability ( incremental theory ) did not draw similar inferences when recollective experiences were missing. 1114 32 3 2002 In two experiments, this paper examines how the labels used to describe interpersonal interactions can affect perceivers §s judgments of who caused the interaction. Two universal, connotative dimensions of word meaning underlying the labels, evaluation and potency, influenced expectations about interactants §s behaviours and experiences, which in turn affected perceivers §s causal attributions. Evaluation and potency ratings for a set of experiencer verbs, a set of action verbs, a set of trait labels (Experiment 1) and a set of social category labels (Experiment 2) were used to construct sentences describing interactions between two people. The complete set of sentences contained all possible combinations of high or low evaluation and potency for all the sentence constituents. Participants were asked to judge who caused the event subject or object without having been told that evaluation and potency were the dimensions of interest. When the sentence subject and object differed in evaluation, the evaluative match between the sentence subject and the verb was the most important factor influencing attributions. The potency of the constituents and the class of the verb (experiencer or action) affected the magnitude of the attributions. When the sentence subject and object shared the same valence, attributions were based on verb class. The results highlight the important role of language in interpreting social behaviour. 1115 32 3 2002 We hypothesized that people are vigilant for differences between stimuli. In particular, we compared the reactions elicited by unexpected differences versus unexpected similarities. Participants imagined themselves in several situations where they learned something unexpected. This unexpected information showed either that two things previously thought to be similar were actually different or that two things previously thought to be different were actually similar Also, the new information was either beneficial, neutral, or detrimental to the perceiver. Participants indicated for each situation how surprised they would be and how they would feel. Unexpected differences were rated as more surprising than unexpected similarities for positive and negative events, though not for neutral events. Participants also reported that beneficial differences would produce more positive affect than beneficial similarities, whereas detrimental differences would produce more negative affect than detrimental similarities. These findings support the asymmetrical impact hypothesis that differences have more psychological impact than similarities. 1116 32 3 2002 The purpose of this study was to test a motivational model of sport dropout that integrates the four stage causal sequence proposed by the Hierarchical Model of Vallerand (1997) and elements from achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1989). The model posits that a task involving motivational climate facilitates, while an ego involving climate undermines, perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. In turn, feeling incompetent, non autonomous, and unrelated to others undermines self determined motivation toward handball which leads to the intention of dropping out of the game. Finally, such intentions are implemented later. Three hundred and thirty five female handballers completed a motivation questionnaire and were followed for 21 months. Results from structural equation modelling analyses provided basic support for the model. The findings are discussed in the light of their theoretical and applied implications. 1117 32 3 2002 "The present research studied the factors that influence the smiling behaviour of men and women. We assumed that men and women who actively engage in self presentation use smiling as a strategy to take advantage of the expectations of others in order to realize their own goals. In the research situation, the participants imagined that they wanted to obtain a certain part time job. We expected that gender role expectations, the gender typing and status of the job in question, and the importance of social contacts for carrying out the job would influence the extent to which men and women would smile for a photo to be sent with a job application. The results partly support this expectation: men and women smiled more in response to a low status job than to a high status job; women smiled more in response to a job in which social contacts are important than to a job in which social contacts are unimportant; and women smiled more than men in response to a feminine low status job in which social contacts are important. " 1118 32 4 2002 The assumption that mindlessness underlies the effectiveness of the fear then relief social influence technique has been verified in four studies. The first two experiments indicated that compliance of those experiment participants who were made to function on the thoughtful level under a fear then relief condition decreases to the level observed in the control group. The other two experiments were to analyse the cognitive functioning of people who at first experience fear and then a sudden and unexpected relief. The first of these experiments indicated that the amount of time needed to detect the expression of emotion on other persons §s faces is prolonged, and the second of these latter two experiments that the participants §s arithmetical abilities are impaired (mental addition and subtraction of three two digit numbers). 1119 32 4 2002 Research demonstrates that. the perceived legitimacy of intergroup status differences has profound effects on intergroup attitudes, emotions and behaviour However there has only been little intergroup research that predicts the perception of legitimacy. We hypothesize that the perception of legitimate or illegitime status relations depends upon the perceived relative prototypicality of the ingroup for the inclusive category. Since the prototype of the inclusive category provides a normative comparison standard for subgroup evaluation, similarity to this standard (i.e. prototypicality) should be positively evaluated and used to justify high status. A first study in a natural intergroup context (N = 67) offered correlational data in support of the predicted relationship. The second study (N = 60), using Germans as ingroup with Poles as outgroup and Europe as inclusive category, demonstrated that the link between prototypicality and legitimacy is contingent upon the valence of the inclusive category. In order to elucidate the causal direction, the third study manipulated relative prototypicality in an artificial intergroup context (N = 94) and introduced status as a moderator variable. Overall, we found strong support for the hypothesis that legitimacy is related to prototypicality and that this relation is moderated by ingroup status and valence of the inclusive category. 1120 32 4 2002 "Some conceptions of minority influence have stressed the impact of the mere existence of an unpopular, deviant position. Others (e.g. Moscovici, 1980) have emphasized the active opposition of a committed minority to a powerful majority. An active advocate is defined as one that is aware of the level of support for his/her position, expresses his/her position openly, and whose outcomes may depend on others §s agreement/disagreement. In the present study, the potential moderating role of an advocates §s active/passive status on opinion change was examined. When the issue was highly relevant to the target of influence, all that mattered was the quality of the source §s arguments (i.e. majority, minority, active source = passive source). When the issue was not highly relevant to the target, though, active and passive sources had different impact: (1) active sources prompted attention to argument quality (for minorities) and heuristic compliance (for majorities); (2) passive sources prompted insensitivity to both the popularity of the position and to the quality of the source §s arguments. " 1121 32 4 2002 In contemporary attitudes and attraction research, attraction has been viewed as a multidimensional construct. Moreover, the effects of dissimilar and similar attitudes have been shown to vary with the facets of attraction measured. The hypotheses tested are that (1) only the proportion of similar attitudes relevant to the social context or interaction goals affects behavioural attraction (i.e. interpersonal distance between the participant and targets), and (2) the proportion of similar attitudes influences affective attraction (i.e. Byrne §s attraction measure), regardless of attitude relevance. Two experiments were conducted with classroom activities (Experiment 1) and a writing workshop (Experiment 2) as the social contexts. The results of both experiments supported the hypotheses. Clearly, a solely affective measure of attraction seems inadequate for understanding the similarity attraction relationship. 1122 32 4 2002 In the present study it was predicted that a threat to the ingroup by a high status outgroup would lead its members to increase the level of derogation of a lower status outgroup. Two experimental groups of psychologists were informed about the opinions (positive or negative) allegedly held by medical doctors regarding clinical psychologists whereas participants in the control condition did not receive any feedback. Later, all participants were asked to judge psychologists, social workers (low status outgroup), and medical doctors along professional and personality dimensions. As predicted, compared to participants in the positive feedback and in the control conditions, negative feedback participants increased derogation toward social workers but not toward medical doctors along the professional traits relevant to the feedback. Results are interpreted in the context of Downward Comparison Theory (Wills, 1981). 1123 32 4 2002 The present research examined the moderating influences of individual differences in sexism on the application of gender stereqtypes to stereotypic versus nonstereotypic targets as a function of contexts that induced sex stereotypic or counterstereotypic responses. Specifically, participants first received an attribution task in which they were induced to explain a variety of gender relevant situations in gender stereotypic or nonstereotypic ways. Participants were then presented with an ostensibly unrelated person judgment task in which they were asked to judge two women who acted either ambiguously stereotypically or nonstereotypically. The initial opportunity to express stereotypes without censure accentuated stereotype application, but only for highly prejudiced participants rating a woman who acted in an ambiguously stereotypical (i.e. unassertive) manner We consider the implications of these findings for processes of stereotype disinhibition, and the moderating influences of individual differences in prejudice, target characteristics, and local norms. 1124 32 4 2002 The present research explored the mechanisms of judgmental and memory correction for communication influence. Participants described a target person to an addressee who either liked or disliked the target. Participants §s descriptions were more positive when the addressee liked the target than when the addressee disliked the target. Mediation analyses showed that the effect of the addressee §s attitude on judgment and memory was mediated by its effect on participants §s descriptions. Participants §s evaluative judgments of the target were influenced by the addressee §s attitude only when the attitude was presented subtly. When the presentation of the attitude was blatant, participants used the attitude as a situational inducement of their communication behaviour and corrected their judgments. Both participants §s recall and false recognition of personality traits were evaluatively consistent with the addressee §s attitude regardless of its presentation. However mediational analyses suggested that participants in the blatant presentation condition engaged in an insufficient memory correction by discounting the evaluative implications of their descriptions. 1125 32 4 2002 This study explores the development of strategic behaviour related to kindness and intelligence dimensions in 3 to 8 year old children. Previous research systematically highlighted the affective bias that limited young children §s thinking and behaving in strategic terms. We argue that young children are able to grasp specific dimensions of social affordances from personality traits and behaviour exemplifying these traits. The results obtained in the partner choice paradigm revealed a developmental increase in social utility understanding. This supports our hypothesis of early social affordances understanding and provides empirical evidence that affective bias did not drastically influence strategic partner choice in 4 to 8 year old children. 1126 32 4 2002 This research tested the extent to which two motivations commonly assumed to predict prejudice needs for cognitive economy and needs for self enhancement were simultaneously able to predict two underlying components of prejudice social categorization and ingroup favouritism. Across three studies, diverse measures of the two motivations showed them to be consistently differentiated. Furthermore, both motivations were found to be independently predictive of both ingroup favouritism and social categorization in each of the three studies. The research adds to existing knowledge about the personality correlates of prejudice by demonstrating the conceptual independence of these two underlying motivations as well as their relationships to components of intergroup attitudes. 1127 32 4 2002 In an attempt to regulate disappointments people may sometimes change their perceptions of the events leading to an undesirable outcome so that in retrospect this outcome seems almost inevitable. This retroactive pessimism effect was demonstrated in three studies. In the first, sports fans rated the likelihood of success for their team and its opponent before and after an important soccer match. Evidence for significant pre and post game probability shifts was found for the fans of the defeated team but not for the supporters of the winning opponent. In the second and the third experiments participants responded to a scenario depicting a loss of stipend that was either large or small in value. Participants were expected to show more evidence of retroactive pessimism with greater disappointment. Indeed, estimates of the probability of a more favourable counterfactual outcome were sensitive to the magnitude of the loss with lower estimates of the probability that things could have turned out better in the large stipend condition. The effect was attenuated, however, when the loss was not personal but rather that of a friend (Experiment 2), or when the disappointment was mitigated (Experiment 3). 1128 32 5 2002 The main purpose of this study was to explore the relation between teacher expectations and student achievement in physical education classes, in the light of three complementary hypotheses. Student achievement may confirm teacher expectations because these expectations create self fulfilling prophecies, create perceptual biases, or accurately predict, without influencing, student achievement (Jussim, 1989). Another purpose was to examine the mediating role played by students §s perceived ability in the teacher expectancy process. Study data were obtained from 173 students and 7 teachers. Path analysis revealed that teacher expectations have weak self fulfilling effects, strongly predicted student achievement mainly because they are accurate, and have no biasing effects on teacher judgements. Results also show evidence concerning the role of partial mediator of perceived student ability in the confirmation process of teacher expectations. 1129 32 5 2002 This research examines the utility of a terror management approach to understanding the motivations and emotional consequences of compromise in mate selection. One hundred and sixty eight undergraduates completed a self esteem scale and a scale tapping ideal mate characteristics, and were then assigned either to a mortality salience, physical pain salience, or neutral condition. Half of the participants rated their readiness to compromise ideal mate standards and the remaining half completed a neutral scale. Then, participants completed a scale tapping their emotional state. Mortality salience led participants to significantly compromise their mate requirements. This effect seemed to be most pronounced among high self esteem participants who also experienced the greatest amount of guilt when compromising under mortality salient conditions. Low self esteem participants who compromised under mortality salient conditions reacted with higher levels of shame. The results are discussed in terms of the anxiety buffering functions of close relationships. 1130 32 5 2002 This study investigated the alleged remedial effects of blushing in the context of real time interactions. Therefore, 30 pairs of prosocial individuals participated in a prisoner §s dilemma game . The experiment was framed as an objective test of moral behaviour To elicit a shameful moral transgression, one individual of each pair was instructed to select the non habitual cheat option on a pre defined target trial. Supporting the idea that violation of shared rules elicits blushing, the defectors displayed a blush on the target trial. Yet, unexpectedly, there was a negative relationship between the observed blush intensity and the trustworthiness attributed to the defectors. One explanation might be that the victims used the blush response to deduce and interpret the defector §s motive. As the antecedent behaviour involved in the present context was not completely unambiguous with respect to the perpetrators §s motive (e.g. innocent playing around vs. maximizing outcomes) the observers might have interpreted blushing as signaling that the situation should be interpreted as an intentional violation of a social standard. Together the available evidence suggests that only in the context of unambiguous antecedent behaviours blushing has remedial effects, whereas in ambiguous situations blushing has undesirable revealing effects. 1131 32 5 2002 "Three experiments are reported which examine the effects of consensus information on majority and minority influence. In all experiments two levels of consensus difference were examined; large (82% versus 18%) and small (52% versus 48%). Experiment 1 showed that a majority source had more influence than a minority source, irrespective of consensus level. Experiment 2 examined the cause of this effect by presenting only the source label ( majority versus minority ), only the consensus information (percentages) or both. The superior influence of the majority was again found when either (a) both source label and consensus information were given (replicating Experiment 1) and (b) only consensus information was given, but not when (c) only the source label was given. The results showed majority influence was due to the consensus information indicating more than 50% of the population supported that position. Experiment 3 also manipulated message quality (strong versus weak arguments) to identify whether systematic processing had occurred. Message quality only had an impact with the minority of 18%. These studies show that consensus information has different effects §s for majority and minority influence. For majority influence, having over 50% support is sufficient to cause compliance while for a minority there are advantages to being numerically small, in terms of leading to detailed processing of its message. " 1132 32 5 2002 It is hypothesized that causal attributions are made by transforming covariation information into evidence according to notions of evidential value, and that causal judgement is a function of the proportion of instances that are evaluated as confirmatory for the causal hypothesis under test: this is called the evidential evaluation model. An experiment was designed to test the judgemental rule in this model by setting up problems presenting consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency information in which the Proportion of confirmatory instances varied but the objective contingency did not. It was found that judgements tended to vary with the proportion of confirmatory instances. Several other current models of causal judgement or causal attribution fail to account for this result. Similar findings have been obtained in studies of causal judgement from contingency information, so the present findings support an argument that the evidential evaluation model provides a unified account of judgement in both domains. 1133 32 5 2002 The present studies test the hypothesis that the degree of experienced ambivalence toward health behaviours moderates the impact of differently framed messages. In line with prospect theory, it is argued that positive frames can either involve attaining desirable outcomes or avoiding undesirable outcomes, and negative frames can either emphasize the presence of undesirable outcomes or the absence of desirable outcomes. The results of three studies are supportive of the hypothesis that highly ambivalent individuals are more persuaded by negatively framed messages whereas individuals low in ambivalence are more persuaded by positively framed messages. The greater persuasiveness of negatively framed messages at higher levels of ambivalence can be explained by a negativity bias involved in ambivalence. Several preventive behaviours such as eating a low fat diet or using condoms were addressed. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed in light of current theories on health behaviour. 1134 32 5 2002 Attitudinal ambivalence is generally construed as existing when the same attitude object is evaluated simultaneously as both positive and negative. The present research examined the moderating role of attitudinal ambivalence (as assessed by split semantic differential measure) on the relationship between bipolar semantic differential measures of attitude and subsequent behaviour using moderated regression analysis. In Study 1, higher levels of attitudinal ambivalence were shown to result in weaker attitude behaviour relationships for eating a low fat diet (N = 140) and eating 5 portions of fruit and vegetables per day (N = 142). Study 2 (N = 361) replicated this effect when also including a measure of past behaviour for eating a low fat diet. Implications for understanding the relationship between attitudes and behaviour are discussed. 1135 32 5 2002 For seven days, participants described the important interactions they had using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record and reported their attachment style using Bartholomew §s four category system. A series of multilevel random coefficient analyses found that across all interactions securely attached participants, compared to those who were insecurely attached, found their interactions to be more intimate and more positive emotionally. Secure participants also felt that others were more responsive to them and their needs. Secure insecure differences were most pronounced when secure and dismissive avoidant participants were compared. Differences between secure and fearful types were minimal. In contrast, differences in reactions to interactions with close and not close friends were more pronounced for fearful types than for secures, dismissing, or preoccupied types. These results highlight the importance of distinguishing fearful and dismissive avoidance. 1136 32 6 2002 This study examines in a natural setting (N = 253) the effects of favourable outcomes at the individual and group levels on the relations between members of high (nondisabled) and low (disabled) status groups. Consistent with past research, the results show that, overall, high status group members are more likely than low status group members to display ingroup bias. Furthermore, as hypothesized on the basis of the role of relative gratification in intergroup relations, a favourable group outcome led high status group members to derogate the low status outgroup. On the other hand, as predicted from the assumption that outgroup favouritism reflects a strategy of individual mobility, a favourable individual outcome led low status group members to display an evaluative bias in favour of, and to identify with, the high status outgroup. The implications of these findings for the explanation of outgroup favouritism and outgroup derogation are discussed. 1137 32 6 2002 "We investigated the implications of three sources of distinctiveness position, difference and separateness for identity and subjective well being in a survey of 149 Anglican parish priests. Distinctiveness was examined within parish and clergy comparative contexts. Each source contributed substantially and uniquely to ratings of the distinctiveness associated with identity elements in each context. Parish context position was emphasised within identity and was positive for affect, while parish context separateness was negative for affect. Distinctiveness in the clergy context was not emphasised within identity and was unrelated to affect. This shows that distinctiveness is not a unitary construct: extending existing theories (Breakwell, 1993; Brewer, 1991; Triandis, 1995), we argue that different forms of distinctiveness will have different implications for identity and well being according to culture and context. " 1138 32 6 2002 In an experimental questionnaire study among Chinese participants living in the Netherlands, it was found that self descriptions, acculturation attitudes and ingroup evaluation were affected by the comparative group context. Following self categorization theory, different predictions were tested and supported. Self ratings on trait adjectives systematically differed between an intragroup (Chinese) and an intergroup (Chinese versus Dutch) context. Furthermore, ethnic self categorization turned out to be related to self descriptions in the intragroup context, whereas ethnic self esteem showed an effect on self descriptions in the intergroup context. Acculturation attitudes and ingroup favouritism were also affected by the comparative context. In the intergroup context, participants were more strongly in favour of heritage culture maintenance and reported higher ingroup favouritism than in the intragroup context. It is concluded that studies on ethnic minorities should consider the important and often neglected intragroup processes and comparisons in addition to the familiar minority majority group comparisons. 1139 32 6 2002 This research investigates the role of intermittent monetary costs in restraining individuals from defection in social dilemmas. In Experiment 1, 104 car owners made fictitious choices between a slow and a fast travel mode in the context of a continuous social dilemma. There were four different conditions of monetary costs for choosing the fast mode (defection): no cost, low cost, high cost to self, or high cost to others. Participants defected most when there was no cost and least when they themselves were charged a high cost. A spill over effect was obtained such that when others were charged a high cost to defect, defection rates were lower than under no cost. Experiment 2 used 36 undergraduates as participants in an iterated decision task with real groups. The results replicated the major results of Experiment 1. Furthermore, whereas prosocials were strongly affected by intermittent costs for defection (i.e. showed large spill over effects), proselfs seemed to be unaffected. Possible explanations of this interaction effect between social value orientation and intermittent punishment for defection are provided. 1140 32 6 2002 The classification of perfumes as women s and men s fragrances is based on certain gender stereotypes. In two experiments, female and male participants were asked to assume the role of a manager In Experiment 1, they read an application for the position of a junior manager written by a male or female job applicant. Application papers were prepared with a typically masculine perfume, a typically feminine perfume or no perfume at all (control group). In Experiment 2, participants conducted a job interview with a female or male applicant (a confederate) who had applied the respective perfume or no perfume. Persons with a typically masculine perfume were employed with a higher degree of certainty compared to persons with a typically feminine perfume. 1141 32 6 2002 Four studies examined sex differences in the jealousy evoking nature of rival characteristics. Study 1, among 130 undergraduates, made an inventory of all relevant rival characteristics that were spontaneously mentioned when asked about a rival to whom one §s partner might feel attracted. On the basis of these findings, in Study 2, among 240 undergraduates, a questionnaire was constructed, containing 56 rival characteristics. A factor analysis distinguished five dimensions of rival characteristics, i.e. Social Dominance, Physical Attractiveness, Seductive Behaviours, Physical Dominance, and Social Status. In line with the predictions, men reported more jealousy when a rival was high in Social Dominance, Physical Dominance, and Social Status, whereas women reported more jealousy when a rival was high in Physical Attractiveness. Study 3 largely replicated these findings in a community sample of 144 heterosexuals. Study 4 showed that gay men (n = 80) reported more jealousy than lesbian women (n = 73) when the rival was high in Physical Dominance, and more jealousy than heterosexual men when the rival was high in Social Dominance. Lesbian women reported more jealousy than heterosexual women when the rival was high in Physical Attractiveness. In Studies 2 4, favourable rival characteristics evoked more jealousy among those high in Social Comparison Orientation, particularly among women. 1142 32 6 2002 Observers of deviant social behaviour sometimes communicate disapproval directly or indirectly to the perpetrator of a deviant act. This reaction has been termed social control . Three field studies were conducted to explore the influence of the number of bystander observers on the likelihood of social control. We predicted that the presence of others would inhibit people §s tendency to communicate their disapproval to the deviant but only if personal implication was low. In the first study, we measured participants §s perceptions of two fictive situations, one in which a deviant draws graffiti in an elevator of a shopping center and one in which a deviant litters in a small neighborhood park by throwing a plastic bottle in the bushes. As expected, participants considered both behaviours to be equally counternormative but felt personally more implicated by the littering behaviour in the park. In Studies 2 and 3, the two situations were enacted with confederates of the experimenter Naive bystanders served as participants, and social control was the primary dependent variable. Consistent with our hypothesis, we found evidence for a bystander effect in the low personal implication situation (graffiti in the elevator) but not in the high personal implication situation (littering in park). These results make clear that perceived personal implication moderates the extent to which people are inhibited by the presence of others when they decide whether they should exert social control or not. 1143 32 6 2002 This study investigated the role of attitude strength as a moderator variable with regard to the direction of the relation between attitudes and behaviour The hypothesis was tested that strong attitudes guide behaviour, whereas weak attitudes follow behaviour in accordance with self perception principles. The study (N = 106) consisted of two sessions. In session 1, attitudes and attitude strength (certainty, importance, centrality) towards Greenpeace were measured. One week later participants returned to the laboratory (session 2) and were given the opportunity to donate money to Greenpeace. After the participants §s decision to donate money or not, attitudes towards Greenpeace were measured again. The results were consistent with the predictions. First, strong attitudes were more predictive of donation behaviour than weak attitudes. Moreover, session 2 attitudes of weak attitude participants were influenced by their donation behaviour, whereas no such effect was found among strong attitude participants. Finally, strong attitudes were also found to be more stable over time than weak attitudes. The results provide a complete overview of the moderating role of attitude strength with regard to the bi directional attitude behaviour relationship. Results are discussed in the light of attitude retrieval versus attitude construction processes. 1144 33 1 2003 With a sample of international students, we investigated how perceptions of rejection by the host community are related to a sense of identification with other international students. Based on the rejection identification model (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 1999) we predicted that perceiving prejudice from the host university would be negatively related to psychological well being. We expected that group identification with international students would mediate a positive effect of perceived that group identification with international students would mediate a positive effect of perceived discrimination on self esteem, thus suppressing the negative effect of perceiving prejudice on self esteem. Consistent with predictions, results supported a model in which identification with international students increased in response to perceiving prejudice and suppressed the costs of perceiving oneself as excluded from the host community. Interestingly, identification with participants home country was not predicted by perceptions of discrimination. Results are discussed in terms of how minority group members construct group identities in response to the intergroup context. 1145 33 1 2003 "According to system justification theory, people are motivated to preserve the belief that existing social arrangements are fair, legitimate, justifiable, and necessary. The strongest form of this hypothesis, which draws on the logic of cognitive dissonance theory, holds that people who are most disadvantaged by the status quo would have the greatest psychological need to reduce ideological dissonance and would therefore be most likely to support, defend, and justify existing social systems, authorities, and outcomes. Variations on this hypothesis were tested in five US national survey studies. We found that (a) low income respondents and African Americans were more likely than others to support limitations on the rights of citizens and media representatives to criticize the government; (b) low income Latinos were more likely to trust in US government officials and to believe that the government is run for the benefit of all than were high income Latinos; (c) low income respondents were more likely than high income respondents to believe that large differences in pay are necessary to foster motivation and effort: (d) Southerners in the USA were more likely to endorse meritocratic belief systems than were Northerners and poor and Southern African Americans were more likely to subscribe to meritocratic ideologies than were African Americans who were more affluent and from the North; (e) low income respondents and African Americans were more likely than others to believe that economic inequality is legitimate and necessary; and (f) stronger endorsement of meritocratic ideology was associated with greater satisfaction with one §s own economic situation. Taken together, these findings are consistent with the dissonance based argument that people who suffer the most from a given state of affairs are paradoxically the least likely to question, challenge, reject, or change it. Implications for theories of system justification, cognitive dissonance, and social change are also discussed. " 1146 33 1 2003 The present studies explored the associations among food §s utilitarian benefits, the human values symbolised by meat, individuals §s endorsement of those values, and individuals §s meat identification, attitudes and consumption. A preliminary study revealed that participants perceived that meat, particularly red meat, symbolises the endorsement of inequality and hierarchy values more than other basic foods. Studies 1 and 2 found that the endorsement of inequality and hierarchy formed in the basis to the meat attitudes and consumption of high meat identifiers. Study 2 found that the meat attitudes of high meat attitudes and consumption of high meat identifiers. Study 2 found that the meat attitudes of high meat identifiers were also founded, though to a lesser extent, in the endorsement of Conservation and rejection of Openness values. Study 1 also showed that food §s nutritional benefits did not form the basis of meat consumption among high meat identifiers. Moreover, Study 3 found that informing individuals (in the treatment group) of the nutritional deficiencies of meat did not alter the meat attitudes of high meat identifiers, meat identification per se, or the meat attitudes of individuals who have a predisposition to attend to the symbolic meanings of products. In contrast, the negative nutritional information did produce unfavourable meat attitudes among low meat identifiers and those who have a predisposition to attend to the utilitarian features of products. The formation of meat identification is discussed. 1147 33 1 2003 We conducted two studies to investigate the influence of group norms endorsing individualism and collectivism on the evaluations of group members who display individualist or collectivist behaviour. It was reasoned that, overall, collectivist behaviour benefits that group and would be evaluated more positively than would individualist behaviour. However, it was further predicted that this preference would be attenuated by the specific content of the group norm. Namely when norms prescribed individualism, we expected that preferences for collectivist behaviour over individualist behaviour would be attenuated, as individualist behaviour would, paradoxically, represent normative behaviour. These predictions were supported across two studies in which we manipulated norms of individualism and collectivism in an organizational role play. Furthermore, in Study 2, we found evidence for the role of group identification in moderating the effects of norms. The results are discussed with reference to social identify theory and cross cultural work on individualism and collectivism. 1148 33 1 2003 The study examines how a sample of 210 high school immigrant students (ages 14 15) from Ethiopia and the former USSR socially represent their notion of what klitat aliyah (successful adaptation to Israel) means. Prevalent relevant theories Berry §s model of Acculturation Tendencies (BAT). Social Identity Theory (SIT) and Social Comparison Theory (SCT) suggest three kinds of patterns by which minority or socially weak groups deal with these kinds of situations. These underlying patterns were tested by a 47 item questionnaire (with a 4 point Likert like scale), constructed from immigrant narratives regarding their klitat aliyah according to SIT. SCT and BAT categories of adaptation strategies. A Guttman non parametric Similarity Structure Analysis (SSA) revealed four facet organization of items for both males and females in both sub samples. These facets, which reflected social representations of Israeli society, were dubbed: Extended Identity, Rivalry Identity, Secluded Identity and Identity Loss. Results did not confirm the underlying categorization of strategies suggested by SIT and SCT, and partially replicated those suggested by BAT. 1149 33 1 2003 Based on attribution theory and the logic of conversational norms, we predicted that image based health communications can alter prevalence estimates for health behaviours. In two studies participants were exposed either to a positively framed or negatively framed communication advocating for specific health behaviours. As predicted, participants who read a health communication rated healthy behaviours as less common when positive attributes were associated with healthy choices than when negative attributes were associated with unhealthy choices. The second study revealed that this pattern was most pronounced among participants who reported a initial uncertainty about behavioural norms. These findings suggest that positively framed influence attempts can promote prevalence assumptions that work against the influence attempt. 1150 33 1 2003 Theoretical positions lead to diverging predictions regarding the impact of control deprivation oil subsequent performance. Learned helplessness research suggests that control deprivation impairs subsequent performance. This effect can be attributed either to a decrease in motivation or to a decrease in attentional resources. In contrast, control motivation hypothesis predicts that control deprivation increases careful processing of incoming information, and thus accuracy performance, unless the task is perceived as ego threatening. In order to test these diverging predictions against each other, participants were exposed to zero, one, two, four, six or eight unsolvable (vs. solvable) problems and then asked to complete two letter cancellation tasks. This task allowed independent evaluation of effort expenditure (i.e., the number of letter scanned) and accuracy performance (i.e. percentage of letters correctly marked). Overall, the results were consistent with the predictions of the cognitive explanations of learned helplessness deficit as control deprivation at high levels reduced accuracy performance but nor effort expenditure. Unexpectedly, effort expenditure was affected by problem solving activity. These results suggest that control deprivation could heighten motivation and at the same time. deplete cognitive resources. 1151 33 1 2003 The research on commons dilemmas is characterized by innumerable published findings, each standing relatively isolated from the other. To date there is little integration of the findings under a unified concept. The present contribution aims to integrate already existing findings in a general dynamic model of cooperative behaviour in resource crises by means of computer simulation. The model postulates that people base their decisions regarding resource use on both ecological and social information. Whether or not ecological or social information will dominate, however depends on people §s social values, attributions, and their perceptions of the state of the resource. The advantage of the simulation method used is that successful integration of the findings can be shown explicitly, as the simulation then replicates the experimental data. With the model presented here, it is also possible to let variables work together whose interaction has not yet been investigated in real experiments. For instance, the simulation model allows us to hypothesize that people, in dependence upon their resource uncertainty and in dependency upon their attributions, utilize a resource completely differently if the resource is in an optimal or sub optimal condition. 1152 33 1 2003 The purpose of the present study was to propose and test a model of role conflict and academic procrastination. This model posits that non self determined motivations toward school and inter personal relationships are positively related to role conflict between these two life domains. In turn, role conflict between school and interpersonal relationships is expected to he positively related to academic procrastination. Participants were 292 university students. Results from structural equation modelling supported the model. It thus appears that self determination and role conflict are important to foster our understanding academic procrastination. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed. 1153 33 2 2003 From social identity theory a negative relation between self esteem and ingroup bias can be deducted. Much research has been done to test this proposition and largely jailed to confirm this relation. Unlike many existing studies, we conducted an experiment in which (a) self esteem is not conceived as a trait entity but much more situation specific, (b) the self esteem manipulation is not relative to the outgroup, and (c) the measure of intergroup differentiation is unrelated to the self esteem manipulation. We categorised our participants into two arbitrary minimal groups (Klee or Kandinsky fans) and afterwards formed homogeneous three person groups (all persons were either Klee or Kandinsky fans). We manipulated the state self esteem of these real groups by giving them positive or negative feedback concerning their performance in a problem solving task. Afterwards, all groups distributed money to ingroup and outgroup members via Tajfel distribution matrices. Low state self esteem groups were found to exhibit stronger ingroup bias than high state self esteem groups overall, although the variability of intergroup discrimination was larger in the low state self esteem groups, pointing to more heterogeneous reactions to low state self esteem. 1154 33 2 2003 Previous studies have shown that people subtly conform more to ingroup members who use stereotype consistent rather than stereotype inconsistent information when describing an outgroup member (Castelli, Vanzetto, Sherman, & Arcuri, 2001). In the present article, we will address two important issues. First, we will examine whether this subtle conformity toward stereotypers is related to individuals §s prejudice level (Study 1). Second, we will examine one of the processes that underlie the perception of ingroup members who use stereotype consistent information, hypothesizing that individuals implicitly feet more similar to such sources than to ingroup members who use stereotype inconsistent information (Study 2). Both hypotheses were confirmed and results are discussed in terms of the distinction between implicit and explicit attitudes and their implications in the maintenance of social stereotypes. 1155 33 2 2003 Participants were asked to put themselves in the position of one of three persons who differed in the amount of power they had in a small work unit. Subsequently, they could allocate points on a power scale to themselves and the two others, and thus, change the power positions and the power distances between the positions. The least powerful individuals had the strongest tendency to increase their power They wanted to reduce the power distance to the person in the higher position more than the power distance to the person in the middle position. The most powerful wanted to increase the power distance to the person in the middle position but not the power distance to the least powerful. Most results were consistent with social comparison theory and contrary to power distance theory. Because the dependent measures were derived from the social value orientations model, the scope of this model has been expanded. 1156 33 2 2003 "The role of category salience in mediating the effects of intergroup contact was examined. One theoretical model proposes that some psychological salience of subgroup categories is necessary to facilitate the generalization of attitude change beyond the immediate contact situation. Another argues that a re categorization of the subgroups into a new superordinate category is more beneficial, whilst a third suggests that de categorizing the situation entirely is optimal. An alternative view, which combines the first two models, proposes a Dual Identity strategy (simultaneous high superordinate and high subgroup categorization) as an important mediator of the relationship between contact variables and intergroup attitudes. In the study, participants (N = 114) undertook a cooperative intergroup task under four conditions of category salience: subgroup , superordinate , superordinate and subgroup , and, no group salience . Evaluative ratings and symbolic reward allocations both for the groups encountered (contact) and those outside the situation (generalization) provided measures of intergroup bias. Bias within the contact situation was mainly eliminated in all conditions. However on the more generalized bias measures, only the superordinate and superordinate and subgroup (Dual Identity strategy) conditions maintained this low level; in the other two conditions intergroup bias resurfaced. A combination of the first two models is proposed. " 1157 33 2 2003 Group members typically favour ingroups over outgroups, particularly when distributing positive rather than negative resources. The present investigation examined whether the positive negative discrimination asymmetry in the minimal group paradigm varies as a function of ingroup identification. After being categorized into arbitrary groups, participants expressing low to high ingroup identification allocated positive, neutral, or negative outcomes on the basis of group membership (i.e. ingroup versus outgroup recipients). The interaction between ingroup identification and outcome valence revealed that identification influenced the magnitude of discrimination asymmetry Specifically, increases in identification led to discrimination in favour of the ingroup for positive but not negative outcomes. The implications for intergroup behaviour more generally are considered. 1158 33 2 2003 Two field studies examined the attributions made for the historically negative behaviour of a group as a whole, depending on whether the actions were committed by the ingroup or an outgroup. In the first study, Jewish people assigned more internal responsibility to Germans for their treatment of Jewish people during the Second World War than Germans assigned to their own group. In the second study, people attributed the negative historical actions of another nation more internally (and less externally) than similar negative historical actions committed by, their own nation. This pattern of intergroup attributional bias was more pronounced among people who highly identified with their national ingroup. Outgroup homogeneity and perceptions of differences between the groups were also significantly predicted by ingroup identification. Links between social identity, theory, and the intergroup attribution bias are considered. 1159 33 2 2003 "The psychological component of immigration it? the Netherlands was studied by comparing views on multiculturalism and acculturation orientation of Turkish migrants between Dutch majority (N = 1565) and Turkish Dutch minority (N = 185) members. Multiculturalism was measured with an adaptation of the Multicultural Ideology Scale (Berry Kalin, 1995); acculturation orientation was investigated in different domains of life. The results revealed that Dutch on average had a neutral attitude towards multiculturalism in the Netherlands while Turkish Dutch showed a more positive attitude. Regarding the acculturation strategies, Dutch adults Preferred assimilation above integration of Turkish migrants in all life domains. Turkish Dutch adults made a distinction in public and Private domains: integration was preferred in public domains, and separation in private domains. In public domains both cultural groups agreed that Turkish migrants should adapt to the Dutch culture. In private domains there was no agreement at all in the views of Dutch and Turkish Dutch. These results suggest that the views on acculturation and multiculturalism differ substantially for majority and minority group members. Implications are discussed. " 1160 33 2 2003 The goal of this study, was to investigate to role of expectancy as a potential mediator of performance deficits under stereotype threat. In Experiment 1, female students were assigned to one of three experimental conditions in which they were told that women perform worse (Negative information), equally (Control) or better (Positive information) than men in logical mathematical tests, Later: they were given a difficult math test and asked to estimate their performance prior to taking the test. Consistent with predictions, participants who considered logical mathematical abilities important and received negative information regarding the ingroup showed lower levels of expectations and a sharp decrease in performance compared to women in the positive and control conditions. Moreover, expectancy, was found to partially, mediate the effect of stereotype threat on performance. In Experiment 2, we tested the generalizability, of these results to non stigmatized groups. A group of Black Americans living in Italy were provided with favourable or unfavourable information about either their minority, (Blacks) or their majority (Americans) ingroup. Consistent with predictions, participants both in the minority, and in the majority condition had lower expectations and under performed after negative information about the ingroup. However the level of expectancy was found to mediate the decrease in performance for participants in the Black but not in the American condition. In the discussion of these results it is suggested that, although comparable performance deficits are found for minority and majority, members, the underlying processes may, be different. 1161 33 2 2003 Jewish tradition is focused much more on religious practice than on religious belief, whereas various denominations of Christianity focus about equally on religious practice and on faith. Me explored whether this difference in dogma affects how Jews and Protestants judge religiosity. In Study 1, we showed that Jews and Protestants rated practice equally important in being religious, while Protestants rated belief more important than did Jews. In Study 2, Jewish participants §s self rated religiosity was predicted by their extent of practice but not knowledge of Judaism or religious beliefs. In contrast, in Study 3, Protestants §s self rated religiosity was predicted both by their extent of practice and belief but not knowledge. In all, the results show that Jews and Protestants view the importance of practice in being religious similarly, but that belief is more important for Protestants. 1162 33 3 2003 In two experiments we found that women exhibited worse psychological well being in a context in which gender discrimination was pervasive compared to a context in which is was rare. In Study 1, women who read an essay suggesting that sexism is pervasive reported lower self esteem than women who read an essay suggesting that sexism is rare. In Study 2, we examined the effects of the pervasiveness of sexism when women were making an attribution for a single negative outcome. Women who attributed a negative evaluation to pervasive sexism exhibited less positive self esteem and affect compared to women who could attribute the negative evaluation to an isolated instance of discrimination or to a non sexist, external cause. 1163 33 3 2003 "Two experiments investigated the extent of message processing of a persuasive communication proposed by either a numerical majority or minority. Both experiments crossed source status (majority versus minority) with message quality (strong versus weak arguments) to determine which source condition is associated with systematic processing. The first experiment showed a reliable difference between strong and weak messages, indicating systematic processing had occurred, for a minority irrespective of message direction (pro versus counter attitudinal), but not for a majority. The second experiment showed that message outcome moderates when a majority or a minority leads to systematic processing. When the message argued for a negative personal outcome, there was systematic processing only for the majority source; but when the message did not argue for a negative personal outcome, there was systematic processing only for the minority source. Thus one key moderator of whether a majority or minority source leads to message processing is whether the topic induces defensive processing motivated by self interest. " 1164 33 3 2003 In an experiment, the effects of types of outcomes on social value orientations (individualism, competition, pro social orientation) were investigated. Ninety nine students made 28 choices which affected outcomes (points to be converted into money) for themselves and another (unknown) person. About half of them started out with nothing but they could allocate positive outcomes (gains) to themselves and/or the other The other half were told that they themselves and another person would start out with some outcomes but they could lose outcomes depending on the choices. For about half the participants it was certain that their choices would result in outcomes while for the other half outcomes would be likely rather than certain. The expected utility of the outcomes was the same in the four conditions. In accordance with prospect theory, it was expected and found that participants would be more individualistic in the conditions with losses than in the conditions with gains. In accordance with social comparison theory, it was expected and found that participants would be more competitive in the conditions with probable outcomes than in the conditions with certain outcomes. 1165 33 3 2003 Two experiments explored the effect of arm positions of approach and avoidance on food intake. In Experiment 1, arm extension, an expression of avoidance behaviour, led to smaller food intake than arm flexion, an expression of approach behaviour In Experiment 2, this effect was found only for a delicious drink (i.e. orange juice), but not for a neutral drink (lukewarm water). Different theoretical accounts for explaining the findings are discussed. 1166 33 3 2003 Three studies explored the effects of the relative status of the multiple groups of which individuals are simultaneously members. In all studies participants reported their identification and their perception of the status of two groups (either real or experimental) of which they were simultaneously members. Results of all three studies lend support to the hypothesis that reactions to an ingroup are affected not only by the status of that group, but also by the status of another group of which an individual is simultaneously member: Individuals tend to perceive an ingroup as having higher status, and to identify with it more, if they are simultaneously members of a different group which has low rather than high status. 1167 33 3 2003 Two studies are described that investigated a proposed distinction between deservingness and entitlement. Deservingness was assumed to relate to the evaluative structure of actions and their contingent outcomes and entitlement to an external framework involving rights, rules and social norms. Study 1 investigated reactions to scenarios in which a student running for election in a national student organization exerted either high or low effort, was either eligible or ineligible for election by virtue of age, and was either elected or not elected. Study 2 investigated reactions to a scenario in which a stimulus person suffering from an illness had to decide how much, money to leave in a will to a son, nephew, or friend who provided him with either help or limited help. In both studies, student participants (n = 134 in Study 1, n = 236 in Study 2) completed ratings of deservingness and entitlement, as well as other measures. Results of both studies supported the distinction between deservingness and entitlement. Whether an outcome was deserved depended on amount of effort in Study 1 and on amount of help in Study 2. Results are also reported for other justice variables and for reported affect in Study 1, and for the amount allocated in the will in Study 2. 1168 33 3 2003 This experiment examined members §s evaluations of a group leader and the group in contexts where a superordinate group comprised two subgroups and the group leader was aligned with one or other subgroup. The design varied group leader (ingroup, outgroup) and leader behaviour (ingroup favouring, outgroup favouring) as well as the broader comparative context (intragroup, intergroup). Across a number of measures, results indicated a consistent Group Leader x Leader Behaviour interaction that was independent of comparative context. Although group members were most satisfied with an ingroup leader who favoured the ingroup, ingroup leaders were perceived positively irrespective of their behaviour Outgroup leaders who unexpectedly favoured the other subgroup were also perceived positively. However, outgroup leaders who favoured their own subgroup were perceived as less fair and as more biased than other leaders. They also engendered less identification with the superordinate group and a less unified perception of the group. Results demonstrate the importance of social identity concerns to leadership in nested group contexts and emphasize the fact that perceptions of leader fairness and concern for the common group mediate responses to the superordinate category. 1169 33 3 2003 This research uses interdependence theory to examine the link between commitment, costs, and willingness to sacrifice within interdependence dilemmas occurring in intimate relationships. Advancing prior work, which has demonstrated a positive association between relationship commitment and willingness to sacrifice, we investigated the moderating role of the cost of sacrifice in a scenario based survey. Consistent with our hypotheses it was found that in high cost interdependence dilemmas, significantly greater levels of sacrifice were observed from individuals classified as high in commitment than from individuals classified as low in commitment. However in low cost dilemmas the relationship between commitment and sacrifice disappears. Possible differences in motivations for sacrifice are discussed with respect to this finding. 1170 33 3 2003 The present study examines how individuals with different social value orientations (i.e. prosocial, individualistic, and competitive) construe the rationality, morality, and power of choices in four distinct interdependence structures which systematically differ in the motives that could underlie the most prosocial or least aggressive choice: (a) altruism only, (b) altruism and cooperation, (c) altruism, cooperation, and individualism, and (d) altruism, cooperation, individualism, and competition. Results revealed that rationality ratings, and to a lesser degree morality and power ratings, increased most when the motives that could underlie a choice were part of the perceiver §s social value orientation. Overall, the pattern of rationality ratings provided reasonable support for the Goal Prescribes Rationality Principle. Ratings of morality and power suggested a corresponding Goal Prescribes Morality/Power Principle (for prosocials and individualists), but revealed only mixed support for the Might Over Morality Hypothesis. 1171 33 4 2003 Linguistic abstractness has been shown to mediate persuasive and attributional effects of communication. The linguistic intergroup bias (LIB) refers to the tendency to describe positive ingroup and negative outgroup behaviours more abstractly than negative ingroup and positive outgroup behaviour. Recently, the LIB was shown to reflect to a large extent a linguistic expectancy bias (LEB). Abstract language need not have an ingroup serving function, but may be used to communicate expected information in a concise and condensed manner The present research shows that the reverse may also be true. When the interaction goal is not merely to convey information that is shared anyway because it is typical of the communication target but to transmit unshared information (known to the communicator but new to the recipient), then it may be necessary to express (explain, teach, interpret) unexpected ideas or deviant attitudes in abstract, interpretive terms. The joint operation of both principles was demonstrated within the same experimental task. In communications about East Germans, more abstract predicates were used in typically East German domains (LEB). However more abstract terms were also used when messages deviated from the recipient §s prior attitude. A conceptual framework is proposed to integrate these findings. 1172 33 4 2003 "This research was designed to examine whether perspective taking promotes improved intergroup attitudes regardless of the extent that stereotypic perceptions of outgroups are endorsed, as well as examining the mechanisms (attributional or empathy related) by which perspective taking motivates improved intergroup attitudes. Participants were presented with an interview segment where an African American interviewee discussed the difficulties experienced as a result of his membership in a negatively stereotyped group. Materials were presented in a 2 (perspective taking: other focused or objective focused) x 2 (target stereotypicality: confirming or disconfirming) between participants design. Findings revealed that the manipulation of target stereotypicality influenced subsequent stereotype endorsement; those exposed to a stereotype confirming target later endorsed more stereotypic perceptions of African Americans than did those exposed to a stereotype disconfirming target. However perspective taking promoted improved intergroup attitudes irrespective of stereotypicality; those encouraged to adopt the perspective of the target later reported more favourable intergroup attitudes than did those who remained detached and objective listeners. Whereas empathy partially mediated the relation between perspective taking and intergroup attitudes, situational attributions were a stronger and more reliable mediator " 1173 33 4 2003 The motivation to reciprocate is analysed within the framework of interdependence theory, with focus on the process of transformation of situations. A model of transformation is presented for the motivation to reciprocate and hypotheses regarding allocation behaviour and information seeking are derived. The hypotheses are tested in two experiments implementing a game where participants allocate payoff to self and other in a sequential way, with one participant able to gather costly information regarding the other §s previous behaviour. Individual differences in the motivation to reciprocate are assessed with the Personal Norm of Reciprocity questionnaire. Results show that participants with high motivation to reciprocate seek information regarding other §s past behaviour, and react to this information as the norm of reciprocity prescribes. Participants with low motivation to reciprocate prefer information regarding the future of the interaction (Study 1), or no information (Study 2), and behave in a more selfish way. Results are discussed with respect of (1) the transformation of situation process, (2) the role of reciprocity as an interpersonal motive, and (3) the validity of the individual differences measure. 1174 33 4 2003 An experiment (N = 98) investigated the moderating effect of ingroup identification on reactions to deviant ingroup members. We measured psychology students §s level of identification with the group psychologists and presented them with information about either a normative or deviant psychologist. Participants completed an ingroup stereotype measure either before or after reading about and evaluating the target psychologist. High identifiers expressed a more positive stereotype of the ingroup after compared to before, reading about a deviant ingroup member. High identifiers also expressed a more positive stereotype of the ingroup after reading about a deviant than after reading about a normative ingroup member. By contrast, low identifiers §s stereotype judgements were relatively unaffected by the target information. The target evaluation ratings indicate that high identifiers were more positive than low identifiers towards the normative ingroup member but were more negative than low identifiers towards the deviant. The results point to the greater motivational demands on high identifiers to maintain a positive image of the group. 1175 33 4 2003 Previous research has found that, among stigmatized group members, perceiving discrimination against the ingroup simultaneously yields a positive indirect effect on self worth (mediated by ingroup identification) and a negative direct effect (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 1999). This study not only replicated these effects with a sample of women, but also revealed that the negative direct effect was mediated by perceived status of the ingroup: as perceived discrimination increased, perceived ingroup status decreased, which in turn lowered collective self worth. Perceiving discrimination also increased the accessibility of the stigmatized group §s devalued status. A new direction for future research may be to consider when stigmatized group members might affirm the ingroup rather than protect self worth. 1176 33 4 2003 Two experiments examined whether dispositional attributions are sensitive to the sample size of the evidence indicating a given level of covariation between person and behaviour. Participants were given high or low levels of covariation (i.e. consensus and distinctiveness), and the acquisition of dispositional attributions was monitored by requesting dispositional trait ratings at fixed intervals. The results showed that dispositional attributions were sensitive to sample size, and increased given more evidence on high person behaviour covariation while they decreased given more evidence on low person behaviour covariation. Additional analyses suggested that in making dispositional inferences (e.g. about the actor), there was a slight preference for agreement information (e.g. low distinctiveness) over difference information (e.g. low consensus). The effects of sample size are inconsistent with current statistical or probabilistic models of covariation, but are in line with connectionist networks using an error correcting learning algorithm. 1177 33 4 2003 Three experimental studies examined to what extent leader §s consistent use of procedures constitutes an important procedural fairness rule and influences people §s reactions as a function of social self esteem. In line with a recent claim that more attention should be devoted to different procedural fairness rules (Brockner Ackerman, & Fairchild, 2001), the findings of Study I demonstrated that inconsistent leaders were evaluated as less procedurally fair and influenced feelings of uncertainty about oneself in ongoing interpersonal interactions. Study 2 showed that manipulating leader §s consistency influenced people §s procedural fairness judgments and willingness to replace the leader but only among those low in social self esteem (SSE). Finally, Study 3, using another consistency manipulation, demonstrated that variations in consistency made participants feel bad about themselves, particularly when they were low in SSE. These findings are discussed in light of research on relational models of justice and sociometer theory. 1178 33 4 2003 Attitudinal ambivalence extends the traditional unidimensional conceptualization of attitude by acknowledging that people can simultaneously evaluate attitude objects as positive and negative. The present paper argues that this bidimensional view of attitudes may be extended further to take account Of multidimensional influences on attitudes using measures of belief homogeneity. Study I (n = 155) showed that attitudes based on homogeneous belief sets were significantly more predictive of subsequent behaviour (beta = 0.47, p < 0.01) than were attitudes based on heterogeneous belief sets (beta = 0.08, ns). Study 2 (n = 136) manipulated belief homogeneity and found that when beliefs were made heterogeneous, attitudes based on heterogeneous belief sets were significantly less predictive of behavioural intentions (beta = 0.46, p < 0.01) than attitudes based on homogeneous belief sets (beta = 0.84, p < 0.01). Implications for research on attitudinal ambivalence and attribute importance are discussed. 1179 33 4 2003 Double forced compliance situations are studied to analyse how attitudes change after the performance of two behaviours, rather than just one as in standard forced (or induced) compliance situations. In the present experiment, subjects were asked to execute two successive counterattitudinal behaviours: writing an essay in favour of selective admission to the third year of university (first behaviour) and giving a convincing speech in favour of selective admission (second behaviour). The first behaviour was always performed in a high commitment context (free choice, publicness, and consequences), whereas the second was performed in a high commitment context as well as in a low commitment context (free choice, anonymity, and no consequences). The following hypotheses were tested. (1) If the second behaviour is performed in a high commitment context, it will increase the dissonance induced by the first. (2) If the second behaviour is performed in a low commitment context, it will decrease the dissonance induced by the first. The results confirmed both hypotheses, which comply with the radical version of dissonance theory (Beauvois & Joule, 1996, 1999). As a whole, these results are incompatible with competing theories of Festinger §s theory of dissonance (1957), and in particular with self perception and impression management theories. 1180 33 5 2003 The present research investigated the influence of group related evaluative associations on the process of impression formation. In particular we expected the impact of a target §s category membership on the construal of ambiguous behaviour to be moderated by perceivers §s evaluative associations related to the target category. Associative strength was further expected to have an indirect effect on dispositional inference, mediated by its impact on behaviour identification. Results support both of these assumptions. Moreover, the influence of evaluative associations on impression formation was not moderated by perceivers §s motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Rather motivation to control moderated only the relation between evaluative associations and the explicit endorsement of prejudiced beliefs about the target group in general, such that explicit prejudice endorsement was correlated with evaluative associations only for perceivers low, but not for those high in motivation to control. Implications for prejudice control are discussed. 1181 33 5 2003 The interplay between two perspectives that have recently been applied in the attitude area the social identity approach to attitude behaviour relations (Terry & Hogg, 1996) and the MODE model (Fazio, 1990a) was examined in the present research. Two experimental studies were conducted to examine the role of group norms, group identification, attitude accessibility, and mode of behavioural decision making in the attitude behaviour relationship. In Study I (N = 211), the effects of norms and identification on attitude behaviour consistency as a function of attitude accessibility and mood were investigated. Study 2 (N = 354) replicated and extended the first experiment by using time pressure to manipulate mode of behavioural decision making. As expected, the effects of norm congruency varied as a function of identification and mode of behavioural decision making. Under conditions assumed to promote deliberative processing (neutral mood/low time pressure), high identifiers behaved in a manner consistent with the norm. No effects emerged under positive mood and high time pressure conditions. In Study 2, there was evidence that exposure to an attitude incongruent norm resulted in attitude change only under low accessibility conditions. The results of these studies highlight the powerful role of group norms in directing individual behaviour and suggest limited support for the MODE model in this context. 1182 33 5 2003 A number of studies have looked at causes of ingroup bias, but few studies have actually investigated whether the two components of ingroup bias, i.e. ingroup and outgroup evaluation, are related to each other and whether they have similar or different predictors. In the Fiji Islands, self , ingroup, and outgroup evaluations were obtained using within subject correlations from a sample of 336 indigenous and Indian Fijians. Self evaluation was positively related to ingroup evaluation, and both were positively related to outgroup evaluation, supporting a spillover model. After controlling for background variables and the other evaluation variables, regression analyses showed that ingroup identification was positively related to ingroup evaluation, and social distance and political ethnocentrism were negatively related to outgroup evaluation. Additionally, ethnicity interacted with collective self esteem in determining both ingroup favouritism and outgroup derogation. 1183 33 5 2003 Participants §s preference for one of two politicians running for the post of Chancellor in Germany was measured. Under conditions conducive to effortful processing, participants were then presented with a persuasive message ascribed to one of these two sources. The message was either unambiguous strong, unambiguous weak, or ambiguous. Different from previous research on the role of message ambiguity for attitude change, the ambiguous message consisted of arguments rated as moderately convincing in a pretest rather than of a mixture of strong and weak arguments. The results were in line with predictions derived from the heuristic systematic model (HSM). Indicating unbiased systematic processing, an unambiguous strong message led to more agreement than an unambiguous weak message. In the case of an ambiguous message, in line with the HSM §s bias hypothesis, more agreement was found among participants preferring the source politician as compared to participants preferring the other politician. 1184 33 5 2003 We examine the notion of impostors withingroups, defined in this paper as people who make public claims to an identity while disguising their failure to fulfil key criteria for group membership. In Experiment 1, vegetarians showed heightened levels of negative affect toward vegetarians who ate meat occasionally compared to an authentic vegetarian. In contrast, non vegetarians saw the impostor to be marginally more likeable than the authentic vegetarian. In Experiments 2 and 3, participants evaluated only a vegetarian who ate meat. Evaluations of the target were influenced by group attachment, such that participants who identified strongly as vegetarians downgraded the target more strongly and experienced more negative affect than did moderate identifiers and non vegetarians. Participants were also sensitive to the size of the gulf between the target §s claims for identity and their behaviour. Thus, targets who made public claims to being a vegetarian but ate meat were evaluated more negatively than were people who kept their claims for identity private (Experiment 2). Similarly, targets who tried to keep their deviant behaviour secret were evaluated more negatively than were people who openly admitted their deviant behaviour (Experiment 3). The reasons why impostors might threaten the integrity of group identities are discussed. 1185 33 5 2003 Recent work indicates that trying not to think in stereotypical terms increases the accessibility of stereotypical information, which paradoxically results in more stereotypical judgments. The present study translated the colour blindness ideology in general and stereotype suppression research in particular into an hypothesis testing setting. Participants who were asked to suppress their stereotypes when selecting a set of questions were indeed less guided by ambient stereotypes than control participants, thereby showing a reduction of the classical confirmation orientation in question preferences. Still, compared to control participants, suppressors also later reported more polarized impressions such that consistent targets were seen as more stereotypical and inconsistent ones as more counter stereotypical. Moreover group evaluations were more stereotypical for suppressors than for controls indicating that suppression had led to stronger activation of the stereotypical representation. Results are discussed in light of the prevailing belief regarding the benefits of political correctness and colour blindness. 1186 33 5 2003 A method for the unobtrusive manipulation of self esteem is presented. In four experiments, participants were subliminally exposed to either negative or positive adjectives paired with a self referring word ( I ). The manipulation affected both self esteem and a probable consequence of self esteem (self serving bias) but did not affect mood or evaluation of a non self related object. When the adjectives were paired with a non self referring word, the manipulation had no effects. Together the findings suggest that a) the method is an effective means of manipulating self esteem without side effects on mood and b) selective activation of evaluative self knowledge is the mediating process. Thus, the method promises to be a useful tool for the experimental investigation of the consequences of self esteem. 1187 33 6 2003 In explaining differences between groups, people ascribe the human essence to their ingroup and consider outgroups as less human. This phenomenon, called infra humanization, occurs outside people §s awareness. Because secondary emotions (e.g. love, hope, contempt, resentment) are considered uniquely human emotions, people not only attribute more secondary emotions to their ingroup than to outgroups, but are reluctant to associate these emotions with outgroups. Moreover, people behave less cooperatively (in terms of altruism, imitation, and approach) with an outgroup member who expresses himself through secondary emotions. Infra humanization occurs for high and low status groups, even in the absence of conflict between groups. It does not occur when the outgroup target is adequately individualized, by a complete name or through perspective taking, for instance. 1188 33 6 2003 Any judgment involves a comparison of the evaluated target to a pertinent norm or standard, so that comparison processes lie at the core of human judgment. Despite this prominent role, however, little is known about the psychological mechanisms that underlie comparisons and produce their variable consequences. To understand these consequences, one has to examine what target knowledge is sought and activated during the comparison process. Two alternative comparison mechanisms are distinguished. Similarity, testing involves a selective search for evidence indicating that the target is similar to the standard and leads to assimilation. Dissimilarity testing involves a selective search for evidence indicating that the target is dissimilar from the standard and leads to contrast. Distinguishing between these alternative mechanisms provides an integrative perspective on comparison consequences in the realm of social comparison and beyond. 1189 33 6 2003 "It is argued that the entitativity of the ingroup moderates the level of identification with the ingroup. Specifically; that high levels of entitativity are conducive to strong identification, whereas low levels of entitativity reduce identification with the ingroup. These hypotheses were tested across four studies using the European Union (EU) as the reference group. The four studies manipulated four different factors that, according to Campbell (1958), impact on group entitativity: common fate (Study 1), similarity (Study 2), salience (Study 3), and boundedness (Study 4). Across the four studies, we found evidence for the impact of these factors on the level of identification with the EU among European citizens holding moderate attitudes toward the EU but not (or much less) for citizens holding more extreme attitudes towards the EU. Mediational analyses further confirmed the viability of an entitativity based interpretation of the impact of the manipulations on the level of identification. The findings are discussed in light of the current debate on the concept of entitativity, the motives for social identification, and the reduction of ingroup bias. " 1190 33 6 2003 We examined the impact of the distribution of information regarding social groups on the formation of shared stereotypes within triads in two studies. Three person groups discussed which of three groups (A, B, and C) was the most able and the most sociable. In Study 1, some of the information about these three groups was available to all group members (shared) whereas the remainder was distributed among group members (unique). Based on the total profile, there was more evidence of group A being sociable and of group B being able than of A being able and B sociable. In Study 1 (n = 58), sampling was manipulated as `representative (information in line with the overall differences was shared) or unrepresentative (only information contradicting these differences was shared). In a third condition, all items of information were shared. Emerging stereotypes were directly influenced by sampling of information independently of the discussion. As well as this, the discussion consensualized initial stereotypes. In Study 2 (n = 52), sampling was always unrepresentative and we manipulated the labels associated with the target groups in such a way that the stereotype associated with the label was either inconsistent or consistent with the overall differences between the target groups. In the inconsistent condition, participants were more likely to discuss information that violated stereotypical expectations, and to be less influenced by sampling as a result of discussion. Altogether, these findings suggest that information sampling directly affects the consensualization of social stereotypes. 1191 33 6 2003 In the present study (N = 37), we assessed attitudes towards a telecast (Big Brother) with indirect (masked affective priming) and direct (semantic differentials) methods. Additionally, participants recorded their TV viewing behaviour for a period of 7 days. Implicit positivity of the telecast (assessed by the affective priming task), explicit positivity (semantic differentials), and minutes per week spent viewing the TV show were all positively correlated. Viewers of the telecast show a positive priming effect for the label of the telecast (thereby indicating a positive implicit attitude towards the show). Implications for the research and the theoretical debate on implicit attitudes are discussed. 1192 33 6 2003 The attribution of blame model of judgments of injustice, which is the focus of this article, depicts judgments of injustice as blaming of an actor who is seen as responsible for the violation of the entitlement of somebody else without sufficient justification. Responsibility and blame are reconceptualised in the model in accordance with Heider (1958) and Shaver (1985). The article briefly describes the background and the propositions of the model and its scope. Then it reports a series of four correlational and one experimental studies which tested the validity of the model. The findings lend support to the propositions that attributions of causality and intention and perceived lack of sufficient justification contribute to the perception of injustice beyond the mere perception that somebody §s entitlement or deserving has been violated. However, no support was found for the assumption that perceived control of the respective agent contributes to the perception of injustice. The concluding section discusses the main findings of the studies and points to questions which should be pursued in future research in order to establish the range of validity of the proposed model of judgments of injustice. 1193 33 6 2003 No previous work in the field of group related attitudes and emotions has investigated the possible affective consequences of ingroup ambivalence that is, the consequences of having attitudes towards an ingroup that are simultaneously both positive and negative. The current study was designed to explore this issue. Ambivalent attitudes have been argued to be more psychologically salient to the individual than univalent ones. A linear increase in participants §s experienced affect was therefore predicted as a function of their ambivalence toward the ingroup. However, consistent with the predictions of social identity theory, previous findings have shown that higher ingroup identifiers are more likely to be involved with the ingroup than lower identifiers. Accordingly, we predicted and found effects of ingroup ambivalence on affect for high but not low ingroup identifiers. Combining the findings of two distinct literatures, the initial evidence provided by this study exploratively traces the sources of the affective processes that are set in motion by the evaluation of one §s own group in an intergroup context. 1194 34 1 2004 From the perspective of terror management theory, reminders of mortality should intensify the desire to maintain faith in one §s own cultural worldview. We investigated this notion with regard to attitudes of Germans toward an important political event, the fall of the Berlin wall and German reunification. We found that when reminded of their own death, people with a supportive attitude toward the German reunification showed a more favourable evaluation of a positive essay about the fall of the Berlin wall and a more negative reaction to a critical essay than participants in the control condition. People with a more neutral attitude toward the reunification on the other hand did not show this effect. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed. 1195 34 1 2004 This paper addresses the hypothesis derived from self categorization theory (SCT) that the relationship between groups and stereotyping will be affected by the social structural conditions within which group interaction occurs. A mixed design experiment (n = 56) measured low status groups §s stereotypes and preferences for conflict with a high status outgroup prior to and after withingroup discussion across varying social structural conditions. Over time, participants in open conditions consensualized around positive conceptions of the outgroup and endorsed acceptance of their own low status position. However in closed conditions participants consensualized around positive conceptions of the ingroup, negative conceptions of the outgroup, and tended towards preferences for collective protest. It is argued that the data support S CT §s contention that stereotyping and group processes are fundamentally interlinked and that neither can be properly understood in isolation from the dynamics of the surrounding intergroup context. 1196 34 1 2004 Self other comparisons frequently evoke contrastive reactions, especially when the comparison dimension is relevant and when people strive to maintain or preserve a positive self evaluation. In three studies, normal weight women were asked to gauge satisfaction with their body weight. In Study 1, self evaluation was affected by accessible distinctive information either referring to the self or to comparison others. Studies 2 and 3 tested whether the evaluative contrast observed in Study 1 is reduced when shared features receive greater weight. Consistent with the proposition that perceived similarity between self and comparison others renders assimilative reactions more likely, evaluative contrast was markedly reduced when similarities were stressed prior to the comparison process, either by suggesting that one shares certain characteristics with others unrelated to the comparison dimension or by increasing the identification with the comparison other through an intergroup contrast. 1197 34 1 2004 Higgins §s (2000) theory of regulatory fit proposes that motivational strength will be enhanced when the manner in which people work toward a goal sustains (rather than disrupts) their regulatory orientation. This enhanced motivational strength in turn should improve efforts at goal attainment. In Experiment 1, predominantly promotion and prevention focused participants were given the goal of writing a report on their leisure time, and were assigned either eagerness or vigilance framed means to use. Promotion/eagerness and prevention/vigilance participants were about 50% more likely to turn in their reports than promotion/vigilance and prevention/eagerness participants. In Experiment 2, participants read either a promotion or a prevention framed health message urging them to eat more fruits and vegetables, and were then asked to imagine either the benefits of compliance or the costs of non compliance. Promotion/benefits and prevention/costs participants subsequently ate about 20% more fruits and vegetables over the following week than promotion/costs and prevention/benefits participants. The implications of regulatory fit §s enhancement of motivational strength are discussed. 1198 34 1 2004 Pertinent to the question of projective error, two methodological factors that threaten the descriptive validity of projection measures are considered in conjunction with the effects of item type (abilities vs. opinions). Study I examined the effect of experimental paradigm. Compared to the assumed similarity method, projection indices from the consensus method were significantly lower resulting in reduced accuracy. Study 2 focused on measurement sequence effects. Measuring group estimates before self ratings produced higher but more valid projection indices. The ability opinion distinction was a factor common to both studies. The effect of item type on accuracy was mediated by projection: accuracy was greater on opinions because projection was stronger For both item types, measures of projective error implied under projection. Whilst the degree of error rests ultimately on paradigm validity, the heuristic value of projection should remain unrealised. 1199 34 1 2004 Within attitude theory the concepts of desires and intentions are not differentiated but are often treated as synonyms. However we argue that there are theoretical reasons for distinguishing between desires and intentions, and we articulate three main criteria, perceived performability, action connectedness, and temporal framing, that differentiate between the two constructs. Two studies are reported to test the distinction. Study 1 (n = 188) revealed that desires, compared to intentions, are less performable, are less connected to actions, and are enacted over longer time frames. Study 2 (n = 249) showed, among other things, that the perceived feasibility for actions that are desired and intended is higher than for those that are only desired, but only when the action refers to relatively short time frames (i.e. 1 week or 4 weeks vs. 4 months). The findings are discussed in the light of the distinction between intentions and desires and the role that they play in individual decision making. 1200 34 1 2004 Three experiments investigated the operation of prototypical person categories, which were either at a superordinate or at a subordinate level of abstraction, on person memory. In Experiment 1, a recognition memory experiment, subjects received person attributes describing fictional target persons, each description pertaining to one of the two abstraction levels. Distractors in the recognition test varied in degree of relatedness to a prototypical category. Distractors that were related to the corresponding category were falsely recognized, if the category was at a superordinate level, but not for a subordinate category. This revealed a significant bias in recognition toward conceptually related but nonpresented items only at the superordinate level. In Experiment 2 which used a conceptual priming procedure subjects responded faster to distractor items related to a superordinate category than to those related to a subordinate category. Experiment 3 replicated the difference between levels of abstraction when subjects §s task was to recall rather than to recognize the presented attributes. The findings imply that person categories at different levels of abstraction operate differentially on person memory and restrict assumptions from prototype theory to a superordinate level. 1201 34 2 2004 Three studies test the hypothesis that the subjective ease of symptom imagination moderates the impact of differently framed messages on attitudes toward performing health behaviours. By drawing on the simulation heuristic, it is argued that the vividness of information is reflected in the subjective ease with which people can imagine having symptoms of an illness. This state of mind can be more or less congruent with the theme of a message, accentuating certain health related outcomes more than others. The results show that negatively framed messages are more persuasive when symptom imagination is relatively easy and that positively framed messages are more effective when symptom imagination is relatively difficult. Consistent with a dual process view, Study 3 showed a stronger impact of ease of imagination when relevance was low rather than high. 1202 34 2 2004 In two experiments, a bias in lineups was examined, which has mostly been ignored in previous research. The psychic state of the suspects differs from the state of the fillers, in that they face a situation that can lead to personal loss (if they are identified) or relief (if they are not identified). This state might result in detectable behavioural cues, thus making the lineup unfair Lineups were conducted with randomly chosen mock suspects who were promised money if they were not identified. Lineup samples were recorded on videotape once before the selection of the mock suspect (serving as a control) and once afterwards. The probability of identification of the mock suspect was significantly increased in the latter compared to the former condition. 1203 34 2 2004 Within the framework of an intergroup relations paradigm, three studies analysed the role of ingroup threat in intergroup discrimination and the influence of ingroup norms on intergroup discrimination. The first study showed that perceived socio economic threat underlies Swiss nationals §s prejudice and discrimination toward foreigners in Switzerland. The second and third studies experimentally tested the hypotheses, first, that variations in Perception of ingroup threat will produce change in initial discrimination, and, second, that the influence of an ingroup norm (pro vs. anti discriminatory) is moderated by the perception of ingroup threat. In support of these predictions, results of both studies indicated that discrimination was reduced when perceived ingroup threat was low. However the anti discriminatory ingroup norm reduced discrimination only when perceived ingroup threat was low. No influence was observed for the pro discriminatory ingroup norm. 1204 34 2 2004 We investigated the effects of ingroup and outgroup sources of respect, defined as positive social evaluations of self on group members §s emotional reactions and collective self esteem. We used both natural group memberships (Studies I and 2) and laboratory groups (Study 3). We expected that the positive effects of respect derived from an ingroup would not hold when derived from an outgroup source. In Study I (N = 294) respect was manipulated as deriving either from ingroup or outgroup. Although respect produced a positive emotional reaction irrespective of source, collective self esteem was only enhanced by an ingroup source. In Study 2 (N = 248), we investigated the concurrent effects of ingroup respect and outgroup respect. As in Study 1, ingroup and outgroup respect both produced positive emotional reactions, but collective self esteem was only affected by ingroup respect. Additionally, outgroup respect intensified the shame people experienced due to lack of ingroup respect. In Study 3 (N = 66), participants were immersed in experimental groups and ingroup and outgroup respect were manipulated orthogonally. Interactive effects of the two sources of respect indicated that high outgroup respect could not compensate for low ingroup respect, and if anything had an adverse effect. 1205 34 2 2004 Theorizing on procedural justice has assumed that people §s reactions to outgroup authorities are to a large extent based on instrumental concerns. Therefore, attention is primarily directed to outcomes rather than procedures in encounters with outgroup authorities. In the current article we propose that in order for people dealing with outgroup authorities to be strongly affected by procedural fairness, the available outcome information should be ambiguous. Furthermore, we argue that people confronted with an outgroup authority react particularly negatively to unfair procedures that give them negative outcome expectancies. These patterns are not expected in encounters with ingroup authorities. Two experiments support our line of reasoning. The discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for the integration of theoretical perspectives on procedural justice. 1206 34 2 2004 When people are asked to explain a time series consisting of population statistics, they will suggest factors responsible for later events rather than for earlier events. This is shown in Experiment I for pairs of events and in Experiment 2 for triads of events with one deviant member When the deviant statistic is the most recent one, it will in most cases be singled out for explanation. When it comes first, it is rarely explained, but accepted as a given fact. This is seen as an instance of the temporal order effect, where the first event in a pair or a series is taken for granted, whereas later events are considered more mutable , i.e. they could have been different. In line with this, later statistics are considered to be more in need of support from additional information than earlier statistics (Experiment 3). The focus on temporally later events can be distinguished from other primacy and recency effects by being due to chronological order rather than order of presentation. 1207 34 2 2004 While the topic of forgiveness has only recently started to receive empirical attention, little research has been conducted to examine the notion that forgiveness predicts pro relationship responses, motivated by a willingness to set aside personal well being to enhance the well being of the partner or relationship. The purpose of the present research was to examine whether forgiveness predicts pro relationship responses, and whether it does so above and beyond commitment to the offender Consistent with hypotheses, three studies revealed that forgiveness is significantly associated with (a) willingness to accommodate (i.e. to respond constructively rather than destructively when the partner has engaged in a potentially destructive act), (b) willingness to sacrifice, and (c) level of intended cooperation. Moreover, these associations were independent of commitment to the offender providing initial evidence for the unique role of forgiveness in understanding pro relationship motivation and behaviour Finally, the results of Study 3 suggested that forgiveness restores, rather than increases, levels of pro relationship motivation, compared to baseline levels of pro relationship motivation. 1208 34 3 2004 Both Anglo French and Mexican American relations are embedded in histories of conflict. Within these intergroup contexts, two longitudinal field studies of contact tested Pettigrew §s (1998) reformulated model of the intergroup contact theory and Gaertner and Dovidio §s (2000) Common Ingroup Identity Model (CIIM). In Pettigrew §s model, intergroup friendship is accorded a special role and the contact bias relation is mediated by changing behaviour, ingroup reappraisal, generating affective ties, and learning about the outgroup. Pettigrew §s integration of the three central models of contact generalization into a time sequence holds that contact first elicits decategorization, then salient categorization, and finally recategorization. In the CIIM, these three levels of categorization plus a fourth, dual identity are reconceptualised to be mediators in the contact bias relation. Results point to the crucial importance of intergroup friendship and underline the mediating roles of learning about the outgroup, behaviour modification, and generating affective ties, but not ingroup reappraisal in Pettigrew §s model. As for the CHM, in Study 1 interpersonal and intergroup levels were most central, while in Study 2 the dual identity and superordinate group levels were most effective. Tie implications of the findings are discussed with reference to the likely stability of these effects in different intergroup contexts. 1209 34 3 2004 Dominant personality models of the self concept (e.g. self schema theory) conceive of the self as a relatively stable cognitive representation or schema. The self schema controls how we process self relevant information across a myriad of situations. Conversely, self categorization theory argues that self perception is highly variable and context dependent. It was hypothesized in two studies (N = 114 and 200) that the effect of personal self schemas on information processing would be eliminated when the context makes a conflicting higher order identity salient. Results largely supported self categorization theory. Across various dependent measures (trait endorsements, response latencies, and confidence in self descriptions), participants generally responded in line with the salient identity, even if this pattern of responding directly 17 contradicted their personal self schema. Implications for dominant personality models of the self concept are examined. 1210 34 3 2004 In this paper we discuss inclusiveness of identification among farmers in Galicia (Spain) and The Netherlands. Identification with three nested categories farmers in the local community, farmers in the country, and farmers in Europe was assessed among 167 Dutch and 248 Galician farmers at three points in time: winter of 1993194, winter 1995 and fall 1995. Our findings suggest that inclusiveness reduces the level of identification. However the observed patterns of identification were more complex than inclusiveness per se can account for. Borrowing from the common ingroup identity model, functional and socialization models of identity formation, and a model of politicized collective identity we formulated hypotheses about patterns of identification that were to be expected. On the whole our findings supported our theoretical reasoning. Galician farmers appear to identify much less with farmers in their country and Europe than Dutch farmers do. Inclusiveness of identification appears to be linked to experience with national and supranational political institutions. More political knowledge and involvement appear to generate more inclusive patterns of identification. Among Galician farmers evaluation of the agricultural policy of the European Union is negatively related to identification with farmers in Europe, among Dutch farmers the two are positively related. Finally, more inclusive identities seem to be more politicized. 1211 34 3 2004 In two everyday experience studies, we examined the degree to which everyday social comparisons are framed by group membership. In the first study, 30 undergraduates attending a public university in the United States completed short questionnaires about their social comparison experiences whenever they were signalled. In the second study, 34 ethnic minority undergraduates from the same university completed similar questionnaires about their social comparison experiences. Across both studies, comparisons in which participants viewed themselves as an ingroup member in comparison to all outgroup comprised less than 10% of the comparison experiences reported by participants. However minorities in the second study who reported closer identification with their ethnic group reported more comparison experiences in which they mentioned their own or the comparison target §s ethnicity 1212 34 3 2004 When we cannot alter the characteristics of an aversive event, we are still able to prepare ourselves for what is to come. In other words, we can engage in anticipatory coping. Known self esteem differences in self regulation led to the prediction that low self esteem (LSE) individuals would evidence different anticipatory coping patterns than high self esteem (HSE) people. HSE and LSE participants were faced with either a low or high probability of engaging in a painful task. They were told about, and given the opportunity to engage in, a preparatory strategy aimed at minimizing discomfort during the painful task. Those participants in the low probability condition prepared for the painful task less than did those participants in the high probability condition. As hypothesized, the affect of probability condition was more pronounced for HSE, compared to LSE, participants. Also, in the low probability condition, there was a trend towards LSE participants preparing more than HSE participants. 1213 34 3 2004 "Prior theorizing of rationality in social dilemmas suggests that individuals pursuing different interaction goals may perceive different associations between competence and behaviour in a social dilemma, arguing that competitive individuals associate competence with noncooperation (i.e. noncooperation = smart), whereas prosocial individuals associate competence with cooperation (i.e. cooperation= smart; goal prescribes rationality principle, Van Lange & Kuhlman, 1994). The present research examines whether cooperative interaction can be affected by subtle activation (or priming) of competence, and whether the effects may differ for competitive versus prosocial participants. Consistent with hypotheses, two experiments revealed that priming competence yielded reduced levels of cooperation (and greater exploitation) among competitors, and yielded no effects (Experiment 1) or a tendency towards enhanced cooperation (Experiment 2) among prosocials. The discussion considers theoretical implications of relatively subtle influences on cooperative interaction in social dilemmas. " 1214 34 3 2004 The present research examined the effect of receiving voice or not on positive affect as a function of how the enacting authority was selected and the extent to which people experienced strong belongingness needs. Participants were asked to generate ideas with respect to an electronic portfolio. Their opinions were then evaluated by a group leader who was either appointed by the experimenter elected by the group and who reflected the participant §s own choice, or elected by the group but who did not reflect the participant §s own choice. This group leader then gave participants the opportunity to voice their ideas or not. Participants reported positive affect did not vary as a function of receiving voice or not when the enacting leader was elected and did not reflect the participant §s own choice. The voice effect on positive affect did, however appear in the other two leadership selection conditions. Further, this pattern was found only among those with a strong need to belong. 1215 34 3 2004 Two studies (n = 273 and 254) used self determination theory (SDT) to examine unemployed people §s motivation both to search and not to search for a job. The self regulation questionnaire format (Ryan & Connell, 1989) was used to assess participants §s autonomous and controlled job search motivation (the why of job search) as well as their amotivation for searching. Additionally, both autonomous and controlled motivation for not searching (the why not of job search) was assessed. Results provide validity for these five motivational constructs and indicate, in line with SDT, that the constructs predicted reports of search behaviour affective experiences, and well being. The addition of autonomous and controlled motivation for not searching contributed additional predictive power beyond the motivational constructs that focused only on searching. 1216 34 4 2004 Researchers of group creativity have noted problems such as social loafing, production blocking, and especially, evaluation apprehension. Thus, brainstorming techniques have specifically admonished people not to criticize their own and others §s ideas, a tenet that has gone unexamined. In contrast, there is research showing that dissent, debate and competing views have positive value, stimulating divergent and creative thought. Perhaps more importantly, we suggest that the permission to criticize and debate may encourage an atmosphere conducive to idea generation. In this experimental study, traditional brainstorming instructions, including the advice of not criticizing, were compared with instructions encouraging people to debate even criticize. A third condition served as a control. This study was conducted both in the United States and in France. Results show the value of both types of instruction, but, in general, debate instructions were superior to traditional brainstorming instructions. Further these findings hold across both cultures. Results are discussed in terms of the potential positive value of encouraging debate and controversy for idea generation. 1217 34 4 2004 An experiment investigated whether the enhanced importance of the ingroup as a consequence of the salience of death thoughts is a unconscious defence mechanism. Scottish participants were subliminally primed with either the word death or field. Subsequently, they were asked to classify a series of pictures as either English or Scottish, and to state whether a series of negative traits applied to the English or not. Results showed that participants primed with the word death were more likely to exclude targets that looked more like outgroup than ingroup members, than participants in the field (control) prime condition. The pattern observed on the categorization latency also supported the claim that death prime participants are more careful in classifying targets. Finally, death prime participants also conveyed more negative, stereotypical judgments of the English in a trait attribution task. The implications of the results are discussed in relation to terror management theory and social identification phenomena. 1218 34 4 2004 Past success often causes groups to think narrowly around strategies that have worked in the past, even when environmental change has rendered these strategies ineffective. From a psychological perspective, this research seems to indicate that past success may give rise to convergent thinking ingroups. Why might successful groups be prone to convergent thinking? I argue that the relationship between past success and convergent thinking may depend on the attributions that groups generate to explain their shared success. In this paper I focus on two distinct attributions at the group level: Individual focused attributions that reflect the idiosyncratic characteristics of individual group members and group focused attributions that reflect the emergent properties of the group as a whole. I found that group focused attributions for past success cause groups to generate fewer ideas that are, on average, more convergent. In contrast, individual focused attributions cause groups to generate more ideas that are on average more divergent. These findings suggest that the experience of success may actually stimulate divergent thinking depending on how a group chooses to explain it. 1219 34 4 2004 The false fame effect is the phenomenon that familiar names are falsely judged famous more often than unfamiliar names. M.R. Banaji and A.G. Greenwald (1995) demonstrated a gender bias in the false fame effect: In line with existing gender stereotypes, the false fame effect was larger for male than for female names. A more general explanation for gender biasing in fame judgments is based on cognitive availability. Name gender could be used as an ecologically valid cue when making fame judgments. If the relevant universe of famous names contained more male than female names, a gender bias in fame judgments should be observed, if it contained more female names, the gender bias should be reversed. Indeed, this pattern could be demonstrated experimentally, and we argue that it is not compatible with an account that draws on gender stereotyping but with one based on cognitive availability. 1220 34 4 2004 Forming an implementation intention ( If I encounter situation X, then I ll perform behaviour Y! ) is thought to increase the likelihood that the person will detect a good opportunity to act. Experiment I found support for this hypothesis in a novel context where detection of the specified cue was very difficult. Experiments 2 and 3 extended existing paradigms to test whether this improved cue detection has costs in terms of increased false positives and/or slower responses to ambiguous stimuli. This hypothesis was not supported. Forming an implementation intention led to more accurate (Experiment 2) and faster (Experiment 3) responses to the specified cue without compromising responses to nonrelevant, or ambiguous, stimuli. Overall, the findings suggest that forming an implementation intention is an effective self regulatory tool because the specified cues are discriminated swiftly and with precision. 1221 34 4 2004 Past research has shown that counterfactual thinking ( if only... ) is related to judgements of responsibility for negative events. It has also shown that behaviours deviating from the target §s own behavioural standard (intrapersonal norm) are likely to trigger counterfactuals the so called exceptional routine effect. In the present research, we demonstrate that behaviours deviating from a social category §s behavioural standard (social norm) are also likely to trigger counterfactuals what may be called the nonconformity effect. Two studies investigated counterfactual thinking regarding a rape case, classifying counterfactuals according to their conformity versus nonconformity to relevant social norms, and their focus on actions versus inactions. In Study 1, participants with higher endorsement of the rape victim stereotype generated more counterfactuals on the victim §s nonconforming inactions than did participants with lower stereotype endorsement. The presence of a nonconformity effect was confirmed in Study 2, where participants rated their agreement with externally generated counterfactuals. Moreover, in Study 2, counterfactuals focused on the victim §s non conforming inactions predicted responsibility attribution to the victim through the mediating role of perceived avoidability of the event. 1222 34 4 2004 In previous research, targets §s sensitivity to prejudice cues has been assessed on the basis of two types of information. Prototypical information renders the situation representative of discrimination encountered by the ingroup. Diagnostic information is a direct indication that prejudice possibly is operating in a given situation. We hypothesize that, when available and processed at the onset of an evaluation situation, prototypical information shapes targets §s understanding of subsequent diagnostic information. In three experiments, participants were informed that they were to be evaluated by relevant outgroup members either before or after having performed a task. Diagnostic information was always provided at the same moment, i.e. after the task was completed, and was either uncertain (prejudice may bias the evaluation) or certain (prejudice certainly biases the evaluation). In the before condition, attributions to prejudice were as elevated whatever participants were told that prejudice might, or certainly did, bias the evaluation. Furthermore, in the case of uncertain diagnostic information, those who were readily informed of the evaluator(s) identity attributed their failure to prejudice to a greater extent than those who received this information later. 1223 34 4 2004 The present study tested a motivational model where the beneficial impact that processes of cognitive adaptation have on mental health takes place through self determined motivation. The model proposes that the components of cognitive adaptation theory (positive self perceptions, perceptions of control, and optimism) foster a self determined motivation. In turn, self determined motivation predicts positive indices of mental health. In addition, the model posits that the beneficial role of cognitive adaptation on mental health is mediated by motivational processes. The model was tested using a 1 year prospective design with a random sample from the general population. Results from structural equation modelling analysis provided empirical support for the proposed model. Results are discussed with regards to Taylor §s (1983) cognitive adaptation theory, self determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1991), and the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation (Vallerand, 1997). 1224 34 4 2004 Terror management research has shown that activating thoughts about mortality (mortality salience) increases defence of one §s worldview. This study investigated how worldview defence is affected by engaging in a task that fosters creativity, cot formity. or sharing values after being reminded of death. After writing about death or a control topic, participants were randomly assigned to design a t shirt with the goal of being as creative as possible, trying to please others but not oneself or trying to connect with others via shared values. After mortality salience, conforming to others led to increased worldview defence whereas sharing values did not. Further, engaging in a creative task decreased worldview defence after mortality salience. Implications for understanding the interface between different forms of social connectedness, creativity and the management of existential fears are discussed. 1225 34 4 2004 The weight of existing evidence suggests that men display greater upset in response to a long term partner §s sexual infidelity, whereas women display greater upset in response to a partner §s emotional infidelity. This sex difference was first hypothesized by evolutionary psychologists, who argued that the difference may reflect sex differentiated evolved psychological design. Some socialization theorists, in contrast, have argued that the difference may be attributable to sex differentiated socialization practices. A. Fenigstein and R. Peltz (2002) collected data from parents of undergraduates about upset in response to a child §s partner §s infidelities and found that both sexes report greater upset in response to a son §s partner §s sexual infidelity and in response to a daughter §s partner §s emotional infidelity. The key variable therefore is the sex of the child, as predicted from a heuristic application of an evolutionary perspective, and not the sex of the parent, as predicted from a heuristic application of one socialization perspective. We report a replication of these findings using data collected from retirees with an average age of about 70 years who have at least one son and one daughter and most of whom have grandchildren. 1226 34 5 2004 Criticism of one §s group (e.g. nation, gender, or organization) is typically received in a less defensive way when it stems from another ingroup member than when it stems from an outsider (the intergroup sensitivity effect). We present two experiments demonstrating that this effect is driven not by group membership per se, but by the extent to which critics are perceived to be psychologically invested in the group they are criticizing. In Experiment 1 (N = 117), Australian participants were exposed to criticisms of their country from either other Australians (ingroup critics) or non Australians (outgroup critics). Furthermore, the ingroup critics were described as having either strong or weak attachment to their Australian identity. Ingroup critics were only received more positively than outgroup critics when they appeared to have a psychological investment in the group. In Experiment 2 (N = 96) we show how outgroup critics (Asian Australians) can overcome defensiveness among Anglo Australians by locating themselves within a shared, superordinate identity (Australian). Implications for communication within and between groups are discussed. 1227 34 5 2004 This survey study of 608 Finnish couples investigated the question of how economic stress is reflected in marital adjustment on the basis of the model presented by Conger and colleagues. We used the couple as a unit of analysis, performing a dyadic level analysis within the framework of LISREL models. The model showed that the path by which economic circumstances were linked to marital adjustment was as follows: poor economic circumstances were linked to economic strain, which was related to increased psychological distress, and psychological distress in turn was negatively reflected in marital adjustment. However psychological distress only partially mediated the link between economic strain and marital adjustment: economic strain was also directly linked to decreased marital adjustment. In addition, there occurred crossover between partners §s experiences. First, wives §s psychological distress was negatively related to husbands §s reports of marital adjustment and vice versa. Second, unemployment among men was directly linked to reports of marital adjustment among women: the longer the man §s total spell of unemployment, the poorer the woman §s marital adjustment. 1228 34 5 2004 Guided by the model of social category salience proposed by M. Blanz (1999), the present paper explores factors affecting the salience of skin tone based subcategories among Blacks in the United States. Adapting the group discussion paradigm developed by S.E. Taylor and colleagues (1978), Experiment 1 demonstrated that a manipulation of issue relevance enhanced the category salience of skin tone. Participants made more within than between category errors when the topic of conversation was related to perceiver §s skin tone based beliefs. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the influence of the issue relevance manipulation was independent of the presence of structural and/or normative fit. Merely discussing the topic of race relations was sufficient to increase encoding and use of skin tone. These studies provide evidence linking skin tone and social beliefs in memory. In addition, they demonstrate support for a category based perspective in the study of skin tone bias. Additional factors affecting the salience of skin tone are discussed. 1229 34 5 2004 In this paper we investigated the interplay of self interest and equity concerns in coalition formation by manipulating the number of units in which the coalition payoff is made available, and by manipulating the way people are allowed to interact. Results of three experiments showed that when the coalition payoff was such that members of each possible coalition could obtain an equitable payoff share, the outcome tended to be coalitions that also maximized the payoff of its members. However when the payoff was such that people had to make trade offs between maximizing their payoff share and obtaining an equitable payoff share, it took longer to form a coalition and it was harder to maintain a coalition. Moreover depending on the way people were allowed to interact, the final outcome was a coalition that maximized the payoff of its members or a coalition that provided them with an equitable payoff share. 1230 34 5 2004 The goal of the research reported in this article was to examine whether social categorization, commonly thought to be a function of accessibility and intra category fit, is also sensitive to changes in inter category fit. Intra category fit refers to the match between a target person §s features and stored categorical knowledge, inter category fit to the extent to which category memberships and targets §s features covary across perceived group members. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, members of social categories of low, medium, and high accessibility, respectively, were shown in a group discussion. Inter category fit was manipulated in three steps. Category salience in memory increased as an additive function of accessibility and inter category fit. Experiment 4 replicated the effects of inter category fit while intra category fit and the information presented for individual discussants were held constant. The present studies are the first to demonstrate an effect of inter category fit on a relatively direct measure of spontaneous social categorization. 1231 34 5 2004 Negotiation research and theory tends to focus on interests and ignores values. This experiment compared the influence of negotiations about interests with negotiations about values under low or high time pressure. Results showed that (1) individuals got locked into early impasses more often under low than high time pressure, (2) getting locked into early impasse produced a switch from low levels of integrative behaviour early in the negotiation to high levels late in the negotiation, but only when interests rather than values were negotiated, (3) individuals reached higher joint outcomes when interests rather than values were negotiated, especially when time pressure was low rather than high, because of (4) the relatively greater switch to high levels of integrative behaviour in the case of low time pressure and conflict of interest. 1232 34 5 2004 The present study examined how members of low status groups would react to a threat to their social identity. Undergraduates participated in a simulated society game, and were divided into four groups, each of which was assigned either a high or low status. During a series of game sessions with intergroup competition and cooperation, participants estimated the range of distributions among ingroup and outgroup members regarding various traits. The central tendency and variability derived from each estimate were analysed. Members of the low status groups deprecated their ingroup with respect to a status defining trait, but showed ingroup favouritism regarding alternative, status irrelevant traits. Furthermore, the low status members judged their ingroup as more homogeneous than the outgroup regarding the alternative traits, particularly when they were compared to a high status group. The results were interpreted as an indication of a subtle form of maintaining positive ingroup evaluations. Theoretical and methodological implications for the study of status effects are discussed. 1233 34 5 2004 This article concerns recall of general autobiographical memories in motivated self perception. General memories, comprising abstraction of repeated or similar behaviours, have more impact on how one defines oneself than do specific memories. In a study, participants were first induced to believe that either extraversion or introversion leads to success. In the recall task that followed, introversion success participants recalled more general memories related to introversion than did extraversion success participants. In contrast, extraversion success participants recalled more general extraverted memories than did introversion success participants. Thus, to preserve a positive self image as characterized by desirable attributes, recall may be directed towards generation of general memories related to the attributes. 1234 34 5 2004 A content analysis examined the way majorities and minorities are represented in the British press. An analysis of the headlines of five British newspapers, over a period of five years, revealed that the words majority and minority appeared 658 times. Majority headlines were most frequent (66%), more likely to emphasize the numerical size of the majority, to link majority status with political groups, to be described with positive evaluations, and to cover political issues. By contrast, minority headlines were less frequent (34%), more likely to link minority status with ethnic groups and to other social issues, and less likely to be described with positive evaluations. The implications of examining how real life majorities and minorities are represented for our understanding of experimental research are discussed. 1235 34 6 2004 The present research, which was conducted among ethnic minority (N = 109) and majority (N = 649) adolescents in the Netherlands, examined the endorsement of multiculturalism in relation to ethnic ingroup identification, perceived group essentialism and protestant ethic ideology The results revealed that ethnic minorities were more in favour of multiculturalism than Dutch participants. Furthermore, ethnic identification, group essentialism and protestant ethic were independently related to multiculturalism. However these relations were all moderated by ethnic group status. High ethnic identification, essentialist beliefs about minority groups, and protestant ethic were related to lower endorsement of multiculturalism among the majority group. In contrast, high ethnic identification and essentialist beliefs about one §s own ethnic minority group were related to stronger endorsement of multiculturalism among the minority groups, but not protestant ethic. Perceived essentialism of the majority group showed no effects. It is concluded that social psychology is able to make a valuable contribution to issues related to the management of cultural diversity 1236 34 6 2004 Do implicit and explicit measures of ethnic attitudes assess the same underlying knowledge structure in long term memory? This study uses both a correlational and an experimental design (N = 133) in order to address this central question. In the first part, we suggest that self presentational strategies can partly explain why the relation between implicit and explicit measures is inconsistent in the existing literature. More specifically, we show that when there are strong norms against prejudice, implicit and explicit measures are significantly negatively related. In the second part, an experimental manipulation of relative gratification (RG), the opposite of relative deprivation, reveals that when the level of explicit prejudice increases (RG condition), a similar effect is also observed at the implicit level. Together these results suggest that implicit and explicit measures assess similar knowledge structure. 1237 34 6 2004 Social psychology emerged in the early part of the last century as a distinct discipline that focused on the study of social behaviour of individuals and collectives. Over time, however, social psychology has relatively ignored the social part of the equation and has become mainly concerned with individual behaviour. The major part of social psychological research was carried out in the artificial context of the experimental laboratory. Studying social behaviour in real life contexts is essential, not only to return social psychology to its roots, but also to ensure that our contributions are both theoretically rich and socially valuable. Observation of real life situations is essential if we want to advance our understanding of how individuals and collectives behave. To illustrate the importance of a contextually rich social psychology and the usefulness of natural observations, the recent violent confrontation between the Israelis and the Palestinians is described and analysed, focusing on social behaviours of Israeli Jews. In conclusion, it is argued that social psychology should strive towards equilibrium between natural and experimental approaches, between personal and contextual emphases and between micro and macro perspectives. 1238 34 6 2004 Although there is wide acceptance among personality and social psychologists of the importance of performing both between participants and within participants analyses to obtain a more complete picture of the phenomena under investigation, such analyses are rare (Mishela, 1990). Research on the predictors of behaviour particularly concerning variables such as attitude, subjective norm, affect, cognition, and intention provides an exception, where the results from within participants analyses are sometimes compared to the results from between participants analyses. These comparisons raise the issue of whether the two types of analyses are independent of each other (and whether they can be validly compared), which is the topic of the present paper Although we show that there is dependence, which suggests that it is a bad idea to compare both kinds of analyses, we also show that the degree of dependence approaches zero as the number of participants and items increase. Thus, with a sufficiently large design, the degree of dependence is unimportant, and therefore is no obstacle to the simultaneous consideration of both within participants and between participants analyses. How large is large enough? A set of computer simulations suggests that 15 participants and 15 items is sufficient, though we provide data from which researchers can designate their own criteria. 1239 34 6 2004 A consistent finding in coalition research is that the payoff of coalition members is related to (a) the resources they contribute to the coalition, and to (b) the number of alternative coalitions they can form. These two factors are, however, often intertwined. A greater number of resources tends to go hand in hand with a greater number of alternatives, leaving unanswered how both factors affect coalition behaviour This paper attempts to clarify the interplay of resources and alternatives by disentangling the two in a newly developed coalition paradigm. Results indicated that participants base their payoff allocation on both resources and alternatives, but suggest that self serving behaviour is more related to alternatives. Furthermore, resources and alternatives had a distinct effect on the bargaining process. It was shown that differences in alternatives led to longer bargaining. 1240 34 6 2004 Three types of trusting have been distinguished conceptually and empirically. In cooperative trusting the trust giver explicitly expects a reaction from the trust recipient that fits with the equality norm. In pure trusting, no explicit expectation is expressed by the giver In selfish trusting the giver explicitly expects a reaction that benefits himself or herself at the expense of the recipient. We asked whether the three types of trust elicit distinctive reactions from trust recipients. Each participant was paired with a fictitious player who ostensibly enabled him or her to divide money between them. As hypothesized, both cooperative and pure trusting elicited more equal allocations than did selfish trusting. A second hypothesis, that cooperative trust would yield more equal allocations than pure trust, was not supported. Results are discussed in terms of equality norm, self interest norm, reciprocity norm, reactance theory, social sanctioning, and the need to comply with others §s expectations. 1241 34 6 2004 People in German), overwhelmingly believe that the Euro introduction caused an overall price increase, however no such increase actually took place. To investigate whether this disparity could be based on biased perceptions of the average price trend, four studies were conducted. Participants received two menus from a restaurant (one old menu with German Mark (DM) prices and one new inenu with Euro prices) and were asked to estimate the price trend (in per cent). In all of these studies, price trend judgements were biased towards rising prices. If the prices had in fact been raised, the magnitude of this price increase was overestimated. If the prices had remained stable, significant price increases were perceived. And if the prices had fallen, they were perceived as having remained stable. The bias was systematically related to participants §s expectations concerning price increases. A, selective outcome correction hypothesis proved to best fit the data: incorrect calculation outcomes that are in line with one §s expectations are overlooked, whereas incorrect inconsistent outcomes are detected and corrected. The results imply that expectations can influence judgements even when clear disconfirming evidence is available that can be compared with an objective standard, thus leaving no room for interpretation. 1242 34 6 2004 "Verplanken, Hofstee, and Janssen (1998) found that the affective component of attitude is accessed more readily than the cognitive. Three studies further examined these findings in the light of two competing explanations: affective primacy, which states that emotional material is inherently more accessible than cognitive; and evaluative primacy, which states that emotional material is more accessible only if it is inherently more evaluative or supports the overall evaluative basis of attitude. Study 1 measured the accessibility of cognitive and affective traits while equalizing the evaluative nature of these traits. This study found a speed advantage for affective traits, but the attitude objects in this study turned out to be mainly affectively based. Studies 2 and 3, using a mixture of affectively and cognitively based objects, found that the speed advantage for affective terms was onlyfound among affectively based objects; Study 3 alsofound a speed advantagefor cognitive terms among cognitively based objects, and additionally found that individual differences in attitude basis explained part of this interaction. Collectively, these studies show that while affective material may be accessed more quickly than cognitive, this is most true when overall evaluation is based on affect rather than cognition. " 1243 35 1 2005 Power is an inescapable feature of human social life and structure. This paper addresses the nature of power. The standard theory is that power is the capacity for influence and that influence is based on the control of resources valued or desired by others. However, there have always been problems with this theory and new ones have appeared. The paper summarizes the standard theory and its problems, outlines the different meanings of power and presents a new theory emphasizing group identify, social organization and ideology rather than dependence as the basis of power It proposes that power is based on persuasion, authority and coercion. A key point is that the theory changes the way these processes have been understood by reversing the causal sequence of the standard theory. The latter argues that control of resources produces power, power is the basis of influence and that mutual influence leads to the formation of a psychological group. The three process theory argues that psychological group formation produces influence, that influence is the basis of power and that power leads to the control of resources. Implications of the theory for social change, coercion, prejudice and the extent to which power is a social evil are briefly noted. The challenge is to study how power emerges from and functions within social relationships with a definite social, ideological and historical content rather than reifying it as an abstract external force producing generic psychological effects. 1244 35 1 2005 We examine the effect of ownership on behavioural decision making in the context of trade. Based on the notion that traders may experience loss aversion, and that this is negatively related to willingness to trade, we reason that willingness to trade is a function of perceived similarities between the gains and losses of a trade. More specifically, we predicted that willingness to trade is a function of the characteristics of the trader: The traders §s product knowledge about the objects involved in the trade may affect willingness to trade by affecting the differences traders perceive between the objects involved. In two experiments, participants endowed with a bottle of wine were offered the opportunity to trade their wine for another wine. Results of Experiment 1 indicated that the more knowledgeable participants were about wine, the more reluctant they were to trade, irrespective of what wine they possessed. The results of Experiment 2, in which we manipulated product knowledge, corroborated these findings. 1245 35 1 2005 An ethnographic study of two crowd events was carried out in order to develop a hypothesis about the experience of empowerment in collective action. Qualitative comparison of an anti roads occupation and a mass eviction suggests that empowerment as an outcome of collective action is a function of the extent to which one §s own action is understood as expressing social identity, a process we term collective self objectification. The comparison indicates that empowerment is not reducible to the experience of success. While both events came to be construed by participants as victories , their associated emotions (joy versus despair and anger) and rationales for future participation (confidence versus enhanced self legitimacy) were different. The relation between collective self objectification and self efficacy is discussed. 1246 35 1 2005 Prior research has shown that within racial category, group members with more Afrocentric facial features are presumed to have more stereotypic traits than those with less Afrocentric features. The present experiment investigated whether this form of feature based stereotyping occurs when more diagnostic information is available. The participants were provided with photographs and information about the aggressive (or non aggressive) behaviour of 64 African Americans in four different situations, and asked to predict the likelihood of aggression in a fifth situation. As expected, each instance of aggression increased estimates that a target would behave aggressively in the unknown situation. With degree of displayed aggression controlled, however targets with more Afrocentric features were judged as significantly more likely to behave aggressively than targets with less Afrocentric features. Thus, stereotyping based on Afrocentric features occurs even when other obviously relevant it formation is available. This suggests that it may be difficult to detect and avoid. 1247 35 1 2005 The aim of this research was to integrate concepts from goal theories to understand the factors that distinguish between successful versus unsuccessful achievement of a personal goal. In two studies participants completed a questionnaire that measured 17 constructs identified from research on goals in relation to a recent situation in which they either succeeded or failed to see a task through to the end (Study 1) or in relation to their performance on an undergraduate course (Study 2). Factor analyses of the responses revealed 12 factors underlying self regulatory efforts. Discriminant analysis showed that self regulatory success was associated with high levels of motivation and task focus, and with forming an implementation intention. 1248 35 1 2005 Several models predict that persons ascribe opposite characteristics to self and ingroups on the one hand and outgroups on the other (outgroup contrast). However only few studies have found this effect. This study explored its boundary conditions. Sixty two students rated (a) characteristics of themselves, an ingroup (own study major), and an outgroup (other study major), (b) ingroup identification, and (c) perceived intergroup conflict. Participants who were relatively high in ingroup identification and who perceived relatively high levels of intergroup conflict displayed outgroup contrast, as indicated by negative correlations between trait ratings for self and ingroup and between trait ratings for ingroup and outgroup. The other participants showed weaker or no outgroup contrast. Thus, this study is one of the few empirical demonstrations of outgroup contrast and points to moderators that should be considered in future research on this effect. 1249 35 1 2005 "The present study aimed to investigate Turkish university youth §s constructions concerning the European Union (EU) and their reactions to the EU §s December 2002 Copenhagen summit decision to delay discussion of Turkey §s entry to the EU. Specifically it aimed to show that socio political identities among Turkish youth were related to historical developments in Turkey §s past and that these identities had associations with values of ethnocentricism, patriotism, and secularism. Furthermore it was predicted that constructions of the EU reactions to the decision would be related. Students (400) from five universities at the three largest cities of Turkey participated in the study. Three identities, Nationalist Islam, Kemalist, and Western; three constructions of the EU, Europe as Different, Impermeable Boundaries, and Different but Advantageous, and two perceived causes for the decision, Differences Conflict and Justification emerged from factor analyses. Second order factor analysis revealed that Nationalist Islam identity and authoritarian, ethnocentric and antisecular values formed a cluster whereas Kemalist and Western identities were grouped with low levels of patriotism. Positive and negative constructions of the EU and reactions to the Copenhagen decision were also grouped under two separate factors. Further analyses revealed that an index of urbanization composed of parental education and rural urban origin predicted the Authoritarian Nationalistic cluster and that this value identity cluster predicted positive and negative views of the EU. " 1250 35 1 2005 Five experiments were conducted with a twofold aim: firstly, examine the normativeness of some important features of Western individualism, and secondly, determine what aspect of social value serves as the anchor for their potential normativeness. Five key constituents of individualism were studied. A questionnaire composed of five sub questionnaires was used, each one referring to an individualistic constituent and to its opposing collectivistic referent. Two main paradigms in the judgment norm approach were implemented, one implying self presentation strategies and the other implying social judgments. Together, the results revealed that only three constituents of individualism can be considered normative self sufficiency, individual anchoring, and internality and that one of the constituents the primacy of individual goals is not normative at all, and may be even counter normative. The results pointed out an individualistic pattern that is much less homogeneous than often assumed. 1251 35 2 2005 Are human individuals universally seen to be more real entities (or more entitative, to use Campbell s, 1958, term) than social groups? Although the individual may be seen to be more entitative than social groups in the West, it is unclear whether this is the case in other cultures, especially, in East Asia. Two aspects of perceived entitativity are distinguished: psychological essentialism (belief in the presence of essence like unchangeable properties) and agency (perception that a social entity is an agent), and examined for four social targets (individual, family, friendship group, and society) in three English speaking cultures (Australia, UK, and USA). three East Asian cultures (Hong Kong, Japan, and Korea), and two continental European cultures (Belgium and Germany). In all cultures, the individual person was seen to possess essence like unchangeable characteristics more than social groups (i.e. essentialized). As for agency, the individual person was seen to be more agentic than groups in Western cultures, but both individuals and groups were conferred an equal level of agency in East Asia. Individuals may be universally more essentialized than friendship groups and societies, but not always seen to be more agentic, than social groups. Implications of the results for conceptions of individualism and collectivism are discussed. 1252 35 2 2005 Existing methods for conducting analyses of small group data are either highly complicated or yield low power Both of these limitations provide disincentives for the progress of research in this field. An alternative method modelled on the sign (binomial) test which involves comparing the differences of distributions based on multiple observations of each of the groups is presented. The calculations involved in the procedure are extremely simple. It is suggested that because the method enhances researchers §s ability to make sound statistical inferences easily this should stimulate research on group level processes and on social interaction more generally. 1253 35 2 2005 Two studies investigated whether participants motivational state and the context in which attitude reports are made influence food attitudes. Specifically, these studies examined whether hunger and the time typicality of foods (i.e. match or mismatch between the time when a food is typically eaten and the time the attitude is reported) interact to influence reported attitudes. Study, I suggests that hunger leads to more positive attitudes toward foods that are typically eaten at the time the attitude report is made (e.g. breakfast foods in morning) compared to foods not typically eaten at the time the attitude report is made (e.g. breakfast foods in evening). Study, 2 replicates this time typical effect of hunger and suggests that time typical experience rather than general experience with foods is important for hunger induced attitude change. By, demonstrating that food attitudes are influenced by motivational states and the match between when the attitude is reported and R hen it is typically encountered, the present studies extend previous attitude theory and research that has identified other contextual factors that influence attitude reports. 1254 35 2 2005 This research investigates how the relation between two causes (i.e. whether they co occur or not) affects the likelihood to discount one of them. In two experiments, two causes were either systematically paired together (positive relation), were paired with many other causes (independent relation), or were never paired together (negative relation). The results indicate that discounting of one of the causes (target cause) depends on the relation with the other cause (alternative cause) and the order in which the alternative cause was presented and produced the outcome alone. If information on the independent outcome of the alternative cause came prior to the joint outcome of the alternative and target cause (forward order), then discounting of the target cause occurred regardless of the relation between the two causes. If however, information on the independent outcome of the alternative cause came after the joint outcome of the alternative and target cause (backward order), then discounting of the target cause occurred mainly when there was a positive or negative relation between the causes, but not when there was an independent relation. The degree of backward discounting given a positive or negative relation was largely identical. These results tire consistent with the retrospective revaluation hypothesis of Dickinson and Burke (1996) and shed new light on the role of the relation between causes on discounting. 1255 35 2 2005 The mnemic neglect effect is the phenomenon of disproportionately poor recall for threatening (rather than non threatening) feedback that refers to the self (rather than another person). Does trait modifiability moderate mnemic neglect? We hypothesized that mnemic neglect will be present for feedback on unmodifiable traits, but absent for feedback on modifiable traits. In the latter case, the feedback would be lower in threat potential because its consequences are fleeting and steps to prevent its reoccurrence are possible. Participants received mixed (threatening and non threatening) feedback that referred either to the self or another person. The feedback pertained to (central and peripheral) self conceptions that were either unmodifiable or modifiable. In support of the hypothesis, mnemic neglect emerged for feedback on unmodifiable, but not modifiable, traits. The findings illustrate the selective and strategic nature of self protection. 1256 35 2 2005 Past research suggests that reactions to an authority §s decision are most influenced by treatment quality when individuals value their relationship with the authority and the groups s/he represents. The present experiments examine how institutional recognition of self relevant identities (implicit in Study 1 and explicit in Study 2) affects the relationship between treatment quality and reactions to the delivery of a negative outcome by an outgroup authority. The overall pattern of results suggests that treatment quality affects reactions to the decision only when the common identity shared with the authority and a subgroup identity that distinguishes one from the authority are both recognized. Possible mechanisms for the observed effect art, discussed along with implications for the dual identity approach to conflict resolution. 1257 35 2 2005 This short note investigated how expertise in a political scandal moderates whether the activation of this scandal produces assimilation in the evaluation of politicians in general and contrast in the evaluation of specific politicians. It was hypothesized that participants with a rich knowledge about the scandal would display the assimilation and contrast effects whereas those with a poorer knowledge would not. Results tended to support this prediction, suggesting that the impact on judgment of a specific context depends on the amount of knowledge participants possess about this context. 1258 35 2 2005 Two studies examined the effects of competence based respect in relation to liking based respect from ingroup members. First, a pilot study confirmed the impact of competence feedback from ingroup members on affective and emotional reactions (membership esteem, feelings of pride and shame). The main studies orthogonally, manipulated both liking and competence based respect from other ingroup members in order to examine whether (high) competence based respect compensates for lack of liking, or compromises the subjective position in the group, on affective and emotional reactions to the feedback. Using a scenario methodology, Study, 1 produced no evidence for compensation, and indicated that liking was primary in this context. Study 2, using experimental groups, provided further evidence that those who were disliked by their fellow group members felt compromised by, a favourable evaluation of their competence, while remaining committed to the group. These effects are related to the different properties and implications of competence and liking dimensions ingroup interaction. 1259 35 2 2005 This study investigated moderating effects of attribute controllability on self evaluation biases. Students of psychology, rated the degree to which they possessed attributes that were described as having either positive or negative implications for academic success. For attributes that were perceived as trait like or stable, self ratings were higher when the attributes were presented as positive predictors of achievement than when the same attributes were presented as risk factors, indicating a self enhancement bias. An opposite tendency emerged for attributes that were perceived as open to personal control: Here, self ratings were higher for attributes that it ere presented as risk factors, indicating an enhanced tendency, for self critique and self correction. This asymmetry of effects is explained in terms of a dual process model of action regulation (Brandtsadter T Rothermund, 2002a, 2002b). 1260 35 3 2005 It is often assumed that group directed criticism is best kept in house , but the effects of audience on responses to criticism have not been directly examined. Consistent with predictions, ingroup members who criticized the group to an outgroup audience were seen to be making a less appropriate choice of audience (Experiments 2 and 3), aroused more negative feelings (Experiment 1), were downgraded more strongly on personality traits (Experiment 2), and were seen to be doing more damage to the group (Experiment 2) than were ingroup members who kept their criticisms in house. Experiment 3 showed that, whereas moderate identifiers agreed with the comments less and showed weaker friendly intentions toward the critic when an outgroup audience as compared to an ingroup audience was chosen, high identifiers agreed with the criticisms just as strongly and showed more friendly intentions toward the critic when they were made to an outgroup as compared to an ingroup audience. Results are discussed in light of the broader literature on identity threat. 1261 35 3 2005 Research on mindset theory (Gollwitzer & Bayer 1999) observed that people in an implemental mindset show an orientation towards positive illusionary self evaluations, whereas people in a deliberative mindset opt for accurate self evaluations. In the present study, we tested whether these self evaluative orientations and the associated search for certain types of self relevant information (feedback) are moderated by low versus high self views. With high self view participants we observed the hypothesized mindset effects on information search, but we obtained the reverse pattern for low self view participants. The latter finding points to self defensiveness in low self view individuals. Implications are discussed in terms of the consequences of accurate versus positive illusionary self evaluations for the successful control of goal pursuits, and individual differences in mindset effects. 1262 35 3 2005 We assessed lay perceptions of the causes of and solutions to ethnic prejudice, and determined whether individual differences related to intergroup relations (social dominance orientation, right wing authoritarianism) and to cognitive style (personal need for structure, need for cognition) were predictive of these perceptions. Results revealed clear and coherent lay beliefs about the causes of and solutions to ethnic prejudice, and significant relations between perceived causes and solutions. Systematic relations between the intergroup relevant individual differences and these perceptions also emerged, in ways that may serve to justify and legitimize ethnic bias. Implications for the justification and maintenance of ethnic bias and for intervention programmes are discussed. 1263 35 3 2005 Three experiments test the existence of an automatic deviancy creativity link. Using a lexical decision task, in Experiment 1 we found a semantic link between deviancy and creativity words in that decision times for creativity related words were enhanced after subliminal deviancy priming. In Experiment 2, participants were led to think about either a punk or an engineer and afterwards were administered creative insight and analytical reasoning problems. According to a pretest, punks and engineers were judged as differing in uniqueness but not in creativity. Participants given punk priming solved more creative insight problems and fewer analytical reasoning problems than those given engineer priming. In Experiment 3, participants were incidentally exposed to abstract artworks symbolically expressing either the concept of conformity or deviancy and were subsequently asked to solve a creative generation task. Exposure to the artwork representing deviancy led to generation of more creative solutions than exposure to that representing conformity. 1264 35 3 2005 Two types of social influence can be distinguished: norm based influence occurs when social identity is salient and interpersonal influence occurs when personal identity is salient. In two experiments the impact of trait and state private self awareness on interpersonal influence during face to face and computer mediated communication.(CMC) was investigated. It is argued that interpersonal influence resulting from face to face communication is stronger than interpersonal influence resulting from CMC because CMC heightens state private self awareness. As a result, it leads to a focus on personal perceptions and thoughts which in turn reduces attitude change. Experiment I suggests that communication media may influence attitude change via private self awareness. Experiment 2 showed that trait private self awareness moderates the effect of communication media on interpersonal influence. Interpersonal influence was stronger in face to face communication than in CMC only for individuals higher in private self awareness. This finding indicates that the impact of situational variations of a concept can be limited to individuals who have a more elevated sense of private self awareness. 1265 35 3 2005 Using self report, this paper explored whether a malodour §s source (self liked person, stranger) influences hedonic responding. In Study 1, participants were presented with vignettes describing various encounters with malodours. Negative affect increased when body malodours emanated from a stranger rather than oneself (the source effect). Study 2 replicated this finding using a smell diary, in which participants recorded their hedonic responses to real odours. Study 3 determined that this source effect was not due to a social status or a halo effect. Study 4 examined the role of exposure and attachment. Exposure, but not attachment, best accounted for the source effect. Study 5 examined whether perceived disease risk varied by source and whether this could account for the source effect. The findings suggested that there are two mechanisms by which disgust responses to malodours can be modulated to reflect the disease risk of their source: implicitly, by mere exposure, and explicitly, by knowledge of risk. In the discussion, we argue that avoiding contact with disease causing agents is adaptive, and that this is implicitly modulated by exposure, so that the cues for disease emanating from people encountered less frequently are treated with more caution. 1266 35 3 2005 In 1992 a study by Beggan claimed it had confirmed the existence of Nuttin §s mere ownership effect . This study examined an alternative mechanism for Beggan §s findings in the form of forced compliance cognitive dissonance. Seventy three participants volunteered for the study (66 females and seven males). Results support the view that cognitive dissonance, accepting ownership of a target that was earlier perceived with negative affectivity, is a sufficient condition to enhance estimates of a target object. Ownership per se was not found to be a sufficient condition to enhance owner §s estimates of an owned object. In light of this finding cognitive dissonance is offered as a possible mechanism for explaining the previous reports of a perceived ownership effect. This mechanism may also be applicable to instant endowment and mere ownership phenomena. 1267 35 3 2005 Trusting behaviour involves relinquishing control over outcomes valuable to the self. Previous research suggests that interpersonal perceptions of trustworthiness are closely related to this behaviour. The present research suggests that the more proximal determinant of trusting behaviour is the expectation that the other will reciprocate. Based on the Social Identity model of Deindividuation on Effects (SIDE) model, reciprocity expectations may be created by interpersonal perceptions of trustworthiness or a shared group membership. To investigate this, group membership and individual identifiability were experimentally manipulated (N = 139): When individuals were not identifiable, trusting behaviour was based on expectations of reciprocity inferred from group membership, not on perceived trustworthiness. In contrast, personal identifiability fostered perceptions of trustworthiness for both in and outgroup members. In this case interpersonal trustworthiness enhanced expectations of reciprocity, which in turn increased trusting behaviour 1268 35 3 2005 The findings from two experiments support the argument that the salience of a relevant ingroup norm may moderate the affective consequences of one §s normative violations. Participants §s counter normative behaviour only influenced their self reported affect under conditions of high norm salience. This relationship was mediated by participants §s perceptions that. their expression of ingroup favouritism was discrepant from a group norm of intergroup fairness. The presented evidence extends previous research in two ways. First, it qualifies prior work concerning the affective impact of normative discrepancy on self directed negative affect. Second, it shows that increased self directed negative affect can be produced by deviations from the norms of a situationally salient and identity relevant reference group. 1269 35 4 2005 The aversive racism framework (S. L. Gaertner & J. E Dovidio, 1986) suggests that bias against Blacks is most likely to be expressed by Whites when it can be explained or justified along non racial grounds. The present experiment adopted a 2 (Evidence: admissible vs. inadmissible) x 2 (Defendant Race: White vs. Black) between subjects design, asking White participants, whose self reported prejudice was assessed, to judge a legal case. As predicted, increased guilt ratings and longer sentencing recommendations were forwarded for the Black (vs. White) defendant only when DNA evidence linking the defendant to the crime had previously been ruled inadmissible. This result was not qualified by self report racial attitudes. The implications for evidence inadmissibility in interracial contexts are considered, along with the repercussions of finding experimental evidence of aversive racism outside of North America. 1270 35 4 2005 This report covers two studies that examined how spouses §s emotional arousal and negative affect in response to marital conflict are shaped by gender conflict structure, and demand withdraw communication. In Study 1, 86 couples participated in a video analogue presentation procedure, and in Study 2, 32 couples participated in an observational methodology. In both studies, spouses §s evaluative reports of their emotional arousal and negative affect were collected within two experimental conditions in which either the husband §s or the wife §s issue was discussed. In both studies, husbands but not wives reported lower levels of post interaction arousal and negative affect in the wife §s issue condition than in the husband §s issue condition. In both studies, husbands §s as well as wives §s level of emotional arousal was positively associated with their level of negative affect. In Study 2, husbands who were less demanding and more withdrawing during marital conflict were less aroused after the discussion. In contrast, wives reported more emotional arousal and negative affect as they were more withdrawing and less demanding, respectively. 1271 35 4 2005 In research on selective exposure to information, people have been found to predominantly seek information supporting rather than conflicting with their opinion. In most of these studies, participants were allowed to search for as many pieces of information as they liked. However in many situations, the amount of information that people can search for is restricted. We report four experiments addressing this issue. Experiment I suggests that objective limits regarding the maximum number of pieces of information the participants could search for increases the preference for selecting supporting over conflicting information. In Experiment 2, just giving participants a cue about information scarcity induces the same effect, even in the absence of any objective restrictions. Finally, Experiment 3 and 4 clarify the underlying psychological process by showing that information limits increase selective exposure to information because information search is guided by the expected information quality, which is basically biased towards supporting information, and information limits act to reinforce this tendency. 1272 35 4 2005 Participants perceived a discussion between members of two social categories in a name matching paradigm. Discussions either exhibited inter category fit, defined as a covariation of category membership and the category members §s attitude positions, or not. Orthogonally, there was cognitive load at encoding, load at retrieval, or no concurrent load. Memory for the statements and memory for the speaker of a statement were affected by load with little evidence for fit effects. Conversely, category memory, reconstructive category guessing and perceived fit were affected by inter category fit with little evidence for load effects. The results suggest that category activation is sensitive to inter category fit and that fit detection is robust against moderate amounts of cognitive load. 1273 35 4 2005 In three experiments, we addressed the role of stereotypes in the attribution of action tendencies in intergroup contexts. We hypothesized that stereotyping would affect the attribution of action tendencies to outgroup members. Participants were presented with a facial expression displayed by either an ingroup or an outgroup member followed by the presentation of a label describing an action tendency. They were then asked whether the label corresponded to the feeling state of the expresser Study I tested whether stereotypes influence the attribution of action tendencies to outgroup members. Study 2 tested whether stereotype application varies as a function of the emotional information contained in the facial stimuli (i.e. neutral vs. emotional). Finally, Study 3 tested whether stereotype activation is indirectly determined by a difference in morphology between ingroup and outgroup members or directly determined by the expresser §s group membership. As predicted, an increase in attribution of stereotypic action tendencies was observed for outgroup expressers. The application of stereotypes was specifically observed when facial expressions were neutral as compared to emotional and was independent of morphological differences between ingroup and outgroup faces. Such biases in interpreting outgroup members feeling states may play a crucial role in the maintenance of intergroup prejudice. 1274 35 4 2005 Widely used explicit memory tasks seem to overestimate age related differences in memory performance. Social and personal factors may buffer or undermine the effect of age on memory performance. In two studies, the performance of older adults was compared with the performance of younger adults. Tasks were presented either as memory tasks or non memory tasks. Older adults §s performance on a memory task improved when the task instructions did not explicitly emphasize the memory component of the task. In the first study, results revealed that memory self efficacy beliefs play a moderator role on the impact of task instruction on memory performance, so that lower levels of memory self efficacy correlate with lower performance in the memory emphasizing task condition but not in the orientation emphasizing task condition. In a second study actual performance expectations were measured. For older participants only, expectations were sensitive to task instructions and mediated the relation between tasks instructions and performances. These findings suggest that observed age related differences in memory performance may be significantly exaggerated by the testing situation and by a low memory self efficacy and low memory performance expectancies prevalent among older adults. 1275 35 4 2005 In this article, we examine how being assigned the role of leader affects behaviour in resource sharing tasks. Previous research has shown that group members anchor their decision on the equal division rule prescribing that resources should be distributed equally. Following notions of equity theory and the literature on role schemas, we expected that adherence to the equal division rule would be moderated by role assignment. In particular, we expected leaders to take more than followers from a common resource and that this effect would be explained in terms of feelings of entitlement. The results of two experimental studies corroborate this reasoning. Study I demonstrated that leaders took more than followers and that leaders deviated more strongly from the equal division rule. In Study 2, it was found that legitimate leaders took more from the resource and deviated more strongly from the equal division rule than non legitimate leaders. Additional analyses suggest that the leaders §s tendency to make higher allocations to the self can be explained by feelings of entitlement. 1276 35 4 2005 Planning is regarded as highly valuable in the process of health behaviour change. It bridges the gap between behavioural intentions and health behaviour To further develop this concept, a distinction is made between action planning and coping planning. The latter refers to the mental simulation of overcoming anticipated barriers to action. Action planning and coping planning for physical exercise were examined in a longitudinal study with 352 cardiac patients. They were approached during rehabilitation treatment and followed up at two and four months after discharge. Both planning cognitions were psychometrically identified, and it was found that they operated differently in the behavioural change process. Action plans were more influential early in the rehabilitation process, whereas coping plans were more instrumental later on. Participants with higher levels of coping planning after discharge were more likely to report higher levels of exercise four months after discharge. It is suggested to include both kinds of planning in interventions at different stages in health behaviour change. 1277 35 5 2005 Social identity theory proposes that discrimination contributes favourably to group members §s social identity. In minimal group paradigm (MGP) studies involving positive outcome distributions (e.g. money), discrimination is associated with a more positive social identity. But studies on the positive negative asymmetry effect show that categorization leads to less discrimination when negative (salary cuts) than when positive outcomes (salary increases) are distributed. Using structural equation modelling, this study (N=279) tested whether discrimination involving negative outcome distributions could contribute as much to group members §s positive social identity as discrimination on positive outcomes. The study also tested if ideological beliefs (i.e. social dominance orientation, authoritarianism), measured one month before the MGP experiment, could predict positive and negative outcome discrimination. While the fit of the hypothesized model was adequate, only social dominance orientation predicted both positive and negative outcome discrimination. Also, discrimination on positive outcomes but not on negative ones contributed to positive social identity. 1278 35 5 2005 We present an experiment in which the relative status of an ingroup and the discriminatory nature of a decision maker §s intergroup behaviour (ingroup favouring/outgroup favouring/even handed) were independently manipulated to observe their effects on self esteem. Adopting a Social Identity Theory framework, and following from previous empirical work, we predicted that discrimination against one §s ingroup would lead to lower self esteem among members of a low status group but not among members of a high status group. This prediction was confirmed. 1279 35 5 2005 The present study examined the effect of intergroup distinctiveness and group membership on evaluations of impostors. We predicted that ingroup members would be harsher than outgroup members on an impostor and that perceptions of intergroup distinctiveness would further moderate these evaluations. Specifically, we tested the social identity theory prediction that low intergroup distinctiveness would lead to greater derogation of the impostor (the reactive distinctiveness hypothesis) against the self categorization hypothesis that high intergroup distinctiveness would instigate more derogation of an impostor (the reflective distinctiveness hypothesis). In this study, vegetarians (ingroup members) and meat eaters (outgroup members) were presented with a target claiming to be vegetarian, but caught indulging in a meat dish. We found that ingroup members derogated the impostor more and felt less pleased about discovering the impostor behaviour than did outgroup members. In line with the reflective distinctiveness hypothesis, the heightened derogation displayed by ingroup members only emerged when intergroup distinctiveness was high, an effect that was mediated by ratings of group identification. The discussion focuses on the different responses intergroup distinctiveness may evoke. 1280 35 5 2005 Recently several implicit measures of prejudice have been developed. Prejudice indices based on these measures are computed from response differences to positive and negative targets resulting from outgroup compared to ingroup stimuli. Up to now the focus of research involving these measures has mainly been on attitudes and relations to outgroups (i.e. negative attitudes towards the outgroup). It is suggested here that implicit measures of prejudice are also influenced by one §s relation towards the ingroup (i.e. ingroup identification), because they involve ingroup as well as outgroup stimuli. A correlational study and an experiment were conducted that supported this prediction. Implications for the application of implicit measures are discussed. 1281 35 5 2005 This study (N = 235) examines the responses of male and female participants to information about the alleged endorsement of either hostile or benevolent sexist beliefs by a sample of either men or women. We predicted that people endorsing benevolent sexist statements would be less likely to be perceived as sexist than those endorsing hostile sexist views, and examined the judgmental process through which people fail to recognize benevolent sexism as a form of prejudice. We argue that benevolent sexists do not match the mental prototype of sexist perpetrators, because they are seen as likeable. Our results confirm that because benevolent sexists are evaluated more positively than hostile sexists, they are less likely to be seen as sexists. This judgmental process occurs relatively independently of emotional responses to hostile vs. benevolent sexism. These results are discussed in terms of their relevance to the maintenance of gender inequalities. 1282 35 5 2005 "Women §s self identification with social power was assessed in three studies using the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). In Experiment 1, women held weaker implicit and explicit associations between self and power than did men. Experiment 2 demonstrated that women assigned to a high power group have stronger implicit self power associations than do women in a low power group. Experiment 3 showed that women assigned to a high power role have stronger implicit self masculine associations than do women assigned to a low power role, but social power did not affect explicit associations with masculinity. These studies suggest that gender differences in implicit self concept may be malleable depending on context and social roles. " 1283 35 5 2005 An experiment assessed when people respond more positively to verifying and enhancing appraisals from romantic partners. Two hundred and fifty eight individuals comprising 129 dating couples participated in this research. Couples privately rated their self concept on traits that were either high or low on trait visibility, rated how important each trait was to them, and rated their partners. A computer program ostensibly compared their self ratings with appraisals from their partners on traits they selected as being high or low in personal importance, and participants received either verifying or enhancing feedback. Confirming predictions, people believed their partners understood them more when they received verifying feedback, but felt their partners saw the best in them when they received enhancing feedback. Additionally, people responded more positively to verifying appraisals on important, less visible traits, and enhancing appraisals on important, highly visible traits. Results are discussed in terms of preferences for enhancing and verifying feedback in romantic relationships. 1284 35 6 2005 The research in this article explores the structure and content of attributed intergroup beliefs: to what extent do perceivers think others of their ingroup and their outgroup display intergroup evaluative bias and outgroup homogeneity? We report studies that address this question in ethnicity, gender, and nationality intergroup contexts. In all of these, we show that perceivers attribute to others more biased intergroup beliefs than they themselves espouse. Even when perceivers themselves do not show intergroup bias or outgroup homogeneity, they attribute such biases to others, both others from their ingroup and others from their outgroup. We argue that such attributed intergroup beliefs are fundamentally important to expectations concerning intergroup interaction. 1285 35 6 2005 Situations can be seen as having attributes or qualities in much the same way as people have traits. The structure of people §s perceptions of these situation qualities was explored. A comprehensive list of adjectives that might describe situations was generated, and people rated situations using samples of the words. Across several samples of words and participants and several analytic methods, four factors show up regularly (positivity, negativity, productivity, and ease of negotiation). In a second study, it was shown that these factors predict the way in which people freely sort situations. The conceptual nature of these factors and of situation qualities is discussed, with particular emphasis on how people §s goals and perceived outcomes influence their perceptions of situations. 1286 35 6 2005 Two studies examined lay people §s understanding of goals and intentional actions, which are key concepts in folk psychology. The studies show how predictions of goals and actions are affected by actors §s beliefs about their abilities and their actual possession of the preconditions required for the actions. In some conditions, the beliefs and the preconditions were contradictory Actors §s beliefs about their abilities shaped observers §s goal ascriptions, whereas actual preconditions dominated predictions about action accomplishment. Participants judged the relationship between goals and actions to be stronger when preconditions were present. Participants judged that neither beliefs nor preconditions were necessary for the actor to have action fantasies. These studies clarify how folk psychological concepts of desires, beliefs, and preconditions relate to each other and how they relate to attributions of goals and actions. 1287 35 6 2005 We examined in two experiments the impact of the roles that people enact (allocator or recipient) and performance attributions (talent or effort) on fairness perceptions of pay systems (performance based pay or job based pay). To test the relative effects of the roles that people enact, in the control conditions, participants were asked to evaluate the fairness of both allocation norms from behind a veil of ignorance (Rawls, 1971). As hypothesized, the results consistently demonstrate that whereas recipients were biased in their fairness perceptions, allocators tended to be non biased in their fairness perceptions. The self interest bias among recipients was particularly strong when talent rather than effort attributions were imposed oil them. 1288 35 6 2005 "We integrate and extend insights from just world theory (Lerner, 1980), appraisal and attribution theories of emotion (e.g. Scherer Schorr, & Johnstone, 2001; Weinet; 1995), and the sacred value protection model (Tetlock, Kirstel, Elson, Green, & Lerner 2000) to explain observers §s emotional and behavioural responses to incidents of so called senseless violence. The presence or absence of an opportunity to blame a victim for his or her violent fate resulted in stronger perceptions of, senselessness §s of the violence, stronger identification with the victim §s suffering (i.e. person identification) and stronger identification with his or her violent fate (i.e. position identification). The presence or absence of an opportunity to blame the victim also influenced observers §s feelings of anger and pity, and their willingness to protest and help. Importantly, both types of identification helped explain these emotional and behavioural responses. The results of this experiment suggest dual motivations for how observers come to feel and care for victims of senseless violence. " 1289 35 6 2005 In step level public good dilemmas the equality rule serves as an important distribution rule to tacitly coordinate group members §s decisions. In two studies, we examined the motives that may underlie the use of the equality rule. More specifically, we examined whether people use the equality rule out of fairness concerns or out of efficiency concerns. For this purpose, we assessed people §s emotional reactions toward a violator of the equality rule when the group succeeded vs. failed, as a function of social value orientation. The results of both experiments showed that proselfs §s emotional reactions towards a violator were a function of the success or the failure of the group, whereas prosocials §s emotional reactions did not vary as a function of the outcome feedback. These results suggest that prosocials prefer the equality rule out of fairness concerns whereas for proselfs efficiency concerns dominate. 1290 35 6 2005 Does the narrative perspective people adopt when describing important life events convey and hidden information to audiences about their social identities? In this experiment, participants (who were either professional psychotherapists, or laypersons) formed impressions about, and judged the identities of narrators who described important identity related life events (being Jewish, being gay, being infertile) from one of three different narrative perspectives (retrospective, experiencing and re experiencing). Results showed that narrative perspective had a highly significant influence on impression formation and identity judgments even when the same events were described. Narrators using the retrospective perspective were generally judged to be better adjusted, more socially desirable and less anxious and dynamic than were narrators describing the same events from the experiencing or re experiencing perspectives. 1291 35 6 2005 "Participants were provided with a group impression prior to receiving behavioural information pertaining to a group member. The group impression conveyed a below average level of intelligence or an above average level of intelligence. In addition, the distribution of intelligence scores within the group was unimodal in one condition and bimodal in another condition. The behavioural information pertaining to the individual group member was predominantly intelligent or predominantly unintelligent, thereby affording the on line formation of an intelligent or unintelligent personal impression regarding the group member After receiving the behavioural information, participants recalled the behaviours and rated the group member along the intelligence dimension. Recall and judgment data revealed that the group impression functioned as the dominant expectancy that influenced processing of the behavioural information. Moreover, the effect of the group expectancy was substantially; greater in the unimodal condition than in the bimodal condition. Presence of a group impression appears to reduce the tendency for participants to derive a personal impression on line, and reduce the tendency for participants to rely on a derived personal expectancy when encoding behaviours performed by a group member Potential moderators of this effect are discussed. " 1292 35 6 2005 The experiment (N = 67) tested whether the effectiveness of intragroup respect call be traced back to the symbolic value of intragroup respect as a sign or message of acceptance. In addition to intragroup respect, intragroup acceptance was manipulated as a second independent variable so that the hypothesized acceptance message of intragroup respect was either confirmed or undermined. Collective identification and willingness to engage ingroup serving behaviour were the main dependent variables. Mediation tests based on the experimental manipulations as well as additional measurement of the critical variables provided no evidence that intragroup acceptance is the active ingredient of intragroup respect. Instead, we replicated the respect effects known from the literature and secured further evidence of their internal validity We also found all effect of intragroup acceptance similar to that of intragroup respect, but the former was mediated by feelings of being liked which played no role in intragroup respect. Theoretical and methodological implications of the results are discussed. 1293 35 6 2005 "Heightened temporary accessibility of men §s rape myth acceptance (RMA) increases the correlation between RMA and rape proclivity (RP), suggesting a causal impact of RMA on RP (G. Bohner et al., 1998). We additionally examined previous sexual coercion as an indicator of chronic accessibility of RMA. In Study 1 (N = 107), the correlation between RMA and RP was higher: (a) if RMA was assessed before (versus after) RP; and (b) for men who had previously engaged in sexual coercion compared with men who had not. In Study 2 (N = 148), sexually coercive men were faster answering RMA items than were noncoercive men. Taken together, these findings indicate that the temporary and chronic accessibility of RMA independently affect the RMA RP link. " 1294 35 6 2005 "Gardikiotis, Martin and Hewstone (2004) investigated the representation of majority versus minority; headlines in five British newspapers over a period of five years. They found majority headlines to be twice as frequent as minority headlines. However they identified headlines with the search words majority and minority only in the singular form. We argue that in the public discourse the minority, but not the majority is likely to be represented in the plural. Replicating their study with the search words in both singular and plural forms, the strong difference they reported disappeared and minority headlines proved to be just as frequent as majority headlines. However whereas majority is used almost exclusively in the singular minority is used almost as frequently in both the singular and plural forms. These findings suggest a more complex social representation in real life contexts on the minority pole of the minority majority dimension compared to the majority pole. Implications of this asymmetric relationship are discussed in terms of communication theory, social representations theory, and experimental research on minority majority groups (in particular ingroup homogeneity). " 1295 36 1 2006 If self regulation is a limited resource, the capacity to inhibit aggressive behaviour should be lower among people who have already exercised self regulation. In Experiment 1, participants who had to resist the urge to eat tempting food later reacted more aggressively to an insult than other participants who were allowed to eat as much as they wanted. In Experiments 2 and 3, some participants had to self regulate by making themselves concentrate on a boring film and stifling their physical and facial movements, and afterward they, too, responded more aggressively than controls. Experiment 3 also showed that the results were not due to differential moods and that one act of self regulation (unrelated to aggression) was sufficient to enhance subsequent aggressive responses toward the experimenter. 1296 36 1 2006 "In this paper, we examined reactions to situations in which, although one is not personally involved, one could see oneself connected to either the perpetrators or the victims of unfair behaviour We 14 manipulated participants §s similarity and measured their identification to either one of two groups which participants later learned was the victim or the perpetrator of harmful behaviour As predicted, making salient similarities to the victims lead participants to: 1) appraise the perpetrator §s behaviour as more unfair; 2) experience more anger; and 3) be more likely to take action against it and less prone to show support for it as a function of their level of identification with their salient ingroup. In sharp contrast, focusing participants §s attention on their similarities to the perpetrators reversed this pattern of findings: Compared to high identifiers, low identifiers appraised the behaviour as more unfair than high identifiers, which made them feel angry (and guilty) and less likely to show support for the perpetrator §s behaviour The data also provide strong support for a mediational model in which appraisal of the situation colours the emotional reaction which in turn orients action tendencies. We discuss the implications of our findings for the issue of group based emotions. " 1297 36 1 2006 "It has consistently been found that people produce more ideas when working alone as compared to when working in a group. Yet, people generally believe that group brainstorming is more effective than individual brainstorming. Further group members are more satisfied with their performance than individuals, whereas they have generated fewer ideas. We argue that this illusion of group productivity is partly due to a reduction of cognitive failures (instances in which someone is unable to generate ideas) in a group setting. Three studies support that explanation, showing that: (1) group interaction leads to a reduction of experienced failures and that failures mediate the effect of setting on satisfaction; and (2) manipulations that affect failures also affect satisfaction ratings. Implications for group work are discussed. " 1298 36 1 2006 This paper investigates the arguments used in public documents to mobilise Bulgarians against the deportation of Jews in World War H. We focus on the key documents relating to the first wave of mobilisation in 1940 1941 as provided by Todorov in The Fragility of Goodness (2001). We demonstrate that these documents are based on three types of argument. The first, category inclusion, treats the Jews as part of a common ingroup rather than as constituting a separate outgroup. The second, category norms, proposes that help for those under attack is a core aspect of ingroup identity The third, category interest, suggests that the ingroup will be harmed if Jews are persecuted. In each case, the predominant category on which arguments are based is national identity (i.e. we Bulgarians... ). This analysis is used to validate and extend a social identity of model of helping. The theoretical and practical implications of such an approach are considered in the discussion. 1299 36 1 2006 Two field studies investigated whether as predicted by self categorization theory (Turner 1987), the relationship between comparative fit of an ingroup outgroup categorization and group phenomena is mediated by depersonalization of self perception, and moderated by category accessibility. In the first study participants were football fans, and in the second they were employees in an organization. In each study, two experimental conditions were created, whereby the accessibility and salience of the ingroup outgroup categorization were varied. New measures of comparative fit and depersonalization were developed, based on meta contrast ratios. Outcome variables were ingroup bias (Studies 1 and 2), ingroup entitativity, organizational citizenship behaviours, job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Study 2). Consistent with self categorization theory,, results showed (a) that comparative fit determined ingroup bias and other criterion variables through the mediating process of depersonalization, and (b) that this process was active only when the category was highly accessible. The moderational role of accessibility concerned the relationship between depersonalization and outcome variables, not the link between fit and depersonalization. 1300 36 1 2006 According to the literature on social influence, a minority source can induce two main cognitive processes: validation and divergence. The aim of the present study was to determine if the two processes are jointly or alternatively activated. We hypothesized that the process stimulated by the minority source would be different according to the personal relevance of the issue for the participants. Specifically, we predicted that a minority would induce more validation (i.e. ambivalent thoughts about the issue) in the low relevance condition rather than in the high relevance condition. On the other hand, the minority would produce more divergence (i.e. alternative proposals) in the high relevance condition rather than in the low relevance condition. Two experiments in which the participants were exposed to a counter attitudinal message of a minority or a majority supported these predictions. Moreover, in Study I evidence has also been found that a minority source fosters more pertinent (but not more original) proposals in the high relevance condition rather than in the low relevance condition, whereas in Study 2 ambivalence (other than divergence) appeared to be correlated with, but not a significant mediator of, indirect influence. The implications of these findings for minority influence theory are discussed. 1301 36 1 2006 The present study examined the effects of gender and status on the use of power strategies. The experiment consisted of a computer based problem solving task performed in pairs, where participants interacted with simulated long distance partners. Participants were 36 female and 38 male undergraduate students, who were assigned to be influencing agents and were required to convince their partners to accept their help in the problem solving process. Status was manipulated by the extent to which partners were dependent upon the participants §s resources. Partners were either same sex or other sex. Results indicated an interactive effect of agent gender by status. Men used more frequently masculine typed and less frequently feminine typed strategies than did women in low status positions, whereas in high status positions no significant gender differences in power strategy choices were found. These findings suggest that gender differences and similarities vary according to social contexts. Implications of the findings for both theory and practice are discussed. 1302 36 1 2006 Not living up to one §s ideal self has been shown to coincide with decreased self esteem. lit the present paper this notion is applied to the differentiation between people with independent versus interdependent self construal. We suggest that the ideal self of independents differs in two respects from the one of interdependents: with respect to its contents (autonomous versus social self knowledge) and with respect to the degree of context dependency of the encoded knowledge (context independent versus context dependent self knowledge). In three studies, via a priming we either manipulated contents or degree of context dependency of what participants considered themselves to actually be like. On both explicit and implicit measures, participants with independent construal indicated higher self esteem after priming of autonomous and context independent knowledge than, after priming of social and context dependent knowledge. The opposite pattern was observed in participants with interdependent construal. Results suggest that independent and interdependent construals mirror different ideals which are applied as a comparison standard when evaluating the self. 1303 36 1 2006 The instrumental power associated with voicing opinions to an authority was manipulated to observe the effects upon subsequent discretionaty, extra role behaviours. In two experiments, the provision of non instrumental voice increased extra role behaviours above a no voice condition. Experiment 2 also showed that this relationship was mediated by procedural justice perceptions, but not respect from, or social identification with, the group. The implications of these data for current theory as well as the possible moderating role of social identification, are discussed. 1304 36 2 2006 "Priming or nonconscious activation of social knowledge structures has produced a plethora of rather amazing findings over the past 25 years: priming a single social concept such as aggressive can have multiple effects across a wide array of psychological systems, such as perception, motivation, behaviour, and evaluation. But we may have reached childhood §s end, so to speak, and need now to move on to research questions such as how these multiple effects of single primes occur (the generation problem); next, how these multiple simultaneous priming influences in the environment get distilled into nonconscious social action that has to happen serially, in real time (the reduction problem). It is suggested that models of complex conceptual structures (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), language use in real life conversational settings (Clark, 1996), and speech production (Dell, 1986) might hold the key for solving these two important second generation research problems. " 1305 36 2 2006 Documenting the behavioural consequences of infra humanization, Vaes, Paladino, Castelli, Leyens, and Giovanazzi (2003) found that, in comparison to ingroup members, outgroup members are discriminated against when they express uniquely human emotions. It was assumed that expressing a uniquely human emotion makes an ingroup member, at least tacitly, more human than an outgroup member. Two studies tested this assumption and found, as predicted, that the human concept was more activated in an ingroup compared to an outgroup context when group members were associated with uniquely human emotions. The possible impact of valence was controlled for, showing that both positive and negative emotions endorsed the same effects (Study 1) and that the activation of the human concept was not a side effect of increased positivity (Study 2). The discussion focuses on the implications of the present studies and suggests new avenues of research. 1306 36 2 2006 The goal of the present study was to test the moderating role of Locus of Control beliefs on performance deficits typically associated with stereotype threat. The results from Experiment I were consistent with predictions. First, consistent with the Stereotype Threat model, participants showed a decrease in performance when the task was perceived as a potential test of the ingroup §s negative, stereotype (lacking logical mathematical intelligence in the case of women and lacking social intelligence in the case of men). Most important, participants §s Locus of Control beliefs were found to moderate participants §s vulnerability to stereotype threat: individuals with an Internal Locus of Control, although generally performing better, showed a sharper decrease in the stereotype threat condition compared to individuals with External Locus of Control beliefs. Experiment 2 replicated the results from Experiment 1. Findings are discussed in relation to the psychological characteristics of Internal Locus of Control that may render individuals more vulnerable to the negative effects of stereotype threat. 1307 36 2 2006 The present study investigated whether and how social consensus affects the way perceivers encode information concerning a deviant member of a stereotyped group. Participants formed an impression of a gay person described by means of both positive and negative behaviours. Participants also learned that they had to communicate their impression to an unidentified audience whose stereotype about gays was unknown or to an ingroup audience which was presented to be either positive or negative about gays. Results indicated that participants who ignored the identity of the audience and its position towards gays devoted more time to examine the information than participants who had been informed about the audience and its opinion about gays. More importantly, participants spent less (more) time to encode information that was in line (at odds) with the stereotype of the audience. Results are discussed in terms of the interplay between cognitive and social factors in general, and of recent evidence about inconsistency resolution effect and consensual beliefs in particular. 1308 36 2 2006 The present research tests an important motivational explanation for people §s concern with procedural fairness by considering the influence of people §s belongingness needs. We predicted that those individuals with a strong need to belong would care more about procedural fairness information and thus they would process that information more carefully, as compared to individuals with a weak need to belong. In Study 1, the need to belong moderated the relationship between the opportunity for voice and self evaluations. In Study 2, the need to belong moderated the relationship between the opportunity for voice and organizational identification among employees of a multinational healthcare company. Study 3 extends this finding by demonstrating that people with a strong need to belong engage in more careful and systematic processing of procedural fairness information. Together, these findings provide important insight into understanding the motivations that underlie reactions to procedural fairness. 1309 36 2 2006 The present study examined the utility of two forms of measurement of intrinsic motivation in increasing the predictive validity of the theory of planned behaviour. Self report questionnaires were administered to school pupils (n =174), University, students (n =129) and adults (n =157). The data were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis and regression analysis. Confirmatory analysis supported discriminant validity between Forms A and B measures of intrinsic motivation. In addition, hierarchical regression analysis demonstrated that Form B measure of intrinsic motivation increased effectiveness of the theory of planned behaviour in predicting intentions and social behaviour. Further, the regression analysis showed that age and past behaviour did not reduce the effects observed for intrinsic motivation. It is recommended that intrinsic motivation could increase the predictive utility of the theory of planned behaviour. 1310 36 2 2006 "To insure compliance with rules and laws, regulatory authorities are usually in a position of power over a heterogeneous population or multiple groups. Power may thus need to be analysed as a tripartite relationship between authority, ingroup and outgroup. Based on the social identity approach and related justice theories, it is argued that social identification with an inclusive category that includes ingroup, outgroup and authority determines how group members react to the authority §s power use and perceived legitimacy. Two studies were set in the context of the Australian tax system. Study 1 used an experimental design with a student sample; Study 2 was survey with a random sample of Australian citizens. Participants who identified less strongly with the inclusive category (Australians) attributed more legitimacy to the tax authority, when it exercised effective power over the outgroup (Study 1), or when it appeared lenient towards the ingroup (Study 2). In contrast, participants who identified strongly with the inclusive category attributed more legitimacy to the tax authority when it used its powers consistently towards both groups. " 1311 36 2 2006 "A quasi experimental study on the effects of terrorism on racial prejudice and ideological orientation is presented. Two independent samples were contacted before and after the Islamic terrorist attacks against railways in Madrid (11 March 2004). Anti Arab and anti Semite prejudices, authoritarianism and ideological orientations (liberal against conservative) were evaluated. Results showed that those terrorist attacks provoked changes in a reactionary and conservative direction: stronger prejudices not only against the target group (Arabs), but against another uninvolved group (Jewish); an increase in authoritarianism; stronger attachment to traditional conservative values, and a reduction in the attachment to liberal values. The results are interpreted in terms of the System Justification Theory, the Motivated Social Cognition model of Conservatism and the Right Wing Authoritarianism. " 1312 36 2 2006 "Previous research in bystander intervention found that the presence of other bystanders reduces helping behaviour in an emergency (bystander effect). This research was mainly conducted in the context of non dangerous, non violent emergencies. We hypothesize that the classic bystander effect does not occur in more dangerous situations because: a) they are faster and more clearly recognized as emergency situations; and b) higher costs for refusing help increase the accepted costs for helping. Following this line of reasoning, the present research tests whether the bystander effect is affected by the degree of the emergency §s potential danger. Results supported our expectations: In situations with low potential danger, more help was given in the solitary condition than in the bystander condition. However, in situations with high potential danger, participants confronted with an emergency alone or in the presence of another bystander were similarly likely to help, the victim. " 1313 36 2 2006 To cope with paralyzing terror awakened by thoughts of their own death people usually use two defence mechanisms: cultural worldview and self esteem. Recent studies suggest that also close relationships may function as a death anxiety buffer. The present research explores this phenomenon in an experimental paradigm. One hundred sixteen undergraduates completed a self esteem scale, attachment scale, and a scale tapping ideal mate characteristics. After experimental manipulation each participant talked shortly with six unknown students of the opposite sex and rated their attractiveness. The results showed no effect of self esteem either in the experimental or control condition. As for the attachment styles, we obtained significant interaction of avoidance and condition (non avoidant participants were more favourable under mortality salience), and simple effect of anxiety (anxious participants increased the assessments regardless of the condition). Both effects were short term and affected only the assessments of the first date. 1314 36 3 2006 Two experiments examined how people respond to upward social comparisons in terms of the extent to which they categorize the self and the source of comparison within the same social group. Self evaluation maintenance theory (SEM) suggests that upward ingroup comparisons can lead to the rejection of a shared categorization, because shared categorization makes the comparison more meaningful and threatening. In contrast, social identity theory (SIT) suggests that upward ingroup comparisons can lead to the acceptance of shared categorization because a high performing ingroup member enhances the ingroup identity. We attempted to resolve these differing predictions using self categorization theory, arguing that SEM applies to contexts that make salient one §s personal identity, and SIT applies to contexts that make collective identity salient. Consistent with this perspective, the level of identity activated in context moderated the effect of an upward ingroup comparison on the acceptance of shared social categorization. 1315 36 3 2006 Stereotype formation about novel groups was analysed with trivariate stimulus distributions that were generated by group membership, valence of behaviour, and a context variable. Within this stimulus setting, we manipulated the confounding role of the context variable and the distinctiveness of events in terms of their relative infrequency. The experimental procedure allowed us to analyse illusory and spurious correlations in a joint framework, to conduct focused tests for memory effects of relative infrequency and to investigate the detection of covariations with the context variable. The results revealed that illusory and spurious correlations were formed without enhanced memory for infrequent events and with existing covariations of the confounding context factor being well extracted. These observations suggest that illusory and spurious correlations can be understood without assuming specific cognitive processes that are tied to the particular characteristics of a given stimulus distribution, such as enhanced memory in the case of relative infrequency and neglect of a context variable in the case of a confounding factor. Instead, computer simulations with an exemplar based learning model demonstrated that exemplar based category learning may provide a coherent and integrative theoretical framework for illusory correlations, spurious correlations and true contingency learning in social cognition. 1316 36 3 2006 This paper experimentally examines the effects of passing (versus revealing) a contextually devalued identity on performance related self confidence. An experimental scenario was developed on the basis of the results of a pilot study. Studies 1 and 2 (total N = 255) experimentally manipulate passing versus revealing a contextually devalued identity, to an ingroup or an outgroup partner The results show that, although passing makes participants believe that their partner has more positive expectations of them, it also undermines performance related self confidence. Moreover, the results show that negative self directed affect (i.e., guilt and shame) mediated the negative effect of passing on performance related self confidence. 1317 36 3 2006 The third person effect (TPE) is the tendency for individuals to assume that persuasive communications have a stronger effect on other people than on themselves. In turn the social distance effect (SDE) is the tendency for this TPE to increase with the psychological distance between self and comparator Two experiments showed that the SDE is moderated by whether the message favours the ingroup or the outgroup, holding all other content constant. In Study 1, male and female participants read a message arguing that either women were better drivers than men or vice versa, and then indicated how much they thought themselves, ingroup members, outgroup members and society would be influenced. The results indicate that for the pro outgroup message the SDE was found. However, for the pro ingroup message the SDE was reversed with ingroup members perceived as more influenced than all other targets, including the self. Study 2 replicated this finding using minimal groups, which eliminated the effects of prior stereotypes about male and female drivers. Across both studies the self was perceived as relatively invulnerable to influence regardless of message bias. 1318 36 3 2006 We address the question why fear dominates hope in the life of individuals and collectives on the basis of the accumulated knowledge in the psychology, neurology and sociology of emotions. This knowledge suggests that fear, as primary emotion, is grounded in the experienced present and based on the memorized past, processed both consciously and unconsciously, causes freezing and conservatism, and sometimes leads to pre emptive aggression. Hope, in contrast, as a secondary emotion, involves cognitive activity, which requires anticipation and the search for new ideas and thus is based on complex processes of creativity and flexibility. Therefore, hope is often preceded and inhibited by spontaneous, automatically activated and faster fear Fear and hope can each become a collective emotional orientation, and as such organize society §s views and direct its actions. Societies involved in intractable conflict are dominated by a collective fear orientation. This orientation is functional for society §s coping with the stressful and demanding situation but it may serve as a psychological obstacle to any peace process, once it starts. The case of the collective fear orientation in the Jewish Israeli society is presented as an example. The article ends with a presentation of a particular approach, suggesting that individuals and collectives can overcome their fear with much determination, and establish an orientation of hope which allows change in situations dominated by fear 1319 36 3 2006 Two studies examined the impact of chronic and situational self regulatory mechanisms on cognitive test performance. In both studies, test performance was enhanced when situationally induced regulatory mechanisms matched the chronic self regulatory focus of the test taker These results support the regulatory fit hypothesis put forward in regulatory focus theory and point to the importance of compatibility between chronic and situationally induced self regulatory states when it comes to cognitive test performance. 1320 36 3 2006 While the productive role of social interaction between peers in promoting cognitive development has been clearly established, the communicative processes through which this is achieved have not been clearly identified. This paper reports a study in which 184 children aged between 65 to 7.5 years were presented with a Piagetian task of conservation of liquid. Both male and female non conservers worked with a conserving partner in either same or mixed sex dyads, thus creating four different pair types. The pairs were asked to discuss their conflicting answers and agree upon a joint response. Cognitive progress was assessed by pre to post test gains. The results indicated that the type of conversation established during the interaction was strongly related to the outcome. The results also indicate that the gender composition of the pairs influenced the type of conversation which occurred and the outcome measures. These results are discussed in relation to the general model of socio cognitive conflict, and highlight the role of representations and expectations of gender in the way in which the conflict is expressed and resolved in conditions of aligned or conflicting knowledge and gender asymmetries. 1321 36 4 2006 This research tested the hypothesis that the responding of high, but not low, prejudice White Americans would vary as a function of manipulations of powerful people §s attention to subordinate strengths that facilitate goal strivings versus weaknesses that block goals. To examine this possibility, White participants were assigned to leader roles and an interaction with a low power Black employee was staged. Consistent with predictions, findings revealed that high prejudice White participants who were attentive to subordinate strengths and goal strivings versus subordinate weaknesses and blocked goals, evaluated and treated a Black employee more positively. The responding of low prejudice participants did not, however vary as a function of attention to strengths and goal facilitation versus weaknesses and blocked goals. Findings suggest that stereotypes of the groups to which low power people belong influence powerful people §s judgment and behaviour when stereotypes are endorsed by powerful people and match powerful people §s goals. 1322 36 4 2006 This study explores the effects of power, positional threat, and expectancies on interactions between powerholders and subordinates. Two hundred and forty two participants were randomly assigned to power role (boss or employee). Bosses were further randomly assigned to levels of positional threat (power role secure or insecure) and expectancy regarding subordinates §s problem solving ability (negative or positive). Evidence for a self fulfilling prophecy was obtained, such that dyads where bosses held negative expectancies of their subordinates rated the subordinate and experience most negatively and awarded less potential prize money to the subordinates. Expectancy interacted with positional threat in a consistent manner such that the most negative effects were obtained for dyads where bosses were both positionally threatened and held negative expectancies of subordinates. Implications for theories of power are discussed. 1323 36 4 2006 Drawing inferences about other people §s thoughts and feelings related to power issues ( power relevant thoughts and feelings) can affect how hierarchies are formed. Perceivers who infer such thoughts and feelings can be biased (i.e., over or underestimating the occurrence of power relevant thoughts and feelings). We investigated whether the perceiver §s gender and the perceiver §s preference for a high or low power position ( power preference ) affects the perceiver §s bias toward attributing power relevant thoughts and feelings to others. Participants were 80female and 35 male students who indicated their power preference and then guessed whether videotaped target individuals had experienced power relevant thoughts and feelings or not. Using a signal detection approach, we found that men who preferred a high power position overestimated the occurrence of power relevant thoughts and feelings in others more than men who preferred a low power position. No such difference in overestimation bias was found for women. 1324 36 4 2006 "it is popularly believed that powerful people enjoy a nearly absolute lack of constraints, and that powerless people suffer under overwhelming constraints; in fact, such differences largely define the social categories of powerful person and powerless person. This association of power related social categories and constraint constitutes a stereotype that may lead perceivers to overlook other more diagnostic information when explaining others §s behaviour As a result, the actions of powerholders may tend to be seen as dispositionally motivated and those of the powerless as situationally motivated. This should occur because of both real differences in constraint, and bias in the failure to account for other more diagnostic information about constraint. Two studies support these predictions. In Study 1, participants judged powerless workers as more situationally motivated, especially under coercion, than both controls and powerholders, who were judged as more dispositional. In Study 2, given more fine grained information about constraints and power participants §s attributions reflected both accurate use of this information and bias. " 1325 36 4 2006 The approach/inhibition theory of power proposes that elevated social power increases the experience and expression of positive emotions and that reduced social power increases the experience and expression of negative emotions (Keltner Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003). The evidence to date for these proposed relationships is correlational. Studies that have attempted to find a causal link between power and emotions have failed to do so. The current study manipulated social power in 61 three person groups that engaged in a meaningful discussion (explanations for poverty in the US) that produced disagreements and strong emotions. High power individuals experienced and expressed more positive emotions and less anger than low power individuals did. High power individuals were also more likely than low power individuals to openly express their opinions during the group discussion. Implications for theory and future research are discussed. 1326 36 4 2006 Five studies investigated the hypotheses that the sense of power increases optimism in perceiving risks and leads to more risky behaviour In Studies I and 2, individuals with a higher generalized sense of power and those primed with a high power mind set were more optimistic in their perceptions of risk. Study 3 primed the concept of power nonconsciously and found that both power and gain/loss frame had independent effects on risk preferences. In Study 4, those primed with a high power mind set were more likely to act in a risk seeking fashion (i.e., engage in unprotected sex). In Study 5, individuals with a higher sense of power in a face to face negotiation took more risks by divulging their interests. The effects of power on risk taking were mediated by optimistic risk perceptions and not by self efficacy beliefs. Further these effects were attenuated when the high power individual felt a sense of responsibility. 1327 36 4 2006 It has often been proposed that people are intrinsically motivated to gain or increase power over others. We argue that theoretical underpinnings of such a claim are lacking. Moreover empirical support for this claim is more convincingly explained by strivings to increase one §s sense of agency (personal power) by decreasing dependence on others, rather than by strivings to increase power over others (social power). In two experiments, we directly tested the explanatory value of the personal power concept. In Experiment 1, participants performed a decision making task, together with a (simulated) other person. The power of the two persons over each other was manipulated orthogonally by varying the control they had over each other §s decisions. As expected, the participants mostly increased their personal power, by decreasing their dependence on the other person §s power They did not increase their social power but even decreased it when they were very superior themselves. Comparable findings were obtained in Experiment 2, in which participants interacted with another person whose decisions conflicted with those made by the participant. 1328 36 4 2006 This paper focuses on the interactive effects of power and emotion in negotiation. Previous research has shown that negotiators concede more to angry opponents than to happy ones, and that power influences the amount of attention that is devoted to the social environment. Integrating these two lines of inquiry, we predicted that low power negotiators would be influenced by their opponent §s emotions (conceding more to an angry opponent than to a happy one), whereas high power negotiators would not. Five studies using different methods (an experiment, a field simulation, and three scenario studies), different samples (students, general population, managers), and different operationalisations of power (BATNA, number of alternatives, legitimacy, support) support this hypothesis. The results are discussed in terms of a motivated information processing model of the interpersonal effects of emotions in negotiations. 1329 36 4 2006 Asymmetrical outcome dependency (AOD) has been theorized to produce feelings of powerlessness and anxiety, as well as a heightened motive to be interpersonally accurate. Thus far the research on AOD has been conducted mainly among participants who were anticipating an outcome dependent interaction. Using both self report and behavioural measures, the present research investigated the feelings, motives, behaviour and interpersonal accuracy of participants engaged in dyadic task accomplishment under AOD, individual evaluation by the partner (EDP), individual evaluation by the experimenter (EDE), or no dependency. AOD participants showed relatively high levels of felt dominance, less attention to the partner less happy affect, and less motivational investment than one or more of the other groups. EDP participants appeared to be most interested in being accurate and in making a good impression. No group differences were observed for interpersonal accuracy or anxiety. 1330 36 4 2006 In the present article, we discuss and compare recent theoretical and empirical contributions to the growing body of research on social power In the last decade, five different theories on power have been proposed. These theories can be distinguished according to whether they focus on intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup or ideological processes. Our analysis leads its to claim that future theoretical contributions would have much to gain by addressing the issue of social power on multiple levels of analysis. The recent empirical work on social power suggests that powerful individuals and members of powerful groups differ from powerless individuals and members of powerless groups with regard to (a) how they perceive and judge others, (b) how they are evaluated as targets, and (c) how they behave. Those who have power perceive others more stereotypically and judge them more negatively. They also tend to take action more frequently and generally behave in a more variable manner This difference in objective variability is further reinforced by perceivers §s tendency to exaggerate the variability of high power groups. The latter two effects contribute to the phenomenon that high power groups are less often the target of stereotypes than low power groups. 1331 36 5 2006 Three studies examined group problem solving on complex intellective tasks. In Study 1, a decision model proposed by Laughlin and Hollingshead (1995) provided the best fit to actual group choices. This study also compared three person group versus individual performance with time constrained and number of problems unconstrained, with individuals solving non significantly more problems and groups obtaining significantly superior trials to solution scores. In Study 2, one member of each group was given additional information on how to perform the task and member extroversion was measured. Neither factor significantly impacted the decision making process. In Study 3, task expertise was assessed prior to the group interaction. Results indicate that group members were twice as likely to adopt an option proposed by an expert compared to other group members. Together these studies demonstrate that group problem solving is governed jointly by qualities of the task and qualities of the group members. 1332 36 5 2006 The use of photographs to augment media reports of kidnapping victims in Iraq has sparked debates over the effects of such images on the public and, ultimately, the politics surrounding the event. We considered the effects of such images in a sample of British University students during the 2004 kidnapping of British citizen Kenneth Bigley. Drawing on emotions theory, we examined the effects of graphic images on emotional reactions and attitudes towards negotiations. Half of the participants were exposed to photographs of the victim that had recently been published in a national newspaper The other half were not shown any images. As predicted, the photographs increased fear reactions amongst participants compared to no photograph controls. Fear and sympathy, but not anger, predicted attitudes towards negotiation. The photographs used in this study thus indirectly increased participants §s support for negotiating with and submitting to the demands of the captors. 1333 36 5 2006 Three studies investigated comparison choices in intergroup settings, a neglected but important topic for theories of intergroup relations. Two main questions were addressed: What is role of comparison motives in determining comparison choices in intergroup contexts? How important are temporal comparisons (of the ingroup in the past or future) in intergroup settings? In Study 1 (N = 115), motives for Assessment or Enhancement were primed in a multi group performance context. Compared to Controls, Assessment priming encouraged both upward and downward comparisons, while Enhancement encouraged mainly downward comparisons. In general, temporal comparisons were as prevalent as comparisons with other groups. Study 2 (N = 199) employed a real world setting in which members of a mid ranking university indicated their interest in comparing with other higher or lower status universities or with their own university in the past. Temporal comparisons were once more much in evidence, and manipulating enhancement motives again encouraged downward comparisons. In Study 3 (N = 40), set in the context of inter nation student comparisons, Improvement motives were primed implicitly. This led to an increase in interest in an outgroup just above the ingroup but to a decrease in interest in future oriented comparisons. 1334 36 5 2006 "Many experiments show that threats to attitudinal freedom create reactance, but the underlying dynamics of reactance based disagreement have not received much attention. The present experiments identified two paths from threats to disagreement. In one path, threats to attitudinal freedom directly motivate disagreement; in the other negative cognitive responses mediate the threat §s effect on disagreement. Two experiments demonstrated the causes and consequences of each path from threat to persuasion. When a communicator threatened freedom at the beginning of the message, unfavourable cognitive responses (counterarguing, negative perceptions of the source §s credibility) fully mediated the effect of threat on disagreement. When the threat appeared at the end of the message however, threat had a direct, unmediated effect on disagreement (Experiment 1). The two paths had different consequences for sleeper effects: disagreement rooted in negative cognitive responses persisted, whereas disagreement directly motivated by the threat declined when the threat was removed (Experiment 2). Implications for reactance and for threat based sleeper effects are discussed. " 1335 36 5 2006 Stereotype threat is often described as resulting from increased anxiety over confirming a negative stereotype about one §s group (Steele, 1997). However, variations in the type of emotional reactions targets experience as a function of stereotype threat has never been examined systematically before and after taking a test, thus it is unclear whether targets experience different emotions at different points in the testing session. The present study investigated this issue of emotional specificity. Results demonstrate that targets of a negative stereotype, but not non targets, experienced heightened anxiety prior to taking a test under stereotype threat conditions and heightened frustration once the test was concluded. No effects were found in the non stereotype threat conditions. These findings, therefore, highlight the specific affective states that targets and non targets experience in threat and non threat conditions, as well as how these affective states can be assessed using self report measures. 1336 36 5 2006 Inter group perception was examined in a context characterized by positive interdependence and extensive contact across group boundaries. The attitudes and beliefs of the woodwind, brass, and percussion sections of a university marching band were examined using measures of ingroup favouritism, outgroup homogeneity, and 12 scales assessing adult temperament. Although there was no evidence of ingroup favouritism or outgroup homogeneity, and few actual temperament differences across groups, stereotypic expectations based on temperament characteristics were strong. For each target group, strength of stereotype was accentuated by ingroup judges and, most strongly, by outgroup judges. Accentuation of differences between groups occurred when the expectation, and not the reality, of group differences were present. Correlations between contact measures and individual measures of perceived ingroup outgroup differences were generally low, but suggested that degree of contact correlated positively, rather than negatively, with the magnitude of perceived differences between groups. 1337 36 5 2006 Differences in actual, ideal, and expected relatedness with mothers and fathers were explored across two cultural groups (i.e., university students from the U.S. and Turkey) in Study 1, and across two socioeconomic status (SES) groups (i.e., high school students from the upper and lower SES in Turkey) in Study 2. In both studies associations of perceived relatedness with individualistic and collectivistic value orientations as well as with self construal types were also explored. Results indicated cultural groups to be quite similar in actual relatedness, but to differ in expected and ideal relatedness, with Turks reporting more relatedness. In Turkey, lower SES adolescents reported more relatedness in ideal and actual conditions than upper SES adolescents, while they did not differ in expected relatedness. Results involving self types and value orientations pointed to both cross cultural similarities and within cultural diversity in relatedness. Theoretical implications of the differential impact of culture, SES, self construals, and value orientations on actual, ideal, and expected relatedness are discussed. 1338 36 5 2006 In a diary study, we examined the frequency and affective implications of 34 ethnic minority students §s comparisons to other ethnic minorities or to members of a high status ethnic majority (i.e., European Americans). Participants made more frequent comparisons to ethnic majority than ethnic minority referents, although neither type of comparison tended to be perceived in terms of group membership (see also Smith & Leach, 2004). Comparisons to ethnic majority referents did not alter participants §s positive affect even where they suggested poor future prospects in status relevant domains. In contrast, comparisons to fellow ethnic minorities led to increased positive affect when they suggested a future prospect of improvement. We discuss the conceptual and practical implications of social comparison in the context of group status. 1339 36 5 2006 Do people perceive themselves as becoming more attractive across time? The present studies investigated whether individuals (a) judge their previous self as physically less attractive than their current self and (b) judge their future self to be physically more attractive than their current self. The studies also investigated when temporal biasing of attractiveness is most likely to occur In Study 1, students rated their present and past attractiveness. The results revealed that participants §s ratings of past attractiveness were lower than current ratings, but only among individuals for whom attractiveness was important to their self concept. In Study 2, participants rated their present attractiveness and their expected attractiveness in 5 years. The results revealed that ratings of future attractiveness were higher than current ratings, but only among individuals who frequently engage in social comparisons. The implications of the results are discussed with respect to self appraisals of attractiveness and psychological well being. 1340 36 5 2006 In two studies, we investigate the differential influence of perceived group and personal discrimination on self esteem in the context of the Rejection Identification model (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 1999). We first polled a group of African immigrants and found that whereas personal discrimination was negatively related to personal self esteem, group discrimination was positively associated with it. As expected, identification served as a buffer between personal discrimination and self esteem. We replicated these effects in a second study using women as our respondents. These results suggest that perceiving group discrimination may be positively related to self esteem because people feel less alone in their plight, thereby alleviating the ill effects of exclusion. We discuss these results in relation to both the Rejection Identification model and the discounting hypothesis (Crocker & Major 1989). 1341 36 6 2006 The present research examined the effects of information sharing about self interest and group membership of the negotiation partner on negotiation cognitions, behaviours and outcomes. Study I (n = 77) showed that in anticipation of the negotiation, participants placed more trust in an ingroup member and were more willing to exchange information with a negotiation partner who revealed his/her self interest. Study 2 (n = 80) examined how these effects influenced the development of attitudes and behaviour during and after the negotiation. Results showed that negotiations with ingroup members were more cooperative when they shared, rather than not shared, information about underlying self interest. By contrast, negotiations with outgroup members were more cooperative when they did not share, rather than shared, information about their underlying self interest. 1342 36 6 2006 The linguistic expectancy bias hypothesis predicts that, in general, person impressions are shared with others via subtle differences in the level of linguistic abstraction that is used to communicate expected and unexpected information about an individual. In a two part communication experiment, we examined this hypothesis. In the first part of the experiment communicators were asked to provide a description of an event where a good friend had behaved in an expected or unexpected way. In the second part, recipients of these stories who were blind to the conditions under which the description was generated judged whether the story target §s behaviour was due to dispositional or situational factors. Behaviours in expected events were judged to be more dispositional relative to behaviours in unexpected events. As predicted, the level of linguistic abstraction mediated this effect. It is concluded that person impressions may be transmitted and formed at an interpersonal level via differential language use. 1343 36 6 2006 The power of individualist and collectivist group norms to influence intergroup and inter individual differentiation was examined in three studies. Study I revealed that intergroup differentiation was lower when group norms prescribed individualism than when they prescribed collectivism. However inter individual differentiation was higher when group norms endorsed individualism than when they promoted collectivism. In Studies 2 and 3 we found evidence for the moderating effect of group salience on the relationship between norms and differentiation. Specifically, the effect that individualist group norms reduced intergroup differentiation but enhanced inter individual differentiation was more pronounced when group salience was high rather than low. This finding demonstrates that conformity to a group norm prescribing individualism influences the manner in which positive differentiation is expressed. The discussion focuses on the caveats of introducing individualist group norms when attempting to reduce intergroup differentiation. 1344 36 6 2006 This research includes two experiments that examined (a) whether the assessment situation in which individuals complete an implicit measure of bias alters their responses and (b) whether the hypothesized effect of the assessment situation on implicitly assessed bias reflects socially desirable responding. Parlicipants in Experiment 1 (N = 151) completed an IAT measuring bias toward homosexuality in either a public or a private assessment situation. Consistent with studies of explicitly assessed attitudes, implicitly assessed bias toward homosexuality was significantly lower when assessed in a public versus a private assessment situation. Participants in Experiment 2 (N = 102) completed an IAT measuring bias toward homosexuality in a public assessment situation under a bogus pipeline or no bogus pipeline condition. Results indicated that parlicipants §s implicitly assessed bias did not significantly differ across these conditions. The authors discuss these findings in terms of possible automatic processes affecting the malleability of implicitly assessed attitudes. 1345 36 6 2006 Threat has been proposed as an important cause of prejudice with social identification moderating its effects. In the context of the expansion of the European Union, two studies (N = 216 students and N = 107 non students) examined how people with different levels of subgroup and superordinate identification respond to threats from an outgroup nested within the same superordinate category as the ingroup. Across experiments, a consistent finding was that participants who strongly identified with the subgroup (Germany) and the superordinate group (Europe) at the same time were most susceptible to a subtle manipulation of threat. Among these participants, threat increased prejudice (Studies 1 and 2) and ingroup projection (Study 2). Findings are discussed with regard to theoretical models of subgroup relations, especially the ingroup projection model, as well as the European integration process. 1346 36 6 2006 In the present article we build on previous work suggesting that people react more strongly to the favourability of outgroup authority allocations than ingroup authority allocations. Based on theorizing and research on intergroup perception and self categorization, we refine this argument by suggesting that responses to outgroup authorities depend on people §s level of ingroup identification. We present data from air experiment showing that the favourability of treatment by an outgroup member primarily influences decision acceptance among high (vs. low) ingroup identifiers. In line with theory and research based on the relational model of authority, findings of the present study also suggest that ingroup identification has a reversed effect on acceptance of an ingroup authority §s decisions. Specifically, the favourability of treatment by an ingroup member primarily influences decision acceptance among low (vs. high) ingroup identifiers. 1347 36 6 2006 Recent research provides evidence that implicit attitude formation is guided by a summation principle (Betsch, Plessner Schwieren, & Gutig, 2001). This finding contradicts models claiming that attitudes form from the average value of stimulus information (e.g., Anderson, 1981). In this paper we show that the application of an integration rule depends on the mode of processing (implicit vs. explicit). In three experiments, participants encode sequences of return values produced by shares on the stock market. Results jointly indicate that evaluative judgments follow an averaging principle when attitudes were formed explicitly, either on memory content (Exp. 1) or the relevant sample of information (Exp. 2). In Experiment 3, we varied the processing mode within participants. An attitude reversal effect was found by varying the mode of processing for the same set of stimuli. After implicit attitude formation, participants evaluated the share with a higher sum of return values more positively than the share with a higher average value. This pattern reversed when participants explicitly evaluated the same shares. 1348 36 6 2006 Theoretical and empirical accounts of violent intergroup conflict or reactions to victimization suggested psychosocial processes that are likely to paradoxically enhance war victims §s justification of violations of humanitarian norms. To test for differences and similarities between individual and community reactions, multilevel analyses of the People on War dataset were conducted. This data combines survey responses from fourteen different communities recently involved in armed conflict (N = 12, 047). At the individual level, findings support a specific cycle of violence hypothesis, indicating that victims of war report less support for a legal conception of humanitarian norms than do non victims. In contrast, at the community level, the higher the rate of victims, the more frequently community members adopt a legal conception of humanitarian norms. Further the strength of condemnation of humanitarian norm violations is positively related to war duration and magnitude of fatalities. These findings are interpreted within a social representational framework. The collective experience of generalized vulnerability strengthens a shared perception of the need for formal justice, which cannot be reduced to the sum of the psychological consequences of community members §s individual experiences of war trauma. 1349 36 6 2006 This study investigates how everyday categorization experiences affect people §s emotional responses and self views. A representative Dutch population sample (N = 463) was asked to recount a situation in which they were categorized by others. This resulted in a range of categories that were spontaneously evoked by research participants. Participants were asked to think of a situation either where the categorization resulted in negative or in positive expectations about the self. Positive categorization elicited more positive emotions and agreement than negative categorization. However, when positive expectations about the self were formed, people found it less easy to detect that these were based on external categorizations, and were less likely to protest. Mediational analyses showed that because detection was impaired, exposure to positive categorization resulted in lower self confidence than exposure to negative categorization. 1350 37 1 2007 An impostor is defined as somebody who publicly, lays claim to an identity while simultaneously disguising their failure to fulfill key criteria for group membership. The current study aimed to identify why, minority group members feel negatively toward impostors. In two experiments, gay participants evaluated a person who claimed to be either gay or straight. In half of the conditions the target §s claims for identity were consistent with their behaviour, and in the other half the target §s claims for identity were inconsistent with their behaviour (impostors). Participants perceived a straight target that claimed was to be gay to be doing more damage to the group than a consistent straight target. This effect was mediated by ratings of the extent to which the target was threatening the distinctiveness of gay identity. Furthermore, a gay target who claimed to be straight was seen to be less likeable and was seen to be doing more damage to the group than a consistent gay target, effects that were mediated by the extent to which the target was perceived to feel shame about their group identity. Implications of the results for our understanding of impostorism are discussed. 1351 37 1 2007 Research on group identification has shown it to be a surprisingly weak predictor of intentions to take large scale social action. The weak links may exist because researchers have not always examined identification with the type of group that is most relevant for predicting action. our focus in two studies (one in Romania and one in Australia, both Ns = 101) was on opinion based groups (i.e. groups formed around shared opinions). Wc found that social identification with opin ion based groups was an excellent predictor of political behavioural intentions, particularly when items measuring identity certainty were included. The results provide clear evidence of the role of social identity constructs for predicting commitment to social action and complement analyses of politicised collective identity and crowd behaviour. 1352 37 1 2007 "According to Higgins (1997) the theory of regulatory focus says that in terms of both information processing and motivation it makes a difference whether people have a promotion or prevention focus. In this paper this theory will be applied to the area of consumer psychology. In three experiments we show that consumer §s regulatory focus either measured or induced in a given situation influences product evaluations. Study I shows that consumers are interested in different product features depending on their focus; whereas in the prevention focus they arc more interested in safety oriented aspects, in the promotion focus they concentrate more on comfort oriented qualities. In Study 2, a typical prevention product and a typical promotion product art compared with one another and data shows that focus compatible products are evaluated more positively. In Study 3 we demonstrate that advertisments that correspond to the focus of the consumer lead to more positive evaluations of the product than advertisments that are incompatible with the focus of the consumer Theoretical and practical implications will be discussed. " 1353 37 1 2007 A social identity framework was employed to understand why people support the exclusionary treatment of refugee claimants ( asylum seekers ) in Australia. Over and above individual difference affects of social dominance orientation and individuals §s instrumental threat perceptions, insecure intergroup relations between citizens and asylum seekers were proposed to motivate exclusionary attitudes and behaviour In addition, perceived procedural and distributive fairness were proposed to mediate the effects of social identity predictors on intergroup competitiveness, serving to legitimise citizens §s exclusionary behaviours. Support for these propositions was obtained in a longitudinal study, of Australians social attitudes and behaviour Small and inconsistent individual level effects were noted. In contrast, after controlling, for these variables, hostile Australian norms, perceived legitimacy of citizen status, and threatening socio structural relations were strongly and consistently linked to intentions to support the harsh Ireatment of asylum seekers, and exclusionary attitudes and action at Time 2. Moreover, perceived procedural and distributive justice significantly mediated these relationships. The roles of fairness and intergroup socio structural perceptions in social attitudes and actions are discussed. 1354 37 1 2007 This paper presents an analysis of collective behaviour among England, football fans attending the European football championships in Portugal (Euro2004). Given this category §s violent reputation, a key goal was to explore the processes underlying their apparent shift away from conflict in match cities. Drawing from the elaborated social identity model of crowd behaviour (ESIM) data were obtained using semi structured observations and interviews before, during and after the tournament. Qualitative analysis centres first on three key incidents in match cities where the potential for violence was undermined either by self policing among England fans, or by appropriately targeted police intervention. These are contrasted with two riots involving England fans that occurred in Algarve during the tournament. A phenomenologicol analysis of England fans §s accounts suggests that the contexts created by different forms of policing helped bring to the fore different understandings of what constituted proper and possible behaviour among England fans, and that these changes in identity content underpinned shifts toward and away from collective conflict. The implications of this analysis for the ESIM, understanding public order policing, social change and social conflict are discussed. 1355 37 1 2007 To test a courage hypothesis of minority influence, participants read a jury transcript in which a four person majority argued for conviction, while a two person minority argued for acquittal. Across two studies a harassed minority was more persuasive than an un harassed minority on both obvious and subtle measures of social influence. In certain cases, these effects occurred only when weak minority arguments were used. Ingroup/outgroup status of the minority, manipulated in Study 2, had negligible effects on persuasion. In Study 2, comparisons to a control condition in which all participants argued for acquittal, did not verify the contention that minority influence provokes more care progressing influence provokes than majority influence despite the fact that harassed minorities were more persuasive on several measures than this type of majority control. 1356 37 1 2007 Integrated Threat Theory (ITT) (Stephan & Stephan, 1993, 1996) describes four types of threats as mediators in the relation between antecedent factors (previous intergroup conflict, intergroup contact, status inequalities, ingroup identification, knowledge about the outgroup, and intergroup contact) and prejudice. The four mediating types of threats, which influence prejudice according to ITT are: intergroup anxiety, negative stereotyping, realistic and symbolic threats. In this study, the ITT model was tested using structural equation modelling on data collected in sample of 187 Dutch employees. Two alternative explanatory models are proposed in which, first intergroup anxiety and then negative stereotyping mediate the relation between the other ITT threats and prejudice. The data show a good fit with the model in which negative stereotypes are considered as mediator variable. The implications of these findings, for ITT are discussed in the context of recent theoretical developments in the study of stereotypes and prejudice. 1357 37 1 2007 This study examines the effect of an experimental manipulation of perceived experience on self and others §s likelihood ratings, for a set of relatively commonplace misfortunes. Participants were randomly assigned to a condition in which they were asked whether they bad ever experienced the events (designed to induce higher perceived experience) or whether they had done so frequently, typically, etc. (designed to induce lower perceived experience). The manipulation led to increases in ratings of both perceived self likelihood and others §s likelihood, in ease of imagining the outcome and recall of a past occurrence, and to decreases in perceived control over the events in the higher perceived experience condition. The increases in ease of imagining mediated the impact of manipulated experience on comparative likelihood whereas the decreases in perceived control did not. There was little evidence that event controllability moderated the impact of experience on comparative likelihood for these events. 1358 37 1 2007 "Contact research often manipulates the salience of group membership, with little consideration of how such manipulations affect feelings toward intergroup contact, and how contextual features may moderate its effects. We propose that feelings toward intergroup contact may not depend solely on the degree to which group membership appears to be salient, but on how references to group membership are interpreted in the intergroup context. Two experimental studies examined how references to group membership nun; be interpreted differently depending on their source (ingroup or outgroup) and the recipient (minority or majority), and how these interpretations predict feelings toward cross group interactions. In Study 1, references to group membership were interpreted more negatively from cut outgroup source among majority participants, yet a reverse pattern was observed for minority participants. Similar effects were obtained in Study 2, yet participants tended to respond negatively when an outgroup member referred specifically to their group. Moreover, feelings about cross group interactions were predicted only (Study 1) and strongly (Study 2) by the degree to which outgroup members references were interpreted negatively N, beyond what was predicted by participants §s general awareness of group membership. Implications of these findings for future research on contact and salience are discussed. " 1359 37 1 2007 Two studies were conducted that go beyond previous research by examining when and why children might show intergroup bias in the attribution of positive, but not negative traits (PNAE: the positive negative asymmetry effect, Mummendey & Otten, 1998, European review of social psychology, Vol. 9). In Study 1 (n = 107) children completed a mixed trait attribution task in a dichotomous group context. As predicted there was a developmental trend between 7 and 12 years of age in the PNAE. The 7 year olds were the only age group not to show the effect. Study 1 also found a quadratic developmental trend in children §s national intergroup bias. Study 2 (n = 62) replicated the developmental path of the PNAE found in Study I using a wider age range of 6 16 years. This study used a mixed list of traits which were not only, antonyms and a procedure that made the positive and negative trait dimensions explicitly independent. Significantly, Study 2 found ingroup exclusion norm partially mediated the development of the PNAE. These findings support an account of the positive negative asymmetry effect based upon normative processes. 1360 37 1 2007 Self categorization proponents (e.g., Turner, 1991) assume that group polarization occurs because discussants wish to differentiate themselves from outgroup positions and implicitly think of such groups even when they are not specifically mentioned. Ingroup/outgroup salience is thought to heighten such effects. To examine this view, we had participants discuss Choice Dilemma items either with or without explicit knowledge of outgroup positions. Contrary to a self categorization account, this manipulation of outgroup salience did not affect the degree of group polarization. In addition, rating measures revealed little spontaneous consideration of outgroup positions on the part of participants, nor was consideration of outgroup positions related to degree of polarization. Group members did show, evidence of ingroup identification, but this identification was unrelated to participants §s post discussion community to the group consensus. Taken as a whole, these results suggest distinct limits to the self categorization interpretation of group polarization involving Choice Dilemmas. 1361 37 2 2007 Thinking about the benefits gained from a privileged group membership can threaten social identity and evoke justification of the existing status difference between the ingroup and a disadvantaged group. For White Americans, racial privilege may be justified by concurring with modem racist attitudes. In Experiment 1, White Americans randomly assigned to think about White privilege expressed greater modem racism compared to those assigned to think about White disadvantage or a race irrelevant topic. In Experiment 2, we found that increased racism in response to thoughts of White privilege was limited to those who highly identified with their racial category. In contrast, when White racial identification was sufficiently low, thoughts of White privilege reliably reduced modem racism. We discuss the implications of these findings for the meaning of modem racism and prejudice reduction. 1362 37 2 2007 Recent work has shown that correcting a dispositional inference may lead social observers to overemphasize the role of dispositional factors in subsequent judgments. This effect has been explained as a procedural rebound following a phase of dispositional suppression. We conducted two experiments to test an alternative explanation in terms of ego depletion. In Experiment 1, we compared the effects of ego depletion and dispositional rebound by relying on the attitude attribution paradigm and the cookie paradigm. In Experiment 2, we turned to a difficult math task in order to induce fatigue. We were able to replicate the dispositional rebound and the ego depletion effects but none of the experiments supported an ego depletion explanation of post suppression dispositional rebound. 1363 37 2 2007 "Self regulation research suggested that active self control depends on a limited resource. Therefore the capacity for self control is lower among people who already exercised control, a phenomenon labelled as ego depletion. This experiment examines whether priming of a persistent person exemplar may help to overcome ego depletion. Half of the participants engaged in a demanding self control task (solving extremely difficult labyrinths) whereas the other half took part in a task that demanded little self control (solving easy labyrinths). Then, half of the participants received a person exemplar prime related to persistence; the other half received a neutral prime. Finally, participants §s persistence on a subsequent self control task (squeezing a handgrip) was measured. The effect of a person exemplar prime on a subsequent self control task depended on initial self control demands. Participants who exercised high initial self control and were then presented with a persistent exemplar prime showed assimilation. Their handgrip persistence was higher than the persistence of participants who received a neutral prime. Under conditions of low initial self control the opposite pattern was found. A persistent person prime resulted in contrast and resulted in lower handgrip performance as compared to those who received a neutral prime. " 1364 37 2 2007 Two experiments examined the impact of anonymity and accountability on the expression of group mediated attitude behaviour consistency. In Study 1, low and high identifiers (N = 106) were exposed to an attitude congruent norm and provided information about their intentions under anonymous and ingroup accountable conditions. In Study 2, salience of identity was manipulated, and participants (N=185) were exposed to either an attitude congruent or an attitude incongruent norm, and provided information on their intentions and behaviour under anonymous and ingroup accountable conditions. In both studies, accountability elicited group normative attitudes and behaviour among individuals for whom the group was not a salient basis for self definition. When the group was a salient basis for self definition, the expression of attitude consistent intentions and behaviour was greater in anonymous conditions. It is suggested that strategic effects, such as those that occur in the presence of an ingroup audience, influence displays of group normative attitude behaviour consistency. 1365 37 2 2007 The attainability of upward social comparisons is known to affect self evaluative responses. The consequences for performance, however are less well understood. We suggest that demoralizing upward comparisons with unattainable targets may lead to improved performance when the target and performance domains are mismatched. For example, comparison with a target that has been successful in an analytic domain should lead to better performance in a verbal domain. This improvement informance occurs because increased performance in alternative domains provides an opportunity for self evaluation maintenance. In three studies, we demonstrate that upward comparisons to targets whose successes are perceived as threatening lead to improved performance when the task and performance domain do not match, but no improvements when the domains match. 1366 37 2 2007 This study focuses on why people may resort to coercive tactics. We tested the proposition that considerations of utility and legitimacy mediate effects of a powerholder §s competence and reward structure on the use of coercion. Results showed that in general coercive tactics are employed less often than softer tactics, that coercive tactics are used more by more competent individuals than by less competent individuals, and that coercive tactics are used more often when the revenues of task performance benefited the agent of power than when they benefited both agent and target or when they benefited the target solely. Results identified perceived utility and perceived legitimacy as mediators of the decision to coerce the other or not. 1367 37 2 2007 Sex ratio is the number of men per 100 reproductive age women within a specified mating pool. We generated and tested two hypotheses about the cross cultural relationships between sex ratio and mate preferences using preference ratings of 18 characteristics provided by 9809 participants and corresponding sex ratio data secured from an international organization. The Classical Sex Ratio Mate Preference Shifts Hypothesis predicts that in imbalanced sex ratio societies, the more numerous sex will lower their standards, to facilitate acquisition of a partner of the less numerous sex. The Alternative Sex Ratio Mate Preference Shifts Hypothesis predicts that in lower sex ratio societies, men will lower their standards to secure more short term matings, whereas women will raise their standards to avoid deception by men seeking short term relationships. Results supported the Classical Sex Ratio Mate Preference Shifts Hypothesis for men, and the Alternative Sex Ratio Mate Preference Shifts Hypothesis for women. Discussion addresses limitations of the current research and highlights future directions for research on the relationships between sex ratio and mating psychology and behaviour 1368 37 2 2007 Two studies examined the reduction of triggered displaced aggression (TDA) via bottom up processing modes of de categorization. Participants were provoked by the experimenter and then interacted with an ostensible outgroup member who either did or did not provide a second (triggering) provocation. Study I compared TDA toward a triggering outgroup member who had previously been either differentiated from the outgroup, made the focus of self other comparison, or was in a no information control condition. As predicted, both differentiation and self other comparison reduced aggression relative to the control condition. Study 2 examined the effect of negative self disclosure from the outgroup, target, and contrasted its effects with both self other comparison with a negative other and a no information control condition. As predicted, triggered participants in the negative self disclosure condition aggressed less than those triggered in the negative self other comparison or no information control conditions. The liking induced by self disclosure mediated its aggression reducing effect. 1369 37 2 2007 Two experiments are reported that examine the effects of caffeine consumption on attitude change by using different secondary tasks to manipulate message processing. The first experiment employed an orientating task whilst the second experiment employed a distracter task. In both experiments participants consumed an orange juice drink that either contained caffeine (3.5 mg/kg body weight) or did not contain caffeine (placebo) prior to reading a counter attitudinal communication. The results across both experiments were similar When message processing was reduced or under high distraction, there was no attitude change irrespective of caffeine consumption. However, when message processing was enhanced or under low distraction, there was greater attitude change in the caffeine vs. placebo conditions. Furthermore, attitudes formed after caffeine consumption resisted counter persuasion (Experiment 1) and led to indirect attitude change (Experiment 2). The extent that participants engaged in message congruent thinking mediated the amount of attitude change. These results provide evidence that moderate amounts of caffeine increase systematic processing of the arguments in the message resulting in greater agreement. 1370 37 2 2007 This paper develops a polysemic view of traits labels and outlines the fact that the same label may activate two modes of person perception (1) the agent mode is elicited by behavioural descriptions and emphasizes the role of the actor and (2) the experiencer mode is elicited by state descriptions and implies an external view of people. The experiment was designed to investigate consequences of mode induction on perception of familiar people. Participants had first to rate traits as behavioural descriptions (agent condition) or as state descriptions (experiencer condition). Then, they had to think about four familiar persons, located at the four poles of the circumplex taxonomy ( a person they like , a person they don t like , a person who has qualities to get on in life , a person who lacks qualities to get on in life ) and to rate them on a variety of traits scales. Control participants were directly enrolled in the description phase. Results show that, compared to agent induction and control conditions, state induction weakened (1) the evaluative consistency of trait ratings within a dimension (2) the perceived differentiation between people. Consequences of the polysemic conception of traits are discussed. 1371 37 2 2007 Findings from the current study suggest that the link between helping and empathic concern a hypothesized motivator of altruistic behaviour may be more pronounced in the context of kinship relationships than among strangers. Participants expressed their willingness to help a kin member or stranger in specific need situations. Putative mediators of helping (empathic concern, general negative affect, perceptions of oneness) were measured. Empathic concern appeared to partially mediate effects of relationship context on willingness to help. Moreover while controlling for egoistic motivators (negative affect, oneness), empathic concern was linked to participants §s willingness to help a kin member but not a stranger. Findings suggest that factors motivating prosocial action in close relationships may be different from those that motivate helping among strangers. 1372 37 2 2007 Three studies examined how food deprivation influences the immediate valence of food stimuli as well as spontaneous motivational tendencies toward them. We assumed that immediate reactions towards food stimuli should be tuned to the basic needs of the organism. In Study 1, the immediate valence of food names as a function of need state was assessed using an Implicit Association Test (IAT) in a quasi experimental design. Food deprivation led to a more positive immediate valence of food items. In Study 2, these results were replicated using the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task. In Study 3, immediate motivational reactions toward pictorial food stimuli were assessed. As hypothesized, approach reactions were facilitated for participants tested before as compared to after lunch, even in a sample with eating disorders. We thus conclude that the immediate valence of edible objects partially reflects regulation in the service of need fulfillment. 1373 37 2 2007 This experiment examined the impact of pre merger identification (low, high), pre merger group status (low, high) and relative representation (low, high) upon identification with a new merger group. In the first phase of the study, 156 university students were assigned to a pre merger team of inductive thinkers. Pre merger identification was manipulated by giving the participants feedback about the extent to which they used the inductionist style. Pre merger status was manipulated by informing participants that their team had performed worse or better than a deductionist team on a decision making task. In the second phase, the two pre merger teams were combined into a merger team of analyst thinkers. Relative representation was manipulated by maintaining most or none of the features of the pre merger team in this new merger team. The results revealed that high pre merger identifiers identified more strongly with the merger group than did low pre merger identifiers, but only when the relative representation was high. Pre merger status did not influence post merger identification. 1374 37 2 2007 An experiment assessed the prisoner §s dilemma game (PDG) choices of a set of three persons who interacted with another supposed set of three persons. There were four conditions: (1) group on group (both three person sets constrained by a majority vote), (2) group on one (only own three person set constrained by a majority vote), (3) one on group (only other three person set constrained by a majority vote), (4) one on one (neither three person set constrained by a majority vote). The four conditions were compared with three orthogonal contrasts. Consistent with the assumption that interindividual interactions are less competitive than interactions involving groups, the first contrast indicated that there were fewer competitive choices in the one on one condition than in the other three conditions pooled. Consistent with the assumption that competitiveness can flow either from acting as a group or interacting with a group, the second contrast found no significant difference between the group on one and one on group conditions. Finally, consistent with the assumption that the interindividual intergroup discontinuity effect is a joint function of acting as a group and interacting with a group, the third contrast revealed that there were more competitive choices in the group on group condition than in the one on group and group on one conditions pooled. 1375 37 3 2007 The current research addressed the issue of how people use the past to compare and interpret the present. Using the logic of the Interpretation Comparison Model (ICM) we examined two factors (distinctness of past events and ambiguity of target event) that may influence how people make sense of a real world event (the Iraq War) within the context of past events (World War II and Vietnam). Extending earlier ICM studies, we used new manipulations and measures to examine the impact of these two factors. Results show that higher levels of (manipulated as well as measured) distinctness lead to contrastive evaluations about the Iraq War (and involved politicians) as a function of past wars. Lower levels of distinctness lead to assimilative evaluations, but only when the meaning of the target stimulus was somewhat ambiguous. 1376 37 3 2007 The impact of individuals §s regulatory focus and the domain of outcomes (non gains vs. losses) on the target §s affective responses to social discrimination were tested. Based on regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997), it was predicted that a prevention focus would lead to more anger and agitation after social discrimination, because experiencing social discrimination is similar to experiencing failure. This pattern was predicted to be more pronounced when social discrimination was based on losses than when social discrimination was based on non gains (i.e., when the ingroup was evaluated more negatively vs. less positively compared to the outgroup). The results of three studies using chronic and situationally induced regulatory focus confirmed these predictions. No effect was found for the promotion focus. 1377 37 3 2007 We argue that the relational model that people use for organizing specific social interactions in any culture determines whether people self enhance. Self enhancement is not a functional consequence of the (independent or interdependent) cultural model of self. Across three studies, Danes self enhanced considerably less than did Americans but were more independent on the Twenty Statements Test, made more individual attributions about social life, made more autonomous scenario choices, and were more independent on the self construal scale. Public modesty did not account for these Danish American differences in self enhancement. However Danes practiced interpersonal leveling, preferring equality of outcome more than did Americans. This levelling strongly and inversely predicted self enhancement within both cultures and mediated Danish American differences in self enhancement. In contrast, no independence measure systematically predicted self enhancement within both cultures nor mediated the cultural differences in self enhancement. This dissociation of independence and self enhancement demonstrates that self enhancing downward social comparisons are not functionally necessary for an independent concept of self We conclude that social relationships, not the model of the self mediate the mutual constitution of psyche and culture. 1378 37 3 2007 Motivation of stigmatized group members to perform on status relevant outgroup dimensions can be impaired after ingroup failure. Three experiments examined whether social creativity by valuing ingroup dimensions (dimensions on which an ingroup outperforms an outgroup) can increase motivation and performance on outgroup dimensions. It was hypothesized that under high social identity threat, motivation on the outgroup dimension would benefit from valuing an ingroup dimension. Experiments 1 and 2 show that when social identity threat is increased, low status group members who personally value ingroup dimensions show higher motivation to perform on the outgroup dimension. Experiment 3 shows that the induction of high contextual value of both ingroup and outgroup dimensions improves low status group members §s well being and motivated performance on the outgroup dimension. 1379 37 3 2007 From an existential terror management theory perspective, disgusting stimuli are threatening to human beings because they make salient people §s vulnerability to death. Two studies were designed to assess this proposition by measuring implicit death related ideation after individuals were presented with stimuli that either were or were not disgusting, under conditions in which the similarities of humans to other animals or the uniquely human aspects of people were made salient. In Study 1, in which rather extreme disgust eliciting pictures were used, disgusting stimuli led to higher death thought accessibility than neutral pictures regardless of whether or not participants had previously been primed with similarities between humans and other animals. In Study 2, in which milder verbal disgust eliciting stimuli were used, disgusting stimuli led to heightened death thought accessibility only when human animal similarities were first primed. Implications for the regulation and humanization of the human body and its functions are discussed. 1380 37 3 2007 Previous research has demonstrated that value congruent behaviour is increased after people have considered reasons for or against the value (since values typically lack cognitive support). The present research importantly extends these previous findings. Specifically, based on the reasoning that values can be categorised into different motivational types, it was predicted that considering reasons (i.e. providing cognitive support) for or against a specific value should increase behaviour that expresses a related value. Two studies provided strong support for this central prediction. In Study 1, participants who were asked to consider reasons for or against the values of honesty and loyalty were especially likely to engage in helping behaviour In Study 2, participants who considered reasons for the value of helpfulness were especially likely to behave in an egalitarian manner (compared to participants who did not consider reasons, and participants who were merely primed with helpfulness). The implications of these findings for when and why considering reasons for a value influences value expressive behaviour as well as some practical implications, are discussed. 1381 37 3 2007 The literature on maintaining versus changing membership of groups has generally favoured stable membership, not only for more cohesion and morale but for better performance via comfort and shared experiences. On the other hand, research on the stimulating properties of dissent, debate and diversity would argue for a change in membership in that it would provide access to differing views and stimulate more divergent and creative thought. The present study investigated idea generation when membership was maintained versus completely changed. We predicted and found that maintaining membership increases comfort and also the perception of creativity but not actual creative behaviour whereas changing membership results in a less comfortable experience but also an increase in the number and creativity of the ideas generated. 1382 37 3 2007 The present research examined the effects of endowment size, provision point level and the opportunity to voice one §s opinion on contributions in asymmetric public good dilemmas. Results from a first experiment showed that group members endowed with more resources contributed more when the required threshold for obtaining a public good was high rather than low. Rich participants who reported that their personal contribution was more critical for success contributed more. However, most groups failed to surpass the high provision point threshold level. Results from a second experiment reveal that rich participants given voice, contributed more than rich participants not given a voice. Voice contributed to greater feelings of inclusiveness, higher contributions and increased the likelihood that the group surpassed the high provision point level. 1383 37 3 2007 People differ in the extent to which their self evaluations fluctuate in response to positive and negative events. This research tests whether self ambivalence predicts this self evaluative reactivity. Participants first completed measures of setf ambivalence and baseline self esteem. Next, they were induced a success or failure experience in a cognitive task and finally rated their cognitive self evaluations (task specific ability, state self esteem) and affective reactions (self feelings, mood). Self ambivalence was associated with stronger effects of the success/failure manipulation on cognitive self evaluations but not on affective reactions, with baseline self esteem controlled. Possible underlying mechanisms are discussed. 1384 37 3 2007 This research series replicated and extended earlier findings of Gardikiotis, Martin, and Hewstone (2004), who examined via content analysis UK media representations of numeric majority and minority groups. Using news articles from North and South Dakota, where majority/minority population characteristics mirror those of the UK in terms of number and power, Study I replicated the patterns of results found in Gardikiotis et al. Study 2, in which articles from California newspapers were analysed, yielded findings contrary to Gardikiotis et al. and our Dakota analyses: Minority headlines were more frequent in California, and majority articles were longer than minority articles. Consistent with UK and Dakotas findings, majority headlines in California were associated with politics and identify adjectives, whereas minority headlines were linked to social issues and ethnicity based adjectives. Arguably, these differences occurred because in California, unlike the UK and the Dakotas, Whites are not simultaneously the social power and the numeric majority. Variations in power and number associated with majority and minority status were discussed in explaining differences across contexts, and in signaling possible shortcomings in the conceptualization and methods used to investigate minority and majority influence. 1385 37 3 2007 We presented a scenario in which a protagonist saw an object in Location A but later heard a message saying it was in Location B. Participants judged where the protagonist believed the object was. In one condition, participants had additional information that the message was true. Those from an individualistic subculture tended to judge that the protagonist believed the message when they (the participants) knew it was true but disbelieved the message when they had no additional information. In contrast, participants from a collectivist subculture tended to judge that the protagonist believed the message in both circumstances. The results suggest that culture is related with subtle aspects of understanding the mind and especially how people evaluate messages. 1386 37 3 2007 The experiments presented here extend previous research on reducing stereotype threat, along with examining the mediating role of performance expectancies. Women who generated shared academic characteristics between men and women predicted higher scores for themselves on a math test compared to the baseline and those who generated shared non academic characteristics or shared physical characteristics. No effects were found for male participants §s performance expectancies on an English test. Extending the relevance of these findings for stereotype threat research, women completing a math test, who first completed the shared academic characteristics task, both expressed higher performance expectancies and greater accuracy in math performance than participants in all other conditions. A partially mediating role of performance expectancies in relation to task and math performance was also found. 1387 37 4 2007 Partisan respondents evaluated a potential party leader (Study 1) or an ingroup political candidate (Study 2) who expressed normative or deviant opinions against a backdrop of public opinion that was either supportive of, or hostile toward, the ingroup §s traditional beliefs (Study 1) or the normative ingroup position on a specific issue (Study 2). Across both studies, high identifiers gave stronger support to a normative candidate over a deviant candidate when public opinion was with the group, but not when public opinion was against the group. Under the latter conditions, high identifiers instead upgraded the deviant candidate. Additional analyses revealed this pattern of differential support for normative and deviant candidates among high identifiers appeared to be related to strategic considerations specifically, the candidate §s perceived chances of gaining public support and being elected. Among low identifiers, support for normative and deviant candidates was less affected by the broader context of public opinion, and was not related to such strategic considerations. These results demonstrate that responses to deviance depend on the broader context in which deviance occurs. Deviance can, at times, be a way through which groups achieve important goals. 1388 37 4 2007 The present research investigated accessibility effects on comparative self positivity in the environmental domain. In a pretest we established comparative self positivity and a focus effect for environmental awareness. In the main study we aimed at shifting these effects by manipulating the accessibility of harmful behaviours of either the self or the typical student before obtaining comparative judgements. Specifically, we used two types of accessibility manipulations: anchoring and ease of retrieval. We predicted that judgements would be affected by content in the anchoring paradigm but by subjective ease in the ease of retrieval paradigm. We found the predicted pattern of effects, but it was strongest when participants focused on the typical student. The findings contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying comparative biases and may have applied implications. 1389 37 4 2007 We propose that there exists an important difference between attainment and maintenance in terms of the goal pursuit strategies for which they call. Specifically, we propose that goal attainment calls for the use of eager approach strategies, whereas goal maintenance calls for the use of vigilant avoidance strategies. We distinguish between attainment versus maintenance as two different goal pursuit conditions on the one hand, and promotion versus prevention focus as two different self regulatory concerns on the other hand. We then use insights from Regulatory Fit Theory to make predictions concerning the interactive effects of these two motivational dimensions on outcome valuations. Consistent with our proposal about attainment and maintenance, we found that participants in a promotion focus valued the outcome of an attainment task more than did participants in a prevention focus, whereas the opposite was true for a maintenance task. Implications for maintenance related phenomena such as belief perseverance effects are subsequently discussed. 1390 37 4 2007 A large body of research demonstrates a strong social component to people §s pain experiences and pain related behaviours. We investigate this by examining the impact of social influence processes on laboratory induced pain responses by manipulating the social categorical relationship between the person experiencing pain and another who offers reassurance. We show that physiological arousal associated with laboratory induced pain is significantly lower in normal, healthy participants following reassurance about the pain inducing activity when that reassurance comes from an ingroup member in contrast to reassurance from an outgroup member and a no reassurance control. These data are consistent with predictions derived from self categorization theory, providing convincing empirical support of its analysis of social influence using a non reactive measure. These data also represent a clear advance within the pain literature by identifying a possible common process to the social psychological component of pain responses. 1391 37 4 2007 In this paper, the December 2004 tsunami tragedy was used as a background to investigate beliefs about intergroup helping. The general aim of the research was to test the proposal that helping can be used to reaffirm a threatened social identity. Two experiments conducted with Dutch participants (N = 78 and N = 73) tested the hypothesis that a threatened Dutch national identity would result in stronger preferences for help to the victims of the tsunami, but only in a domain that is positively and distinctly related to that national identity (i.e. water management). Results from both studies confirmed this hypothesis. Study 2 also showed a reversal of this effect in a domain negatively related to that identity. Moreover, perceived identity threat in Study 2 reduced over time in the high threat condition but not in the low threat condition, and this reduction was positively associated with the endorsement of water management help. Also, as predicted, in both studies a threatened national identity resulted in stronger beliefs that Dutch relief organisations should stay in control over their aid. 1392 37 4 2007 "Studies conducted in Britain (n = 88) and Germany (n = 128) used a questionnaire with an experimental manipulation to examine the effects of national identification, type of comparison (intergroup or temporal) and specificity of comparison (specific or non specific) on trait descriptions of national identity. Both differentiation between the subject and object of comparison and the absolute stereotype of the national ingroup (i.e. the national autostereotype) were measured. Regression analyses found that high identification was associated with greater ingroup bias and an overall more positive autostereotype; that specific temporal comparison with a shameful past (slavery for the British and the Nazi era for the German sample) predicted greater differentiation from the present than nonspecific comparisons with the past in general; and that specific comparisons with the Americans or a shameful history precipitated greater differentiation and (in the British sample) a departure of the autostereotype from a control condition that entailed no comparison. We argue that our approach can contribute to a more holistic social identity analysis of nationality. Future research should distinguish the effects of context from those of identification, show an awareness of the potential differences between specific and non specific comparisons, and examine a greater variety of temporal comparison targets. " 1393 37 4 2007 A longitudinal study (N = 109) of interschool contact and attitudes was conducted to test Allport §s (1954) Contact Hypothesis and Brown and Hewstone §s (2005) addendum to it on the moderating role of typicality in the contact attitude relationship. Three different measures of intergroup attitude were employed, including a new measure of infrahumanisation (Leyens et al., 2000). Support for the hypotheses was found on all three measures in the longitudinal analyses. Quantity of contact with a member of the outgroup was consistently associated with more favourable attitudes towards the outgroup as a whole. Importantly, contact was found to predict attitude but the reverse causal path was not significant. Also, on one measure there was an indication that the effects of contact quality were more beneficial when the contact persons were seen as typical of the outgroup than when they were not. It is concluded that, as originally hypothesised by Allport, contact with members of an outgroup can improve intergroup attitudes, but especially if those people can be seen as representative of their group. 1394 37 4 2007 Both social dominance orientation (SDO) and right wing authoritarianism (RWA) are assumed to be general and relatively stable psychological orientations that individuals carry with them from context to context, influencing responses to salient forms of intergroup inequality and domination. In two experimental studies we tested the relative stability of SDO (Studies 1 and 2) and RWA (Study 1). That is, we examined whether people who score relatively high on SDOIRWA in one context tend to support intergroup hierarchy and domination in other contexts. To do so, we manipulated the salience of different intergroup relationships before measuring SDO and RWA, and then observed the associations among these constructs and attitudes toward specific intergroup relationships and legitimizing ideologies (support for war, conservatism, heterosexism, and religious fundamentalism). Contrary to the assumption of relative stability, the extent to which SDO and RWA were related to these specific attitudes and ideologies varied markedly depending on the experimental context. These results highlight the contextual basis and meaning of individuals §s expressed support for group based dominance. 1395 37 4 2007 "This article presents the idea that during the 1990s an important change took place in relation between minorities and majorities: the emergence of minorities as victims alongside the formerly predominant active, militant minorities. A hypothesis is raised that these two types of minorities differ in their agenda as well as in the nature of the influence they exert. Active minorities trigger an external conflict with majority and induce conversion (latent rather than overt influence); minorities as victims create an internal conflict, a sense of guilt, within the majority, while they exert an exclusively overt influence. We report two experiments confirming our hypothesis. We discuss the novelty of this phenomenon and its relevance. " 1396 37 4 2007 Although it is often recommended to think aloud to solve problems and to become more creative, cognitive and social psychological research suggests thinking aloud may actually produce less creative ideas than thinking in silence. The results of two experiments indeed showed that thinking aloud hinders creativity although people produced the same amount of new uses for an object, these were judged to be less original in the thinking aloud condition. Experiment 2 further showed that this effect was particularly pronounced for individuals with high sensitivity to what other §s think of them and low ability to adapt to these expectations. From this, we conclude that the felt presence of an actual or implied audience when thinking aloud, reduces creative idea generation especially among those having difficulty adapting to others. Implications for creativity research, and for promoting creativity in applied settings such as organizational teams are discussed 1397 37 4 2007 This study investigated attraction and group cohesiveness under different visibility and anonymity conditions for social categories that differed in their capacity to be visually cued. Using computer mediated communication in 36 mixed gender (visually cued category) and nationality (non visually cued category) groups, we manipulated social category salience (via discussion topic), and anonymity versus visibility (via live video links). Under high salience, the effects of anonymity versus visibility were moderated by availability of visible category cues. Visibility increased attraction and cohesiveness for visually cued groups, whereas anonymity increased attraction and cohesiveness for nonvisually cued groups. Path analysis showed that, under high salience, effects of visibility and anonymity were mediated by self categorization processes, triggered by prototypicality of self in the case of non visually cued groups under anonymity. In low salience conditions, visibility directly cued attraction independently from self categorization, in line with relational attraction processes. 1398 37 4 2007 Three studies are reported in which we examined the relation between responsibility and guilt. Results from Study I suggested that responsibility increased as a function of guilt, but that the reverse relation did not emerge. In the second and third studies we primed either responsibility or guilt and examined how these primes influenced subsequent appraisals for novel events. We also used different manipulations of responsibility and guilt. In Study 2 guilt was operationalized as negative interpersonal consequences as evidenced by the reactions of others. Responsibility was varied by manipulating the controllability of negative outcomes. In Study 3 responsibility was manipulated in terms of the severity of negative consequences for oneself. Results of both studies showed that guilt primes gave rise to perceptions of responsibility but that responsibility primes did not affect perceptions of guilt. We conclude that responsibility is best regarded as an elaborated appraisal generated by guilt, rather than an antecedent of guilt. 1399 37 5 2007 "Everyday social interaction is often dominated by categorical thinking, with generic group based knowledge structures guiding people §s dealings with others. Noting the important influence that category cueing facial features exert during the initial stages of person construal, the current work explored the effects of hair cues on the process and temporal dynamics of sex categorization. Using a standard priming paradigm to index the products of person construal (i.e., categorical and stereo type based knowledge), the results of three experiments revealed that: (i) hair cues alone are sufficient to trigger category and stereotype activation; and (ii) during the early stages of person perception, these cues have the capacity to reverse conventional priming effects and generate errors of categorical assignment (e.g., female faces prime male knowledge). These findings are considered in the context of contemporary accounts of person construal. " 1400 37 5 2007 Recent research has explored the dynamics of categorical thinking, with debate centering on the putative automaticity of this process. In a further investigation of this topic, the current inquiry assessed the influence of critical category cueing facial features on overt (i.e., category identification) and covert (i.e., category priming) measures of sex categorization. The results revealed that when a critical sex specifying facial cue (i.e., hairstyle) was present, priming effects emerged even under suboptimal processing conditions (i.e., facial blurring). When this cue was absent, however, priming no longer occurred. Interestingly, category identification was largely unimpeded by feature removal or facial blurring. Taken together, these results underscore the efficiency of categorical thinking and the importance of task objectives and feature based processing in person perception. 1401 37 5 2007 It is well known that people describe positive behaviours of others close to them (e.g., ingroup member, friend) in abstract terms, but with concrete terms in the case of people who they are not close to (e.g., outgroup member, enemy). In contrast, negative behaviours of people who we are close to are described in concrete terms, but in abstract terms for people who are distant. However, the communicative impact of such subtle differences in language use on a receiver who is also the actor of the behaviour being described has never been addressed. We hypothesized and found that a positive abstract message compared to a positive concrete message leads to perceived proximity to the sender, while a negative abstract message compared to a negative concrete message leads to perceived distance. The implications of this study, which is the first to show the communicative impact of biased language use, are discussed. 1402 37 5 2007 While similarity typically breeds social comparison, all information gained from social comparisons is not equally influential. Three studies illustrate the situations in which individuals defensively interpret social comparison information such that they incorporate information that reflects positively on the self and disregard negative information. Study I extends previous research to show that self threat broadens the conditions under which defensive interpretations occur to include those in which similarity is ambiguous. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrate that defensive interpretations are less likely to occur when individuals are affirmed or when the comparison information is unimportant. These findings suggest that the impact of social comparisons on self views is determined by both similarity of comparison targets and the motives of the perceiver 1403 37 5 2007 We investigated the effects of familiarity on person perception. We predicted that familiarity would increase non analytic processing, reducing attention to and the impact of individuating information, and increasing the impact of category labels on judgments about a target person. In two studies participants read either incriminating or exculpatory individuating information about a defendant in a criminal case and made judgments of guilt. In Study 1, participants were subliminally exposed to the defendant §s photo, another matched photo, or no photo before seeing the evidence. Participants familiar with the defendant §s photo both processed and used the individuating information less. In Study 2, participants were subtly made familiar or not with the incriminating and exculpatory information itself, and the defendant was described either as a priest or as a skinhead. Familiarity with the information reduced attention to its content and also tended to increase reliance on category information in guilt judgments. 1404 37 5 2007 Quickly and accurately perceiving others §s facial affect is paramount for successful social interaction. This work investigates the role of familiarity in helping us to interpret others §s facial emotions. In Experiments I and 2, participants viewed several faces, some familiar and some novel, and judged how happy each face appeared. As predicted, results showed that familiar faces were perceived as happier than were novel faces. In Experiment 3, participants again viewed several faces, some familiar and some not, and rated the perceived anger or happiness of these faces. As expected, familiar faces were perceived as happier and less angry than were novel faces. Thus, these results suggest that familiarity is one cue we use to interpret the facial affect of others. 1405 37 5 2007 This research examined the processes by which explicit and implicit attitudes changed to systematically differing levels of counterattitudinal (CA) information. Explicit attitudes changed quickly in response to relatively small amounts of CA information, reflecting rule based reasoning. On the other hand, implicit attitudes changed more slowly in the face of CA information, reflecting the progressive accretion of evaluation attitude object pairings. Thus, explicit attitudes were extremely malleable and changed quickly when CA information was presented, however implicit attitudes revealed a slow, linear change trajectory resulting from the on going accrual of information about the attitude object. Implications for the processes underlying implicit and explicit attitudes are discussed. 1406 37 5 2007 Four experiments investigated judgments about voluntary human actions and physical causes that were embedded in causal chains ending in negative outcomes (e.g., a forest fire). Causes were judged for their explanatory quality, their effect on the probability of the outcome, and the extent to which they could be socially controlled. Results supported legal theorists §s claim that voluntary actions are judged better explanations than physical causes. Indices derived from theories of probability change generally failed to predict the preference for voluntary actions. In contrast, this preference was mediated by the perceived extent to which voluntary versus physical causes may be brought under social control. These results suggest that causal explanation, at least within causal chains, is not driven solely by changes in the probability of an outcome when a cause is added, and that observers recognize the potential social function of explanations in drawing attention to socially controllable causes. 1407 37 5 2007 Two studies investigated the effect of stereotypes held by a prospective audience on participants §s reactions to a stereotype disconfirming member In Study 1, participants formed an impression of a positive disconfirming gay in order to communicate it to an audience known to hold a negative versus positive stereotype about gays. As predicted, participants subtyped the deviant more in the former than in the latter case. Moreover participants §s stereotype at the end of the study mirrored the audience §s assumed stereotypes about gays. In Study 2, participants learned about a stereotype allegedly held by an ingroup or an outgroup audience about Belgians and then received information about a Belgian who disconfirmed the stereotype. As predicted, the deviant was seen as less typical when he violated the stereotype held by an ingroup than by an outgroup audience. Also, participants §s stereotype about Belgians was more similar to the one held by the ingroup audience. A mediational analysis confirmed that participants subtyped the disconfirming member in order to embrace the stereotype advocated by the ingroup audience. Results are discussed in light of recent models of stereotype change. 1408 37 5 2007 Attitudinal ambivalence has been found to moderate attitude intention relations. However, no prior work has investigated the mechanisms by which this moderation effect occurs. The present research attempted to address this issue. Across two studies, there was evidence that an Ambivalence x Attitude interaction was mediated through judgements about attitude importance. Additionally, the present research ruled out the possibility that attitude certainty, a factor that is often found to be positively related to attitude importance, was not responsible for the observed mediating effects of this latter variable. While replicating previous evidence supporting the moderating properties of ambivalence on attitude intention relations, the current research sheds light on the critical role that attitude importance plays in this relationship. 1409 37 5 2007 Three studies tested the contribution of perceived autonomy support to the prediction of health related intentions within the theory of planned behaviour Perceived autonomy support refers to the extent to which individuals perceive that significant others encourage choice and participation in decision making, provide a meaningful rationale, minimize pressure, and acknowledge the individual §s feelings and perspectives. Findings from Studies I and 2 demonstrated that perceived autonomy support predicted intentions to participate in physical activity behaviour directly and indirectly via attitudes. Perceived autonomy support predicted intention even after statistically controlling for the effects from past behaviour, descriptive norms, and perceived social support. Study 3 found that persuasive communications influenced perceptions of autonomy support, attitudes, and intentions. Overall, the findings support the incorporation of perceived autonomy support into the theory of planned behaviour 1410 37 5 2007 Two experiments compared the social orientations of people with high and low self esteem (HSEs vs. LSEs). In Experiment 1, participants received positive or negative interpersonal feedback from an accepting or rejecting evaluator HSEs chose to interact with a rejecting evaluator more often than LSEs did. In Experiment 2, participants received solely negative interpersonal feedback from an accepting or rejecting evaluator of high or low social status. This time, both HSEs and LSEs chose an accepting/high status evaluator over a rejecting/fow status one, but only HSEs chose a rejecting/ high status evaluator over accepting/fow status one. Implications are discussed. 1411 37 5 2007 A study of 80 couples (mean age 24) examined the impact of attachment patterns on reactions to manipulated positive or negative feedback, ostensibly from partners. As expected, individuals high in attachment anxiety reported more negative mood and the least indifference to partner feedback. In addition, those high in attachment anxiety reported more negative reactions to negative feedback compared to those low in anxiety. Those high in attachment anxiety reported lower self competence after receiving negative feedback than those low in anxiety. Further, reactions to manipulated feedback mediated the relationship between attachment anxiety and self competence. Attachment models play a role in determining reactions to partner feedback and moderate how feedback is used to maintain self views. 1412 37 5 2007 This research tested the infra humanization hypothesis that uniquely human emotions (e.g., love, sorrow) are automatically more linked in memory with the ingroup than with the outgroup. No such difference is expected for non uniquely human emotions (e.g.joy, sadness) which pertain to everybody, including animals. Two studies using semantic primes followed by visual person categorization task (PCT) and lexical (lexical decision task, LDT) targets were conducted. Results supported infra humanization theory. Reaction times were faster for the ingroup/secondary emotions associations than for outgroup/secondary emotions ones. As predicted, no difference in latency times appeared for primary emotions as a function of the groups. These findings elucidate the ambiguity present in Paladino et al. (2002). Theoretical and practical implications are suggested. 1413 37 5 2007 When investigating the effects of aggression on person perception, many studies have relied on the famous Donald paradigm (e.g., Srull & Wyer, 1979). Little attention has been paid, however to the role that is played by the social identity of Donald (the target ofperception) in such effects. Three studies with Dutch participants, consistently reveal that judgments of an ingroup (Dutch) target are less prone to be affected by aggression priming than judgments of an outgroup (Moroccan, Surinamese, German) target, and that this effect is moderated by the extent to which the target §s group is associated with aggressiveness. Importantly, the studies show that such association can be created not only via well established stereotypes (e.g., Moroccans are aggressive ), but also via subtle contextual priming. When priming activates an association between ingroup and aggressiveness ( The Dutch are aggressive ), the subsequent evaluation of the ingroup targets can also be influenced negatively. The present research thus demonstrates that social categorizations and the contextual associations attached to them delineate an important boundary condition for aggression priming effects. 1414 37 5 2007 Despite the pervasive use of promises and threats in social life, very little research has been devoted to examining the effectiveness of these interpersonal tactics in promoting cooperation in social dilemmas. Based on the Goal Prescribes Rationality principle, we hypothesized that cooperation should be most strongly enhanced when promises and threats are communicated in combination, rather than in isolation. Also, we hypothesized that the combination of promises and threats should be especially effective among individuals with prosocial rather than proself orientations. Two studies provided good evidence for the latter hypothesis, in that the combination of promises and threats was only effective in people with prosocial orientations, people who are concerned with equality and collective interest. 1415 37 5 2007 Past literature on the automaticity of social behaviour indicates that priming a concept automatically activates related behavioural schemas. In the two present studies we examined the impact of religion on prosociality. In the first study, we tested the impact of subliminal priming of religious concepts on prosocial behaviour intentions. We found a main effect of this priming, moderated by valence: prosocial behaviour tendencies were stronger when positive religious words had previously been subliminally primed. In the second study, we examined the accessibility of prosocial concepts, after the supraliminal activation of religion. Indeed, we found that not only were religion related attributes more accessible when primed, but positive religious primes were also able to activate prosocial concepts. While previous research has shown the religion prosociality link at the explicit level and in terms of the role of individual religiousness, these results indicate that religious concepts by themselves can nonconsciously activate prosocial behavioural schemas. 1416 37 5 2007 Processes of attitude learning were investigated through a game requiring discrimination between good and bad objects, where feedback about object valence (involving gain or loss) is contingent on approach. Previous research demonstrates a preponderance of false negative errors, with some good objects ( learning asymmetry ) and most novel objects ( generalization asymmetry ) being judged as bad, but provides no direct evidence concerning how participants appraise alternative strategies and their own performance. To compare alternative strategies, participants received advice, supposedly from a previous participant, that most objects were bad and should be avoided, or good and should be approached. Learning and generalization asymmetries were replicated, especially among participants who followed the former (risk averse) advice. Additionally, participants §s evaluations of their own game strategy were inversely related to amount of negative feedback (the number of bad objects approached), but unrelated to positive feedback (from good objects approached), pointing to the salience of negative information for self appraisals. 1417 37 5 2007 Research on persuasion has shown that inferences based on heuristic or peripheral cues can bias the subsequent processing of persuasive messages. Two studies (total N = 296) examined the additional possibilities that a message argument can serve as a biassing factor and cue related information can serve as the target of processing bias. It was demonstrated that a message argument can bias (a) the processing of subsequent other message arguments (Study 1) and (b) the processing of subsequent cue information (Study 2). Results are discussed within dual process models and the recently developed unimodel of persuasion. 1418 37 6 2007 Recent developments in the study of group perception have been guided by four concepts: homogeneity, essentialism, agency, and entitativity. Research on these topics has broadened the scope of questions asked, issues studied, and explanatory mechanisms that are important in the perception of groups. This article summarizes each concept, discusses its contribution to understanding group perception, and highlights unresolved questions that need investigation. Possible conceptual interpretations of the relations among these concepts and their relationship to stereotyping are then discussed. 1419 37 6 2007 Using a videogame to simulate encounters with potentially hostile targets, three studies tested a model in which racial bias in shoot/don t shoot decisions reflects accessibility of the stereotype linking Blacks to danger. Study 1 experimentally manipulated the race danger association by asking participants to read newspaper stories about Black (vs. White) criminals. As predicted, exposure to stories concerning Black criminals increased bias in the decision to shoot. Studies 2 and 3 manipulated the number of White and Black targets with and without guns in the context of the videogame itself. As predicted, frequent presentation of stereotypic (vs. counterstereotypic) targets exacerbated bias (Study 2) and consistent with our process account rendered stereotypes more accessible (Study 3). 1420 37 6 2007 "This paper presents two studies, conducted in two different countries, investigating perceptions of ingroups as enduring, temporally persistent entities, and introduces a new instrument measuring perceived collective continuity (PCC). In Study 1 we show that perceptions of ingroup continuity are based on two main dimensions: perceived cultural continuity (perceived continuity of norms and traditions) and perceived historical continuity (perceived interconnection between different historical ages and events). This study also allows the construction of an internally consistent PCC scale including two subscales tapping on these two dimensions. Study 2 replicates findings from the first study; it also reveals that PCC is positively correlated to a set of social identity related measures (e.g., group identification and collective self esteem), and that its effects on these measures are mediated by perceived group entitativity. Overall, these two studies confirm that PCC is an important theoretical construct, and that the PCC scale may become an important instrument in future research on group processes and social identity. " 1421 37 6 2007 High status outgroups tend to be stereotyped as competent, while low status groups tend to be stereotyped as incompetent. These stereotypes provide legitimacy to hierarchical social systems. However research to date has tended to focus on the socio structural correlates and cross cultural stability of these stereotypes, emphasising universality over malleability. The current research demonstrates that, although strong, the association between status and competence, but not status and warmth, is moderated by ideological beliefs and attitudes towards inequality. In two studies, participants high in belief in a just world (BJW) or social dominance orientation (SDO) were more likely than those low in BJW or SDO to view a high status target as more competent than a low status target. Findings support the view that status stereotypes justify social inequalities, and demonstrate that they are sensitive to ideological orientations. Implications for theory and research on status and power stereotypes are discussed. 1422 37 6 2007 Letters of recommendation typically use subjective language that is open to interpretation. In three studies, participants translated letters of recommendation for female and male applicants written by sexist, anti sexist, or control professors. Predictions were based on the shifting standards model [Biernat, Manis, & Nelson, 19911, the attributional principle of augmentation [Kelley, 1971, and models of correction for contamination [e.g., Wilson & Brekke, 1994]. Participants translated equivalent letters as indicating lesser ability in female than male applicants, particularly when the letter writer was described as sexist, but own impressions of the candidate diverged from those of the sexist writer Differential standard use and attributional augmentation did not appear to be responsible for these effects. Instead, writer sexism triggered dislike and corrective processes in impression formation. 1423 37 6 2007 "Previous research has shown that ostracism even by outgroup members is aversive. In this study we examined whether ostracism by a particular type of outgroup, a despised outgroup, was sufficient to inflict emotional distress. We manipulated ostracism using Cyberball, an on line ball toss game. Ostracized participants reported lower levels of belonging, self esteem, control, and meaningful existence, and more negative mood, than included participants. Moreover, ostracism by despised outgroup members was no less aversive than ostracism by rival outgroup or ingroup members. Participants differentiated between the groups, however; ostracized individuals reported greater outgroup negativity than included participants only when their co players were members of the despised outgroup. We interpret these results as evidence for the powerful impact of ostracism and the potential importance of. distinguishing between qualitatively different outgroups. " 1424 37 6 2007 Two studies tested the hypothesis that responses to withingroup criticism are influenced by perceptions of a critic §s prior adherence to ingroup norms. Participants responded to criticism which originated from ingroup members who either had previously adhered to or deviated from a group norm. Across both studies, criticising the ingroup yielded more negative group evaluations for antinormative members than it did for normative members. Participants also reported highest levels of sensitivity overall to communication (whether critical or praising of the ingroup) which came from antinormative members. Mediational analyses (Study 2) indicated that these effects were driven by perceptions of whether the communication violated a group expectation, and also perceptions of the critic §s identification with the group. Study I also provided evidence that reactions to criticism are made in response to social identity concerns: the effects of prior norm adherence were observed only in participants who were highly identified with the ingroup. The research integrates previous work on group deviance and responses to criticism by elaborating the conditions under which criticism originating from within a group is most and least likely to be tolerated by its members. 1425 37 6 2007 This experiment (N = 239) investigated the effects of grouppower and legitimacy of power differentials on intergroup discrimination, measured through negative outcome allocations and linguistic abstraction. Furthermore, it examined the mechanisms through which group power affects discrimination by testing the mediating role of perceived interdependence and social identification. Three power conditions were created by modifying the standard minimal group paradigm: equal, high and low power conditions. Power was directly proportional (legitimate conditions) or inversely proportional (illegitimate conditions) to group members §s performance in a problem solving task. Results showed that intergroup discrimination in the high and low power conditions was higher than in the equal power condition on both the allocation and the linguistic measures. Legitimacy moderated the effect of group power on negative outcome allocations, while it had a main effect on the linguistic abstraction. In addition, perceived interdependence turned out to be the main mediator of the effect of power on negative outcome allocations. 1426 37 6 2007 Four studies examined explicit and implicit perceptions of ethnicity and nationhood in New Zealand (NZ). NZ Europeans/Pakeha (the majority group) endorsed a bicultural perspective and explicitly rated both their own ingroup and Maori (the indigenous peoples of NZ) as contributing equally to NZ national identity and culture (Study 1). Contrary to the divergence between explicit and implicit ethnic national associations observed in the USA, implicit associations in NZ were generally consistent with explicitly stated values. Pakeha and Maori, but not Asian New Zealanders, were both strongly implicitly associated with the national category NZ (Studies 1 3), although this general tendency was qualified by weak levels of ingroup favouritism from all three ethnic groups (Study 2). Finally, the small tendency for Pakeha to implicitly associate their ingroup more strongly with NZ was erased by using moderately well known Pakeha and Maori rugby players as targets (Study 4). These findings contrast with the American = White implicit associations described by Devos and Banaji (2005), and provide insight into the ways in which socio cultural realities foster convergence or divergence between explicit and implicit beliefs about equality and the function of ethnicity in nationhood. 1427 37 6 2007 In the current research, the authors investigate the influence of intergroup status and social categorizations on retributive justice judgments, that is, the extent to which observers perceive punishment as fair Building on social identity theory and the model of subjective group dynamics, it is predicted that when the ingroup has higher status than the outgroup, people are relatively less concerned about punishment of an outgroup offender than when the ingroup has lower status than the outgroup. Two experiments revealed that participants are more punitive towards an ingroup than an outgroup offender when ingroup status is high but not when ingroup status is low. Furthermore, in correspondence with our line of reasoning, this finding emerged because participants were less punitive towards outgroup offenders when ingroup status is high than when ingroup status was low. It is concluded that the perceived fairness of punishment depends on the offender §s social categorization and intergroup status. 1428 37 6 2007 Despite the robustness of self serving and group serving biases in attribution, there has been only limited evidence for these effects in counterfactual thinking. The present studies demonstrate that, following a negative outcome, individuals counterfactualize external factors relatively more than internal factors when they are identified with the target (i.e. ingroup members or the self) than when they are not. However, these effects are found only for external factors that are in some way disadvantageous to the target and could have led to the negative outcome. Implications of these findings for understanding the relationship between counterfactual thinking and judgments of causality, blame and affect are discussed. 1429 37 6 2007 Anger at unfair treatment has been called moral outrage. However moral outrage anger at the violation of a moral standard should be distinguished from personal anger at being harmed and empathic anger at seeing another for whom one cares harmed. Across a preliminary experiment and a main experiment, both designed to manipulate the appraisal conditions for these three forms of anger we found evidence of personal anger and empathic anger, but little evidence of moral outrage. Participants perceived unfair treatment of another even another for whom they had not been induced to feel empathy, to be as unfair as participants perceived unfair treatment of themselves. But the appraisal conditions that evoked anger were unfair treatment of self and unfair treatment of a cared for other not unfairness per se. In the absence of empathic concern, unfair treatment of another evoked little anger Possible implications for understanding moral emotion and moral motivation are suggested. 1430 37 6 2007 In this article, we study how the strength of outcome dependence, defined as the extent to which people §s outcomes depend on authority §s decisions, influences their reactions to voice or no voice procedures. We suggest that in situations where people are strongly outcome dependent they assume that the authority may not consider their views, and therefore voice procedures exert less influence on people §s procedure judgments than in situations where they are not strongly outcome dependent. Findings of two experiments corroborate this line of reasoning: In strongly outcome dependent situations, recipients §s procedure judgments are influenced less strongly by voice versus no voice procedures than in moderate or weak outcome dependent situations. Furthermore, these effects were found for both pre decision voice (Experiment 1) and for post decision voice (Experiment 2). It is concluded that strong outcome dependence decreases the value expressive function of voice opportunities. 1431 37 6 2007 An extensive literature has documented the cognitive benefits that accrue from a categorical conception of others. While informative, this work has overlooked the fact that, prior to the application of categorical thinking as an economizing cognitive tool, perceivers must first extract category triggering information from available facial cues. What this suggests is that an impetus to construe others categorically may reside in the perceptual operations that guide the preliminary stages of person understanding. This possibility was explored in three experiments that investigated the effects of stimulus rotation on the efficiency of identity based and category based construal. In the first experiment, sex categorization was compared directly to identity based construal. Subsequent experiments then investigated the efficiency of sex (Experiment 2) and race (Experiment 3) categorization when critical category specifying facial cues were present and absent. The results demonstrated that categorical responding is driven by the extraction of featural information from faces, a finding that informs recent theoretical accounts of person perception. 1432 37 6 2007 We test the emotion response congruency hypothesis, which predicts that the consequences of socially sharing one §s negative emotions depend on the congruency between the shared emotion and the response that is obtained from the interaction partner. Experimental shows that the response that people prefer is dependent on the specific emotion shared. Experiment 1b, however, reveals that the responses that interaction partners provide do not differ across emotions. Yet, and crucially, Experiment 2 shows that the outcomes of sharing are affected by the congruency between the response that people receive and the emotion they share, thus supporting the emotion response congruency hypothesis. 1433 37 6 2007 This paper addresses methodological considerations relevant to nonverbal communication of emotion research. In order to gather more information about the interpretations given to spontaneous and dynamic facial expressions, two main objectives guide the present exploratory research. The first one is to obtain naturalistic recordings of emotional expressions in realistic settings that are emotional enough . The second one is to address the issue of dynamic judgments of facial expressions of emotion, that is real time emotional recognition. An innovative device has been created for this specific purpose. Results show that, although the social nature of the eliciting situation is minimal, the experience of some emotions is reflected on the encoders §s faces while being covertly videotaped in natural conditions. Moreover results show the utility to investigate dynamic emotional judgments of spontaneous and dynamic expressions since observers seem to be sensitive to the slightest facial expression change in making their emotional judgments. A promising paradigm is thus proposed for the study of the dynamics of real time nonverbal emotional interaction. 1434 38 1 2008 The present research aims at showing that ambivalence may serve an adaptive function: to preserve attitudes and to resist persuasion. In two experiments, participants were exposed to a counter attitudinal message attributed to an ingroup majority. Results of both experiments showed that individuals high in ambivalence changed toward the source more than individuals low in ambivalence at the direct level, while at the indirect level where the link between attitudes and the source §s message is less apparent individuals low in ambivalence changed toward the source more than individuals high in ambivalence. Experiment 2 also showed that this effect is particularly true for high self monitoring participants, thereby supporting a motivational interpretation of the effect. 1435 38 1 2008 Two experiments examined the extent to which attitudes changed following majority and minority influence are resistant to counter persuasion. In both experiments participants §s attitudes were measured after being exposed to two messages, delayed in time, which argued opposite positions (initial message and counter message). In the first experiment, attitudes following minority endorsement of the initial message were more resistant to a second counter message only when the initial message contained strong versus weak arguments. Attitudes changed following majority influence did not resist the second counter message and returned to their pre test level. Experiment 2 varied whether memory was warned (i.e., message recipients expected to recall the message) or not, to manipulate message processing. When memory was warned, which should increase message processing, attitudes changed following both majority and minority influence resisted the second counter message. The results support the view that minority influence instigates systematic processing of its arguments, leading to attitudes that resist counter persuasion. Attitudes formed following majority influence yield to counter persuasion unless there is a secondary task that encourages message processing. 1436 38 1 2008 The action based model of dissonance and recent advances in neuroscience suggest that commitment to action should cause greater relative left frontal cortical activity. An induced compliance experiment was conducted in which electroencephalographic activity was recorded following commitment to action, operationalized with a perceived choice manipulation. Perceived high as compared to low choice to engage in the counterattitudinal action caused attitudes to be more consistent with the action. Also, high choice caused greater relative left frontal cortical activity than low choice. 1437 38 1 2008 The judgments of groups have immense impact on our daily lives. This paper theorizes that three families of intra group influence affect the collective estimation process. These different forms of influence map to different levels of task demonstrability, or the extent to which correct answers are transparent to problem solvers. When demonstrability is low, group estimates are disproportionately influenced by proposals closer to the intra group mean (centrality). When demonstrability is high and groups are small, group decisions are disproportionately influenced by proposals closer to the correct answer (accuracy). Finally, when demonstrability is high and groups are larger group decisions are disproportionately influenced by proposals offered by generally more accurate individuals across a set of judgments (expertise). Three laboratory studies support our predictions with regard to informational influence in cooperative groups. 1438 38 1 2008 The Hawthorne Effect is a phrase frequently employed in textbooks and other academic discourse. It appears to have been coined over 50 years ago and alludes to the outcome of research undertaken two decades earlier This paper seeks to elucidate how the term Hawthorne Effect has come to be used. A variety of texts will be presented to demonstrate the many different and often contradictory meanings ascribed to the term. A consideration of Guerin §s review of research in social facilitation suggests the complexity of issues that seem to be involved in the use of the term Hawthorne Effect is such that greater precision is required. Ultimately, we conclude, the term has no useful role in the discussion of research findings. 1439 38 1 2008 Minority influence and conflict exposure were studied in an additive fashion within discussion dyads to clarify the role each plays in divergent thinking. Dyad types (determined by each member §s preference for a political candidate) included: No conflict (both members preferred the same candidate, conflict only (each member preferred a different candidate), and minority status plus conflict (same as conflict only with one candidate labelled the minority candidate). Dyads chose a candidate, brainstormed to solve a problem, chose one solution and developed a proposal, and evaluated their interaction. The results showed that minority dyads §s discussions of the political candidates were robust and resulted in direct minority influence. Additionally, brainstorming and proposal quality were positively affected by the minority source of influence. It appears that the status of the source of conflict plays a critical role in divergent thinking. Additionally, group products appear to be affected by individual divergent thinking. 1440 38 1 2008 Three experimental studies demonstrate that momentarily accessible conflict schemas moderate the relationship between need for closure and conflict strategy preferences, with the relationship between a high need for closure and increased competitiveness reduced to non significance when a cooperative conflict schema is made salient but strengthened when a hostile one is activated. Study 1 manipulated the accessibility of competitive versus cooperative conflict schemas using different descriptions of a contemporary political conflict, while Studies 2 and 3 manipulated conflict schema accessibility using primes embedded in an ostensibly unrelated lexical decision task. Together the present studies provide a strong pattern of experimental support for the moderating effect of conflict schema accessibility suggested by earlier correlational studies. The implications for conflict reduction are discussed. 1441 38 1 2008 This paper is an examination, in a natural setting, of the interactive effects of perceived stability, legitimacy, and group permeability on group identification, stereotypes, and group feelings among Turkish Dutch and ethnically Dutch participants. The findings strongly support predictions derived from the social identity perspective. For the Turkish Dutch, a legitimate interethnic structure meant rather unstable relations and permeable group boundaries. For the Dutch, the same structure implied stability and impermeability. For the Turkish Dutch, a response pattern of individual mobility was found: if they viewed ethnic intergroup relations as legitimate and stable, permeability was negatively related to Turkish identification as well as to less stereotyping on the dimension defining Turkish identity. It was also related positively to Dutch identification and ingroup bias in relation to other ethnic minority groups. For the Dutch participants, higher perceived legitimacy was associated with stronger ingroup identification and more positive ingroup evaluation. Additionally, in a legitimate context, stability was, for them, related to a lower stereotyping of the Turkish outgroup on status relevant dimensions and more negative feelings towards ethnic outgroups in general. 1442 38 1 2008 The Jamaican born, Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, won the gold medal at the 1988 Olympics, but afterward was disqualified for steroid use. At the time Johnson §s identity in the Canadian media appeared to shift he was Canadian after winning the gold medal but Jamaican after disqualification. We tested this hypothesis via an archival study of a newspaper database of Canadian newspapers. The results confirmed the speculation. In the second study with Canadian research participants, the nationality of a fictional athlete was experimentally manipulated. He either possessed Canadian American (shared) or Belgian American (non shared) identity. The athlete §s performance outcome at an Olympic event was also manipulated. In the shared identity condition the athlete was perceived as more Canadian when he won than when he lost. There were no significant differences in nationality judgment when neither of the athlete §s dual nationalities was Canadian. Results regarding perceptions of similarity paralleled the nationality ratings results. Findings from these two studies illustrate an interesting extension of BIRGing and CORFing strategies in which multiple social identities of others are used strategically to include or exclude others from the ingroup. 1443 38 1 2008 Questions remain about the details of the reciprocal strategies people use in the context of group cooperation. Here we report an experiment in which participants in public goods games could access information about the lowest, median, or highest contribution to the public good before making their own contribution decisions. Results suggest that people have clear preferences for particular pieces of information and that information preferences vary systematically across individuals as a function of their contribution strategies. Specifically, participants playing reciprocal strategies sought information about the median contribution, free riders preferred to view the highest contribution, and altruists had inconsistent preferences. By including a treatment in which people could pay to see information rather than obtaining it for free, we found that people were willing to incur costs to acquire information, particularly those using a reciprocal strategy. Further adding a cost to view information decreased aggregate contributions, possibly because the motivation to induce others §s reciprocal contributions diminished under these conditions. 1444 38 1 2008 As volunteer organizations cannot rely on instrumental means to motivate their workers, we examine organizational commitment as a focal indicator of work motivation among volunteers. Based on a social identify analysis and previous work among paid employees, we argue that pride in the organization and respect from the organization predicts organizational commitment among volunteers. We further propose that among volunteers the perceived importance of volunteer work is an antecedent of pride, and that perceived support from the organization is an antecedent of respect. In this study among volunteer workers, Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) offers empirical support for our hypothesized model. In addition to the theoretical significance of developing a model that explains organizational commitment among volunteer workers, this study also has practical relevance, as it indicates that volunteer organizations might convey the importance of volunteer work and provide organizational support to induce pride and respect as a means of enhancing organizational commitment among their volunteers. 1445 38 1 2008 This paper extends the self categorisation model of symptom appraisals to predict that individuals who believe they have a given illness will perceive concurrent symptoms relevant to that illness to be more severe when they categorise themselves as members of a group of people with that illness. These predictions are supported with opportunity samples of individuals reporting, or not reporting a common cold (Study 1, N = 60) and reporting colds or tinnitus (Study 2, N = 64). In both studies, relevant symptoms were rated as more severe when illness group memberships were salient. The methodological, theoretical and clinical implications of these findings and possible therapeutic applications of self categorisation theory (SCT) to symptom perceptions are discussed. 1446 38 2 2008 The present research investigates the impact of negative and positive stereotypic expectancies on cognitive test performance. A theoretical framework that relates expectancy effects to self regulatory processes as postulated by Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT) is presented. Building on the differential sensitivity hypothesis proposed in this theoretical model, we argue that when self regulation in a prevention focus is activated individuals are particularly sensitive with regard to negative cues and therefore negative expectancies are likely to result in poor test performance due to an apprehension about meeting minimal goal standards. Conversely, when self regulation is guided by a promotion focus individuals are particularly sensitive with regard to positive cues and hence likely to show impaired performance when confronted with positive expectancies due to an apprehension about meeting maximal goal standards. The results of four experiments, relying on both situational and chronic regulatory focus, support these assumptions. 1447 38 2 2008 The relationship between level of depressive symptomatology and reliance on the ease of retrieval heuristic was investigated. In two studies, differences in ease of retrieval were instigated by means of the paradigm introduced by Schwarz and co workers. Subsequently, participants were screened for depressive symptoms with the Allgemeine Depressionsskala (ADS, Experiments I and 2) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI, Experiment 2). In both experiments, participants were randomly selected from a non clinical population. Results indicate that participants with low levels of depressive symptomatology relied on experienced ease or difficulty, whereas individuals with high levels of depressive symptomatology based their judgment on the accessible content information. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. 1448 38 2 2008 Women are surprisingly underrepresented in the chess world, representing less that 5% of registered tournament players worldwide and only 1% of the world §s grandmasters. In this paper it is argued that gender stereotypes are mainly responsible for the underperformance of women in chess. Forty two male female pairs, matched for ability, played two chess games via Internet. When players were unaware of the sex of opponent (control condition), females played approximately as well as males. When the gender stereotype was activated (experimental condition), women showed a drastic performance drop, but only when they were aware that they were playing against a male opponent. When they (falsely) believed to be playing against a woman, they performed as well as their male opponents. In addition, our findings suggest that women show lower chess specific self esteem and a weaker promotion focus, which are predictive of poorer chess performance. 1449 38 2 2008 Previous research (Greitemeyer & Weiner 2003) has demonstrated that compliance, because of an anticipated reward is attributed more to the person than compliance because of an anticipated punishment. The present research extended these findings to an educational context. Three studies revealed that parents who ask their children to change inappropriate behaviours are more likely to ascribe their children §s improvement to the child, if the child was promised a reward, rather than threatened, to receive a punishment if the child did not improve. Moreover, because a child §s improved behaviour is more likely to be ascribed to the child given a reward as compared to a punishment, parents expect that rewards (as opposed to punishments) are more likely to sustain improved behaviour when the incentive is no longer offered. Finally, participants report to be more likely to induce behavioural change through reward rather than punishment. 1450 38 2 2008 The purpose of the present research is to complement and extend previous achievement goal research by emphasizing that great performance may serve as an antecedent of performance approach goal adoption, that is, the wish to outperform others. A consistent finding across the three studies is, indeed, that great (perceived) performance and high performance expectancies are associated with the adoption of performance approach goals. It is concluded that the process of goal adoption is a dynamic, recursive process in which performance attainment is most likely to operate as both an antecedent and a consequence of goal adoption. 1451 38 2 2008 "The authors of this study suggest that the harm punishment link ( outcome bias ) can be explained by the activation of different judgment processes depending on the outcome severity of an offense: (1) a rational model for mild outcomes in which punishment is necessarily linked to responsibility of the perpetrator; (2) a justification model for severe outcomes in which punishment and responsibility are linked only when assessment order allows the latter to rationalize the former Participants (126 university students) considered an unintentional road accident with mild or severe outcomes and made judgments of responsibility, punishment, and perceived seriousness of the offense. The results support the authors §s hypothesis. In the discussion, the authors suggest different motives of punishment (preventive or compensative justice) which explain why responsibility and punishment are not necessarily linked. " 1452 38 2 2008 Despite their intuitive plausibility and prominence in theorizing regarding attitude certainty, past studies have provided equivocal evidence for the role of informational and structural consistency factors in perceptions of attitude certainty. The present research attempted to overcome methodological and conceptual limitations in past research in order to establish that amount, cognitive elaboration, and structural consistency of attitude relevant knowledge are infact determinants of attitude certainty. As predicted, certainty was influenced by experimental manipulations of all three constructs. Mediational analyses suggested that the amount and elaboration of information manipulations were mediated by subjective impressions of knowledge. Subjective impressions of amount of thought partially mediated the effects of manipulated elaboration. Finally, perceived ambivalence mediated the effects of manipulated consistency of knowledge. 1453 38 2 2008 Two studies tested whether psychosocial resources affect perception of another §s distress. Participants §s had their resources depleted, left unchanged, or boosted by elaborately recalling either someone who had betrayed them, a neutral person, or a close and trusted other respectively. Participants then listened to disturbing baby cries, and rated how much distress the cries conveyed. As predicted, participants who recalled a betrayal subsequently heard the cries as conveying more distress than did other participants (Study 1). However recalling a betrayal did not amplify cry ratings if, prior to cry rating, betrayal related thoughts and feelings were disclosed (Study 2). The moderating effect of disclosure on cry ratings indicates that boosting resources (disclosure) can counteract the effects of resource depletion (betrayal). Results in both studies remained significant even after controlling for mood. This research is the first to show that social contexts, and emotional disclosure, each affects perception of others §s distress. 1454 38 2 2008 Two factors known to affect the use of self in social prediction, target similarity and order of predictions, are considered in concert to understand how the use of self varies across the prediction of different targets. Replicating earlier studies, we predicted and found that people use the self more when predicting similar others than when predicting dissimilar others. Extending existing studies, we predicted and found order effects for similar others. As predicted no order effects emerged for predictions for dissimilar targets. Because the self is more accessible during the prediction of similar others, it matters whether self predictions precede or follow other predictions. Feature matching theory is proposed as a possible explanation for the emergence of order effects in predictions of similar targets. 1455 38 2 2008 Based on recent theories of affect and cognition, this unobtrusive field experiment predicted and found that induced positive mood improved real life customer service behaviours by less experienced sales staff, but had no effect on the behaviours of experienced long term staff in several department stores. Positive or negative mood was unobtrusively induced in sales staff in major department stores by a confederate. A second confederate, blind to the mood induction, then asked employees for help to locate a non existent item. The frequency and duration of helpful behaviours in response to the request was recorded. Consistent with Forgas §s Affect Infusion Model (AIM), less experienced employees showed a significant mood congruent pattern in their responses helping more in a positive than in a negative mood. Long term employees who could rely on routine, direct access processing were not influenced by the mood induction. The implications of these findings for contemporary affect cognition theorizing and for everyday affective influences on interpersonal behaviours and customer service delivery are considered. 1456 38 2 2008 Evaluations of self and others in the past, present, and future were examined by asking 385 students to rate themselves or an acquaintance relative to their peers on a number of personality traits. We predicted, and found, evidence for self enhancement, as most participants regarded themselves superior to most others §s at all points in time. We also found a better than average improvement effect, as participants considered themselves more superior now, than they were in the past, and expected to become even more superior in the future. Expected improvement in the future was larger than improvement over an equal span of time in the past. It is suggested that favourable self constructions are possible to the extent that the past and the future are perceived as ambiguous. Singular acquaintances were also rated better than most others, and were believed to improve over time, but their rate of improvement in the future was smaller than the expected improvement for oneself. 1457 38 2 2008 The present study was designed to contribute to our understanding of the development of chronic self regulatory orientations reflecting self regulation with a promotion and prevention focus, respectively. Little research addressed this issue empirically, although regulatory focus theory (RFT) explicitly entails assumptions concerning the role of parenting styles in the development of habitual self regulatory orientations. According to RFT, parenting styles involving a critical and punitive mode that is focused on attaining safety and meeting obligations increases the likelihood that the child will acquire a predominantly prevention focused style of self regulation. In contrast, parenting styles involving a bolstering mode that is focused on accomplishing ideal goals and fulfilling aspirations increases the likelihood that the child will acquire a predominantly promotion focused style of self regulation. To test these assumptions, the present study assessed via self reports the degree to which participants experienced different parenting styles as well as their chronic self regulatory focus. The results reveal positive associations between the critical and punitive parenting style and prevention focused self regulation and between the bolstering parenting style and promotion focused self regulation thus corroborating the propositions of RFT 1458 38 2 2008 Research has shown that people tend to perceive the groups to which they belong (e.g., national groups) as temporally persistent. In this paper we argue that enhanced perceptions of collective continuity lead to lower levels of anomy and misfit, and to higher levels of social well being (SWB). Furthermore, we argue that the effects of perceived collective continuity (PCC) on SWB are mediated by collective self esteem (CSE). Finally, we contend that PCC has positive effects on perceived group entitativity (PGE), which in turn has a positive influence on CSE. This model is tested by means of a cross sectional study using a sample of Spanish nationals (N = 145) drawn from the general public. Results confirm that the data fit the model well. These findings are in line with research demonstrating that a sense Of personal continuity through time is related with better mental health and personal well being. 1459 38 2 2008 "Drawing from self determination theory (SDT), this study examined the effect of an autonomy supportive, well structured and interpersonally involving teaching style on exercise class participants §s psychological need satisfaction, motivational regulations, exercise behaviour behavioural intention and affect. Female exercise class participants enrolled in a 10 week exercise program were exposed to an SDT based (i.e. SDTc; n = 25) or typical (i.e. control group; n = 31) teaching style. The control condition reported a significant decrease in autonomy support, amotivation and behavioural intention over time. In addition, they reported a significant increase in competence and introjected regulation. Compared to the control condition, the SDTc reported a significantly greater linear increase in structure and interpersonal involvement relatedness and competence need satisfaction and positive affect. Attendance rates were significantly higher in the SDTc. SDT based social contextual characteristics and psychological needs predicted autonomous regulations; all these variables collectively predicted adaptive outcomes. " 1460 38 3 2008 We investigated the idea that a charismatic leader with a controversial message is most likely to persuade people in times of terror, because in those times people have a high need for vision, and vision is what a charismatic leader provides. In addition, we argued that the leader §s message should contain a pro attitudinal position as well, as this makes the counter attitudinal message more palatable. In line with our hypotheses, we found in Experiment I that thinking about terrorism increases people §s need for vision. Experiment 2 revealed that only when people have a high need for vision they will be influenced by a controversial charismatic leader Experiment 3 showed that existential threats also directly increase the influence of a controversial charismatic leader Further, this was especially so when the charismatic leader was both attractive and communicated his message in a charismatic way. Finally, Experiment 4 revealed that after thinking about their own death or about terrorist attacks, people were most likely to be persuaded by a controversial charismatic leader whose counter attitudinal message also contained pro attitudinal statements. Together, this research suggests that in times of terror people §s need for vision increases, which opens them up to a counter attitudinal message of a charismatic leader as long as this message also includes some pro attitudinal statements. 1461 38 3 2008 Research has shown that cognitive representations of mergers influence intergroup evaluations. This paper extends this research by studying how cognitive representations of mergers (one group, dual identity, and two groups) interact with performance feedback (success and failure) to affect intergroup evaluations. Two competing hypotheses were tested, which made different predictions in case of superordinate group salience combined with subgroup salience after merger failure: The subgroup salience hypothesis predicts that subgroup salience during a merger generally results in pre merger ingroup bias toward the pre merger outgroup (i.e., two groups and dual identity). The superordinate salience hypothesis predicts that subgroup salience only results in pre merger ingroup bias if superordinate group salience is low (i.e., two groups). Both hypotheses predict low levels of ingroup bias after merger success. Study 1 confirmed the second hypothesis using a 3 (merger representation: one group, dual identity, and two groups) x 2 (merger feedback: failure and success) design with interacting groups. Study 2 replicated the results in an adapted minimal group paradigm. 1462 38 3 2008 Agency is besides communion a basic dimension of traits. It can be specifically linked to behavioural outcomes, to status, mastery, self esteem and to success. The present paper analyses the situational malleability of agency. Two studies tested whether an individual §s agency (but not communion) is situationally influenced by the experience of success versus failure at a task, as well as whether this effect is the same for men and women. Supporting our hypotheses, the induction of success versus failure experiences led to changes in agency that were independent of actual performance, independent of type of task (memorizing vs. face recognition), independent of induction methodology (easy vs. difficult task vs. manipulated performance feedback), and independent of self esteem, initial level of agency and of the participants §s gender Communion was not influenced by this kind of experience. Implications for both the basic dimension of agency and for theories on gender arid gender stereotypes are discussed. 1463 38 3 2008 Two experiments investigated the hypothesis that arm crossing serves as a proprioceptive cue for perseverance within achievement settings. Experiment 1 found that inducing participants to cross their arms led to greater persistence on an unsolvable anagram. Experiment 2 revealed that arm crossing led to better performance on solvable anagrams, and that this effect was mediated by greater persistence. No differences in comfort, instruction adherence, or mood were observed between the arms crossed and control conditions, and participants appeared to be unaware of the effect of arm crossing on their behaviour. Implications of the findings are discussed in terms of the interplay between proprioceptive cues and contextual meaning. 1464 38 3 2008 Different types of cognitions in close relationships have been identified. Yet, little is known about the nature and effects of most of them, such as marital standards. In our research project What makes marriages last? we applied a German adaptation of the Inventory of Specific Relationship Standards, a questionnaire measuring how much sharing, egalitarianism and investment spouses feel they should have and actually experience in their own marriage. We hypothesized that high, i.e., relationship focused standards, should be associated with dyadic coping processes as well as with marital satisfaction. Thereby, dyadic coping was expected to play a mediating role between standards and marital satisfaction. Based on a sample of 663 German married couples, we found significant correlations between standards, marital satisfaction, and dyadic coping processes. Moreover, supportive behaviour in stressful situations had the expected partial mediating effect, which turned out to be slightly different for husbands and wives. Implications for preventive and therapeutic intervention are discussed. 1465 38 3 2008 "It is proposed that the reciprocation of interpersonal attraction is a multifaceted process involving affective, cognitive, and behavioural elements, and that reciprocation can be interpreted using interdependence theory. Two studies investigated whether expressed attraction implies benevolent intentions and whether such intentions are differentially critical to reciprocated affective and behavioural attraction. Study 1 (N=52) demonstrated that (a) an admirer §s expressed attraction suggests an admirer §s benevolent intentions toward the target, and (b) that benevolent intentions mediate reciprocated affective and behavioural attraction. Study 2 (N = 173)found a difference between affective and behavioural attraction: affective attraction was reciprocated in all cases; but behavioural attraction was not reciprocated when stated behavioural intentions were not consistent with intentions implied by the expressed attraction. Results support an interdependence theory perspective as particularly important for understanding why and what type of reciprocated attraction will occur. " 1466 38 3 2008 This research examined two issues relevant to self fulfilling prophecies. First, it examined whether children §s risk for alcohol use, as indicated by their self efficacy to refuse alcohol from peers, moderated their susceptibility to negative and positive self fulfilling prophecy effects created by their mothers. Second, it explored behavioural mediators that could be involved in the self fulfilling process between mothers and children. Longitudinal data from 540 mother child dyads indicated that (1) low self efficacy children were more susceptible to their mothers §s positive than negative self fulfilling effects, whereas high self efficacy children §s susceptibility did not vary, (2) mothers §s global parenting and children §s perception of their firiends §s alcohol use partially mediated mothers §s self fulfilling effects, and (3) these mediators contributed to low self efficacy children §s greater susceptibility to positive self fulfilling prophecy effects. The power of self fulfilling prophecies, their link to social problems, and the potential for mothers §s favourable beliefs to have a protective influence on adolescent alcohol use are discussed. 1467 38 3 2008 The relationship between intrinsic and personal extrinsic religious orientation as suggested by Gorsuch and McPherson is studied within four denominational samples of university students in four different cultural environments. Results show that intrinsic and extrinsic personal religious orientation form two separate dimensions only within the American Protestant sample. In three different European religious environments (one Eastern Orthodox, one Islamic, and one Roman Catholic), all extrinsic personal and intrinsic items can be combined into a single dimension. It is speculated that the intrinsic orientation may be culturally tied to Protestantism. 1468 38 3 2008 The increasing occurrence of suicide bombing attacks highlights a question that has received little direct empirical attention in social psychology. Why are people willing to sacrifice their lives to advance an ideological agenda? The current research suggests that willingness to self sacrifice reflects efforts to manage death awareness by investing in a symbolic identity that provides some form of immortality. If willingness to self sacrifice is a response to death awareness then increasing the salience of death thoughts should lead to an increase in willingness to self sacrifice for a death transcending symbolic identity (e.g. one §s nation). Further if self sacrifice after mortality salience (MS) is a striving for symbolic immortality then having participants imagine an alternative way to transcend death should moderate this effect. Support for these hypotheses was found as MS increased willingness of British participants to self sacrifice for England, but only when an alternative route to symbolic immortality was not provided. Implications are briefly discussed. 1469 38 3 2008 Three studies examined the form and function of ideologies that negate (versus recognise) the historical basis of claims for reparation for past injustices. Historical negation (a) predicted opposition towards the resource specific aspects of social policy and (b) functioned as the mechanism though which majority group members high in a threat driven security cohesion motivation (indexed by right wing authoritarianism (RWA)) legitimated policy opposition in both undergraduate student (Study 1) and general population (Study 2) samples of the majority group (New Zealand Europeans/Pakeha). Study 3 experimentally manipulated historical negation in a general population sample using extracts adapted from political speeches, and demonstrated that historical negation increased opposition among liberal voters towards the resource specific aspects of bicultural policy. These results suggest that history serves an important symbolic function in mobilising support for public policies regarding intergroup relations because temporal continuity is central to claims of legitimacy, especially where resources are involved. Research in this area is important for any nation with a history of intergroup conflict, as it aids not only in understanding the form and function of historical narratives that legitimate social inequality, but also provides insight into the ways in which such discourses can be countered and re formulated in order to promote social equality. 1470 38 3 2008 The present study examined motivational influences on visual perspectives in remembering past events and behaviours. Participants were first induced to believe that extraversion or introversion is conducive of success. Next, they recalled in details two introverted past behaviours. Introversion success participants, presumably motivated to see themselves as introverted, recalled and visualized the behaviours more from a first person actor perspective than did extraversion success participants (who recalled the behaviours from a third person observer perspective). Remembering past behaviours from a first person actor perspective implies that the behaviours are true of the self and impacts self definition to a relatively greater degree. The findings thus extend the influence of desired self to how people remember past events. They also contribute to the integration of motives in research on the link between self inferences and the subjective experience of remembering. 1471 38 3 2008 Whether two people are presented as similar or different may have a strong impact on the outcome of their comparison. In the present research, we examined the counterintuitive hypothesis that activating dissimilarity increases the perception of similarities between people, in other words increases perceived feature overlap, during the comparison process. We investigated this prediction by asking people to judge the perceived similarity between two faces with a suboptimally related or unrelated morph inserted in between (to influence joint categorization), and with similar or different facial expressions (to vary the salience of similar or different features). The results confirmed our expectations: In the similarity (joint categorization) condition, two faces that differed in expression were perceived as more dissimilar than faces with the same expression. More important for our prediction, in the dissimilarity condition two faces with different expressions were no longer perceived as more dissimilar than two faces with the same expression. We discuss implications of these findings for the mechanisms underlying comparisons between people. 1472 38 4 2008 Drawing on regulatory focus theory, the present work examined the motivations underlying intergroup attitudes expressed under conditions of majority versus minority support. In two studies, participants expressed their attitudes towards equality and non discrimination of foreigners and were informed that the equality and non discrimination principle was supported by either a majority or a minority. Regulatory focus was assessed as the extent to which participants felt promotion related and prevention related emotions when acting either inconsistently or consistently with the egalitarian principle. Results provided evidence supporting the hypothesis that attitudes are related to prevention emotions when supported by a majority, but to promotion emotions when supported by a minority. 1473 38 4 2008 This study examined the hypotheses that positive mood enhances conformity and that negative mood reduces it. Participants were induced to feel positive, neutral, or negative moods and then answered, in private, six mathematical questions. They observed that wrong answers were unanimously given by five bogus participants for three of the questions. Conformity was measured by whether they indicated the erroneous answers given by these bogus participants in these three questions. The results were supportive of the hypothesis. The current results are consistent with past findings about mood differences in heuristic versus elaborative processing. 1474 38 4 2008 According to literature on social influence, a minority source may indirectly influence group members by fostering ambivalent reactions. Two studies were carried out in order to provide empirical support for this theoretical assumption. In Study I participants (n = 133), were exposed to a counter attitudinal minority message and ambivalence was manipulated by facilitating the accessibility of either ambivalent (positive and negative) or univalent (positive or negative) thoughts toward the source. We predicted and found more indirect influence in ambivalent condition than in univalent conditions. No effect of ambivalence on direct influence was found. In Study 2 (n = 127), ambivalence was measured and two possible antecedents of ambivalence, consistency of the minority and personal relevance of the topic for participants, were taken into account. Findings suggest that ambivalence mediates the effects of the two factors on indirect influence. In sum, these studies provide evidence of the importance of ambivalence in minority influence context, an early assumption that was still lacking in strong empirical support. 1475 38 4 2008 In three experiments, we manipulated participants §s perceived numerical status and compared the originality and creativity of arguments generated by members of numerical minorities and majorities. Independent judges, blind to experimental conditions, rated participants §s written arguments. In Studies I and 2, we found that participants assigned to a numerical minority generated more original arguments when advocating their own position than did numerical majorities. In Study 3, an equal factions control group was included in the design, and all participants were instructed to argue for a counter attitudinal position. Those in the numerical minority generated more creative arguments than those in both the majority and equal factions conditions, but not stronger arguments. We propose cognitive and social processes that may underlie our obtained effects and discuss implications for minority influence research. 1476 38 4 2008 "The effects of group size, group status and trait valence (positive or negative stereotypes of in and outgroup) on intergroup bias was studied in nation wide probability samples of majority and minority groups in Finland and Sweden, (N = 2479). Ethnolinguistic vitality was used as a proxy for status. It is argued that the specific history of real life intergroup relations has to be duly acknowledged when predicting main and interactive effects on intergroup bias in natural contexts. Supporting the predictions made, numerical group size showed a stable main effect; members of numerical minorities showed more bias than members of numerical majorities, regardless of trait valence. While status had no main effect, there was a significant interaction between status and size as well as between status and trait valence: intergroup bias was highest in the high status minority, and low status groups showed less bias than high status groups on negatively valenced traits. Infact, minority members showed the reverse of PNAE. In addition, majority members favoured the outgroup on negatively valenced traits, but favoured their ingroup on positively valenced traits. Different explanations for these results are discussed. " 1477 38 4 2008 Procedural justice researchers have consistently found that if authorities treat people with trust, fairness, respect and neutrality, people will not only be more willing to cooperate with authorities, but they will also be more likely to comply with authority decisions and rules. New research in this area has gone on to explore the role that emotions play in response to procedural justice and injustice. What this new research has neglected to do, however is examine whether emotions mediate the effect of procedural justice on subsequent compliance behaviour in real life settings. Using longitudinal survey data collected in two real life contexts (Study 1: a taxation dispute (N = 652), and Study 2: workplaces (N = 2366)), the present study will show that perceptions of procedural justice influence the emotions experienced by people, but more importantly these emotional reactions (i.e. anger and happiness) mediate the effect of justice on subsequent compliance behaviour In other words, it is these positive and negative emotional reactions to perceived justice or injustice that go on to predict who will and will not comply with authority decisions and rules. 1478 38 4 2008 Two studies are reported which examined potential mediators of the effects of collective guilt and shame on reparation attitudes. Samples of young Bosnian Serbs (Ns = 173, 247) were asked to report their feelings of guilt and shame for what their group had done during the 1992 1995 war in Bosnia Herzegovina. They also reported their attitudes towards making reparation to Bosnian Muslims. Both collective guilt and shame positively predicted reparation attitudes, but these associations were differently mediated. The effects of guilt were mediated by empathy for the outgroup, while the effects of shame were mediated by self pity and empathy. The theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed. 1479 38 4 2008 We distinguish between two kinds of future oriented emotions (anticipatory and anticipated) and investigate their behavioural effects. Anticipatory emotions are currently experienced due to the prospect of a future event (e.g., hope or fear). Anticipated emotions, on the other hand, are expected to be experienced in the future if certain events do or do not occur (e.g., anticipated joy or regret). We discuss the theoretical differences between the two types of future oriented emotions and examine their role in motivating gool directed behaviour. The results of a longitudinal study (n = 472) and a separate control group analysis (n = 340) provide consistent support for the convergent and discriminant validity of positive/negative anticipatory and anticipated emotions and their independent influence on goal directed behaviour 1480 38 4 2008 The present studies examine how perceived temporal distance from past selves influences perceptions of the current self. Participants recalled their past self either at age 9 or 15. These two past selves differ in levels of identification with gender and thus denote different standards of comparison. Three hypotheses were tested. Temporal distance should determine whether recalled past selves produce assimilation or contrast effects on the current self. Second, temporal comparison effects should be weaker when people recall their past in terms of stable, relatively enduring characteristics (e.g. traits). Third, past selves should to a greater extent be biased by stereotypical knowledge about former lifetime periods the farther away individuals feel from past selves. Past selves coloured by stereotypical knowledge are more extreme and should thus produce stronger judgemental effects on the current self. The results supported the hypotheses. Implications for autobiographical remembering are discussed. 1481 38 4 2008 The functional approach to identification suggests that people with a particular motive tend to identify with groups that fulfill this motive. Thus, identification should be strongest when individual motives and group features match. The present paper explores the predictive power of this motive feature match principle. Participants judged themselves on five motives (self esteem, distinctiveness, belongingness, uncertainty reduction, and power), rated several groups on features relevant to fulfillment of these motives (e.g., the group §s power as to the power motive), and indicated their identification with each group. Although the most predicted Motive x Feature interactions on identification emerged, the overall fit between data and predictions was moderate. The reductionist nature of the motive feature match principle is discussed. 1482 38 4 2008 There is considerable evidence from the social loafing literature that groups can often undermine task motivation (relative to comparable individual performers). There is less but growing evidence that under the appropriate conditions, working in a group can have the opposite effect and actually produce a motivation gain. Little is known about how such motivation losses and gains are affected by the social relationships among group members. The present experiment examined the effect of being ostracized by one §s work partner on the Kohler motivation gain (which occurs when less able team members work harder under conjunctive group task demands than when working individually). Such ostracism attenuated but did not eliminate the Kohler motivation gain. Ostracism only had such a moderating effect when participants worked in a group, not under comparable coactive work conditions. It is argued that social ostracism can undermine group members §s concern for group success or for protecting their reputation in the group without affecting the social comparison processes that also contribute to the Kohler effect. 1483 38 4 2008 In three studies we investigate the impact of mortality salience on conformity and show that people have a greater preference to conform to the opinions of others when mortality is salient. Study 1 shows that mortality salience increases the degree to which judgments of abstract drawings are influenced by the majority §s opinion. Study 2 shows that mortality salience causes people to change their opinions towards societal issues, so that these fit the attitudes they think others have. Study 3 replicates the findings of the first study and additionally shows that people do not conform to the attitude of outgroup members. Our findings extend previous Terror Management Theory research and suggest that conforming to the group is a means to buffer the fear that may otherwise arise in existentially threatening situations. 1484 38 5 2008 A long tradition in decision making assumes that people usually take a consequentialist perspective, which implies a focus on the outcomes only when making decisions. Such a view largely neglects the existence of a deontological perspective. which implies that people are sensitive to moral duties that require or prohibit certain behaviours, irrespective of the consequences. Similarly, recent research has also suggested that people holding protected values (PVs) show increased attention to acts versus omissions and less attention to outcomes. The present research investigates the role of deontological versus consequentialist modes of thought and of PVs on framing effects and act versus omission choices. In a modification of Tversky and Kahnenian §s (1981) risky choice framing paradigm, we manipulated the framing of the outcomes (positive, negative), as well as whether the certain outcome was associated with an act or inaction. The main results suggest that act versus omission tendencies are linked to deontological focus and PVs. Framing affects, on the other hand, are driven by a consequentialist focus. 1485 38 5 2008 This paper focuses on the effectiveness of groups, as opposed to individuals, in benefiting from falsification cueing in solving the Wason selection task. Consistent with the idea that groups use information that often individuals fail to use, Experiment 1 showed that groups (but not individuals) that received falsification cueing focused more on cue consistent evidence in their reasoning. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that the increment in focus on cue consistent evidence is moderated by the distribution of the falsification cue within a group. Finally, Experiment 3 demonstrated that the cue distribution affects collective focus on cue consistent evidence through the content of the group discussion, namely through mentioning the cue during the discussion. 1486 38 5 2008 The present research examined whether price trend misperceptions can be explained by the differential perception of increasing versus decreasing prices. We expected price increases (losses to consumers) to be perceived as being more intense than price decreases (gains to consumers) of the same magnitude. This tendency, in turn, should be positively associated with how people perceive the overall price trend. To test this reasoning, participants in the first two studies were asked to compare German Mark (DM) and Euro prices. First, participants received a menu containing 21 dishes with DM prices, and their price trend expectations were assessed. Then, participants indicated for each dish to what extent the price had changed. Finally, participant §s overall price tend judgements were assessed. In both studies, results indicate that price trend judgments were biased toward rising prices. In addition, price increases were perceived as rising more than price decreases of the same magnitude were perceived as falling. This tendency was positively associated with overall price trend judgements, even after controlling for expectations. Study 3 was to replicate these findings in a different domain to demonstrate the general nature and impact of the hypothesized effect. 1487 38 5 2008 Health promoting messages can be framed in terms of the gains that are associated with healthy behaviour or the losses that are associated with unhealthy behaviour In this study, we examined the influence of self efficacy to quit smoking on the effects of gain framed and loss framed anti smoking messages in a randomized controlled trial among 539 adult smokers. Participants with a high self efficacy to quit smoking reported higher levels of motivation to quit smoking after receiving a loss framed message than after receiving a gain framed message or no message. For these participants receiving a gain framed message did not result in a higher motivation to quit smoking than receiving no message. For participants with a low, self efficacy to quit smoking there were no differences in motivation to quit smoking between the gain framed message condition, loss framed message condition and control condition. Our results suggest that self efficacy can moderate the effects of message framing on persuasion. 1488 38 5 2008 Sometimes people may no longer engage in conservational behaviour (e.g., to reduce emissions) because their attempts to do so have been thwarted by negative noise, or external forces that may cause otherwise cooperative intentions to translate into non cooperative action (e.g., strikes prevented to commute by public transport rather than by car). The purpose of the present research is to examine whether experiences with negative noise in a commons dilemma may undermine conservational motivation and behaviour even in a subsequent commons dilemma that is free of noise. Participants first interacted in a commons dilemma task with noise versus without noise in which the common pool was sustained versus deteriorating. Afterwards, participants were involved in an identical second task in the same pool size condition but noise free for everybody. Consistent with hypotheses, participants who faced noise and a deteriorating resource in the first task exhibited lower levels of conservation in the second task than did participants who were always acting free of noise. This pattern was mediated by a reduced motivation to preserve the common pool, suggesting that the experience of noise in combination with a decline in collective resources may especially undermine cooperative motivation and behaviour. 1489 38 5 2008 The present research examines whether the emotional display (i.e. anger vs. guilt) of another group member affects people §s decision making in a public good dilemma. In vivo experiments we investigated whether the expressed emotion is particularly informative when communicated by a group member who is highly instrumental in reaching the provision point. A first experiment demonstrated that participants were more likely to exit the group when anger as opposed to guilt was communicated, but especially when the group member displaying the emotion was able to contribute many endowments to the public good. Expected justice (based oil post interferences) in the group mediated this effect, suggesting that communicated anger signals more than guilt that the group will not set out to achieve fairness. In agreement with this. a second experiment showed that when it was not possible to exit the group, participants preferred to install a democratic leader more when a wealthy group member communicated anger as opposed to guilt. Additionally, this study provided experimental evidence that a communicated emotion is only used for subsequent decision making when more explicit information (i.e. a promise to contribute) is absent. 1490 38 5 2008 We propose that people call and will infer group memberships from resource distributions, and that these distributions have implications for people §s understandings of the groups themselves and their own associations with these groups. We derive hypotheses from social identity and self categorization theories, and test them in three experiments. In Experiment 1, participants systematically rated specific patterns of group memberships as more likely than others in light of specific resource distributions in a manner consistent with our predictions. In Experiment intragroup distributive fairness led to greater perceived se self ingroup similarity than intra group distributive unfairness. while distributively unfair, ingroup favouritism led to greater perceived self ingroup similarity than intergroup fairness. In Experiment 3, social identification dropped following unfair, outgroup favouritism and intragroup unfairness, but not unfair, ingroup favouritism, or intragroup and intergroup fairness. The current data provide support for our hypotheses and clear evidence that resource distributions call be providers of group membership information. 1491 38 5 2008 "Two studies considered the role of autonomy in people §s motivational response to health risk information. In Study 1, non smoker participants (N = 59) completed a measure of autonomy and read either health risk information about smoking or neutral information. Those who read the health risk information reported less autonomous motivation for not smoking than did those who read the neutral information. However; level of autonomy N; moderated this effect: lower autonomy participants reported less autonomous motivation after reading the health risk information than after reading the neutral information but there vas no such effect for higher autonomy participants. Study 2 (N = 100) supported the results of Study 1 using a sample of smokers, with a significant interaction between autonomy and health risk condition predicting autonomous motivation. Higher autonomy participants reported greater autonomous motivation to quit smoking after reading health risk information than after reading neutral information. There was no effect of condition, for lower autonomy participants. Autonomous and controlled motivation was also considered in relation to the antecedents of findings are discussed in relation to the differential motivational impact of risk intention outlined in the TPB. The findings are discussed in relation to the differential motivational impact of risk information on people with higher or lower autonomy. " 1492 38 5 2008 "Two studies considered when the individual mobility strategy of attending university has psychological costs in terms of poor adjustment to university life. Study 1, (N = 74) examined both economic considerations affecting university choice and identity related factors among open do), attendees. Expected identification as a university student and preparedness for university life was affected by economic factors (economic benefit of university attendance and status of the considered universities) but also negatively related to perceived incompatibility with one §s social background. These findings were replicated in a longitudinal study in which students §s perceptions were assessed before entering university (T1), after being at university for two months (T2) and again after being at university for 8 months (T3; N = 109). Social class (T1) predicted perceived incompatibility but not economic factors. In addition, economic factors and incompatibility predicted group identification (T2) but only perceived incompatibility predicted longer term identification (T3). Belief that university education serves as a successful individual mobility strategy (T3) was indirectly negatively affected by initial incompatibility (T1), but positively with perceiving economic benefits of a university degree (T1). Implications for the (economic) benefits versus (identity) costs of individual mobility strategies are discussed. " 1493 38 5 2008 "Based oil social identity theory and regulatory focus theory, we predicted that promotion and prevention strategies call be part of the identity of a group (i.e., collective regulatory focus) which in turn influences the behaviour and experienced emotions of individual group members. We conducted two experiments to test this prediction. After assessing participants personal regulator); focus preference, collective regulatory focus vas induced by showing participants group mottos, allegedly chosen by other members of their group, that either voiced a promotion. on or a prevention strategy preference. Both experiments yielded evidence for our prediction in that the collective regulatory focus shifted the behaviour of individual group members oil a signal detection task towards promotion (liberal bias) or prevention (conservative bias) consistent behaviour and influenced the emotions they experienced. Experiment 2 further substantiated our group identity rationale by showing that these effects were especially strong for high identifiers. " 1494 38 5 2008 The present research examines whether anchoring effects the assimilation of a numeric estimate towards a previously considered standard depend on judges §s available knowledge in the target domain. Based on previous research, I distinguish two types of anchoring effects. Standard anchoring is obtained if judges are explicitly asked to compare the anchor to the target. Basic anchoring results if the accessibility of the anchor is increased prior to judgments about the target. I expected that only basic but not standard anchoring is reduced by providing judges with judgment relevant knowledge. Using a standard versus basic anchoring paradigm, 112 participants were confronted with a high versus low anchor before estimating the average price of a German midsize car. Prior to this task, participants were provided with information about prices of cars (relevant knowledge) versus kitchens (irrelevant knowledge). Results demonstrate that this knowledge only influenced the magnitude of basic but not standard anchoring effects. This finding demonstrates that knowledge has differential effects in different types of anchoring. 1495 38 6 2008 The extent to which a set of people is perceived as a meaningful group, as one entity, is called entitativity. In this paper, we propose that there are two qualitatively different group construals, or ways of thinking, aboutgroups: as dynamic groups or as categorical groups. Two experiments investigated this distinction. An analogy was used to induce the construals by having participants think of the same group (the group bees) either dynamically (as the interacting members of a hive) or categorically (as the members of the species). We then gave participants information about a social group and assessed the impact of the construal manipulation on how that information was processed. Study I showed that perceivers recall and report different perceptual cues (similiarity and interaction characteristics, respectively) when groups are thought of these different ways. Study 2 showed that judgements of entitativity are differentially based on a group §s similarity versus interaction under these different group construals. The results suggest that group construals change the properties on which entitativity is based. 1496 38 6 2008 Recent years have witnessed a renewal of interest in intergroup contact theory. A met analysis of more than 500 studies established the theory §s basic contention that intergroup contact typically reduces prejudices of many types. This paper addresses the issue of process: just how does contact diminish prejudice? We test meta analytically the three most studies mediators: contact reduces prejudice by (1) enhancing knowledge about the outgroup (2) reducing anxiety about intergroup contact, and (3) increasing empathy and perspective taking. Our tests reveal mediational effects for all three of these mediators. However, the mediational value of increased knowledge appears less strong than anxiety reduction and empathy. Limitations of the study and implications of the results are discussed. 1497 38 6 2008 It is argued that the power of collective identification to mobilize people for collective action such as social movement support derives at least partly from processes of identity affirmation. The hypothesized identity affirming function of social movement support is tested in two laboratory experiments which revolve around collective identity as a supporter of the peace movement. In Experiment 1, we predicted and found that people who strongly identified with the peace movement showed more movement support (i.e. made more monetary donations to the peace movement) under conditions of uncertain as opposed to certain possession of identity as a movement supporter In Experiment 2, we replicated this finding. but also found, in accordance With the notion of substitution, that the mobilizing effect of uncertain collective identity possession was undermined when an identity symbol was available that could function as a surrogate costly identify affirming behaviour Further conceptual and social implications of the identity affirming function of social movement support are discussed. 1498 38 6 2008 "Suicide attacks have raised the stakes for officers deciding whether or not to shoot a suspect ( Police Officer §s Terrorist Dilemma ). Despite high profile errors we know little about how trust in the police is affected by their response to the terrorist threat. Building on a conceptualisation of lay observers as intuitive signal detection theorists, a general population sample (N= 1153) were presented with scenarios manipulated in terms of suspect status (Armed/Unarmed), officer decision (Shoot/Not Shoot) and outcome severity (e.g. suspect armed with Bomb/Knife; police shoot suspect/ suspect plus child bystander). Supporting predictions, people showed higher trust in officers who made correct decisions. reflecting good discrimination ability and who decided to shoot, reflecting an appropriate response bias given the relative costs and benefits. This latter effect was moderated by (a) outcome severity, suggesting it did not simply reflect a preference for a particular type of action, and (b) preferences for a tough stance towards terrorism indexed by Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA). Despite loss of civilian life, failure to prevent minor terror attacks resulted in no loss of trust amongst people low in RWA. whereas among people high in RWA trust was positive when police erroneously shot all unarmed suspect. Relations to alternative definitions of trust and procedural justice research are discussed. " 1499 38 6 2008 Mimicry is functional for empathy and bonding purposes. Studies on the consequences of mimicry at a behavioural level demonstrated that mimicry increases prosocial behaviour. However, these previous studies focused on the mimickee. In the present paper, we investigated whether mimickers also become more helpful due to mimicry. In two studies, we have demonstrated that participants, who mimicked expressions of a person shown on a video, donated more money to a charity that participants who did not mimic. Moreover, the processes by which mimicry and prosocial behaviour are related largely remain empirically unexamined in existing literature. The results of Study 2 confirmed our hypothesis that affective empathy mediates the relationship between mimicry and prosocial behaviour. This suggests that mimicry created an affective empathic mindset, which activated prosocial behaviours directed toward others. 1500 38 6 2008 In contrast of the original Implicit Association Test (IAT), the single Target Implicit Association Test (ST IAT) measures the evaluation of a target object without the need to simultaneously evaluate a counter category. The present research investigates (a) whether position with in a series of several ST IATs affects reliability and validity, and (b) whether the ST IAT exhibits adequate construct validity if the target objects are closely interrelated. We address the questions by taking five interrelated yet distinct political parties in Germany as an exemplary domain. The ST IAT reliably and validly assessed attitudes towards political parties (Study I). Serial position effects did not affect the results. The ST IATs mostly captured a specific party evaluation and exhibited discriminant validity. At the same time, discriminant validity was limited among parties within one wing of the political left right spectrum that underlies implicit and explicit party evaluations (Study 2). If used with caution, the ST IAT can be valuable supplement to implicit measures in the case of multiple singe target assessments. 1501 38 6 2008 Kinship is a fundamental component of human sociality influencing a range of behaviours including altruism, aggression, and mating. Though a central focus in psychology §s neighbouring disciplines, kinship has been largely neglected within psychology. An illustrative example and the focus here is research on social categorization. Researchers investigating the categories into which our mind carves the social world have focused primarily on sex, age, and race. Here we present evidence that kinship belongs in the family of fundamental social categories. In a series of experiments using a memory confusion paradigm, we show that participants implicitly encode the kinship relations of social targets and do so to the same extent as sex and age, two perviously established robust dimensions of social categorization. The functional framework applied here provides useful guide rails for investigating how the human mined naturally parses the social world, and, more broadly, helps unite psychology with its neighboring disciplines in which kinship is treated as an important conceptual tool. 1502 38 6 2008 The ability to overcome obstacles is widely regarded as a sign of motivation. Building oil recent research on nonconscious goal pursuit, two experiments are presented that test whether activating the goal of helping outside people §s awareness by exposure to social stereotypes causes them to overcome physical and social obstacles. Experiment I established that although overall participants were less inclined to pick up a tissue that was accidentally dropped on the floor by the experimenter when this tissue was dirty instead of clean, they were able to overcome their aversion toward picking up the physical object when they were primed with the mental representation of a social group (e.g., nurse) containing the goal of helping. Results were replicated ill Experiment 2, in which participants had to overcome a social obstacle by providing feedback to a student of a negatively evaluated ethnic minority group, and explanations in terms of demand characteristics and mood were excluded. Implications for the literature on nonconscious goal pursuit are briefly discussed. 1503 38 6 2008 "Connectionist computer simulation was employed to model how learners acquire attitudes towards novel objects under conditions where (a) they are given prior expectancies that the objects as a whole are mostly good or mostly bad; and (b) they can only discover the true valence of the objects approaching them. Expectancy confirmation was operationalized through modifying connection weights more after experiencing good than bad objects (positive bias), or more after experiencing bad than good objects (negative bias). Negative bias led the network to misclassify more good objects as bad, such negative attitudes resisting change because of the lack of corrective feedback relating to avoided objects. Conversely, positive bias encouraged approach and hence feedback leading to more accurate discrimination of good and bad objects, as well as to higher estimates of the valence of objects not presented during training. These findings suggest that expectancy confirmation may merge automatically from basic learning processes. " 1504 38 6 2008 We report one study that explored the applicability of the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST) as an indirect measure of prejudice. The EAST detected known differences in reaction revealing that a Turkish outgroup was spontaneously evaluated more negatively than the German ingroup. More importantly, EAST effects were meaningfully correlated with measures of explicit prejudice expression. This relation, however, was moderated by participants §s motivation to control prejudice expression. In addition, we tested considerations regarding the role of a task switch account for the explantation of EAST scores and found that only EAST scores of task switch trials were related to explicit prejudice expression. This supports a task switch explanation of the East. Results indicate that the East is suitable for the assessment of interindividual differences in intergroup prejudice. Implications for the indirect assessment of automatic prejudice activation are discussed. 1505 38 6 2008 The impact of anticipated solo status on women §s spatial performance was investigated in an experimental study. The study was designed to test whether the underperformance of women entering testing situations who find themselves to be the only woman present is related to a tendency to individuate the self. Women performed a test of spatial ability under conditions of anticipated solo or non solo status and responded to a measure of self construal. In line with previous research, we found a disrupting solo status effect on women §s performance on the spatial ability test. Most importantly, the negative effect of solo status on performance was partially mediated by individuation tendencies as reflected in a decreased predominance of the interdependent (as compared to the independent ) level of the self under solo status conditions. These findings indicate that individuation tendencies play a crucial role in the process triggered in test takers under threatening performance situations. 1506 38 6 2008 Previous research has shown that people are more likely to attribute uniquely human emotions to their ingroup than an outgroup (infrahumanization). In the current research, we examine whether these research findings are an indication of the infrahumanization of outgroups or the suprahumanization of the ingroup. We examined the role of nationalism and patriotism in the attribution of secondary emotions to groups. In line with a infrahumanization argument, we obtained a significant positive relationship between nationalism and the differential attribution of secondary emotions to the ingroup versus outgroup. In contrast, patriotism was negatively related to the differential attribution of secondary emotions. These findings indicate that the differential attribution of secondary emotions to the ingroup (vs. outgroup) is an indication of the derogation or infrahumanization of outgroups. 1507 38 7 2008 An important strand of research on cognitive trait organization is connected with Peabody §s (1967) tetradic model stressing two non evaluative dimensions: tight loose and assertive unassertive. The relationship of this model with the communion/agency model involving two evaluative dimensions is discussed and empirically investigated. It is shown that the models are orthogonally related suggesting four trait categories: agentic tight loose, communal tight loose, agentic assertive unassertive and communal assertive unassertive. Implications are discussed regarding the interpretation of stereotype contents, the validity of the tetradic and communion/agency models and the development of a functionalist approach of social perception and judgement. 1508 38 7 2008 Social judgments necessarily carry evaluative connotations that may mask other dimensions of interest. With reference to bi dimensional models of stereotype content, we analysed the role of valence in the study of agency and communion. Because agency and communion are both positively evaluated dimensions, we hypothesize that valence may function as a third variable that obscures their obverse relation. In Study 1, investigating people §s lay understanding of agency and communion, ratings of 130 adjectives revealed a positive correlation between the two dimensions, unless valence was controlled for, in which case the correlation became negative. In Study 2, exemplifying the role of valence in the case of gender stereotyping, a word. frequency analysis of Italian language revealed that more agentic traits were more likely to occur in masculine and more communal traits in feminine form, but again this link emerged only after controlling for valence. This research highlights the importance of controlling for valence when studying the distinct roles of agency and communion in social perception. 1509 38 7 2008 We propose that two psychological dimensions, one relevant to relationships and group life (communion, C) and the other to skill acquisition, talent, and accomplishment (agency, A), aid people in interpreting their social worlds. Moreover, our analysis demonstrates the privileged nature of the C dimension and its relative stability compared to the A dimension across contexts and cultures. In Study I we use a standard compilation of culturally universal practices and show that the C dimension accounts for the majority of these universals, implying that the meaning of A traits varies more across cultures than that of C traits. In Studies 2 and 3, we provide evidence for this proposal using different judgment paradigms and cultural groups. The findings indicate that there is greater similarity and consensus it? how people make sense of and judge information from the C than A dimension. We discuss the findings in terms of the recurring challenges people face over time as a result of living ingroups. 1510 38 7 2008 "This study investigated agency and communion in self descriptions using a free response format as well as an established rating scale. I hypothesized that agency, and communion as fundamental dimensions of social judgment also emerge in spontaneous self descriptions; that self descriptions comprise more communal than agentic content; and that self descriptions vary intraindividually with context (work vs. family). In accord with these predictions, more than two thirds of participants §s (N = 73) self descriptions could reliably be coded in terms of agency and communion. Participants generally used more communal than agentic attributes to describe themselves, but they did not rate the former as more important. Participants used more agentic characteristics to describe themselves in a work context than in a family context; conversely, they used more communal characteristics to describe themselves in a family, context than in a work context. The correlations between spontaneous self descriptions and rating scale answers were low " 1511 38 7 2008 Agentic qualities are associated with self interests of the trait possessor and communal qualities are associated with interests of other people (with whom the trait possessor interacts with). Based on this idea we hypothesized that information on behaviour serving self interests leads to inferences of agency while information on identical actions performed in the service of others §s interests leads to inferences of communion. These hypotheses were supported in a study where participants perceived a politician who acted for or against his own interest and (orthogonally) acted for or against interests of other people. Additionally, actions serving other interest influenced attitudes toward. the politician to a higher degree that? actions serving his self interest. The other interest influence on attitudes was mediated by inferences of communal qualities of the politician while the self interest influence on attitudes was mediated by inferences of agentic qualities of the politician. 1512 38 7 2008 We propose a motivational model of impression formation people as resources as a way to understand what information perceivers seek in their interpersonal world. Prior work has established that the warm cold dimension is fundamental to impression formation. Building on other functional approaches, we suggest that the attributes warm and cold are important because they predict the direction of target resource use in interpersonal relationships whether a person §s valued resources are likely (warm) or unlikely (cold) to be used for the benefit of the perceiver In. two studies, the warmth or coldness of a target influenced impressions more when the target did versus did not possess a valued resource. This effect was replicated across two studies using two different types of resources competence (Study 1) and a material resource (Studs, 2). Implications of the model for understanding the motivations that underlie social perception are discussed. 1513 38 7 2008 Participants rated the expected accuracy and stability, of ascribed traits for ingroup or outgroup targets. Traits were derived from theoretical models distinguishing between the content dimensions of warmth and competence. Positive and negative warmth and competence traits were paired with either Black or White first names, and participants rated the expected trait accuracy, and stability. Positive traits were rated as having more, accuracy, and stability, than were negative traits. Warmth traits were rated as having more accuracy and stability, than were competence traits. For negative warmth traits, trait accuracy, was rated significantly, lower for ingroup than for outgroup targets, but no ingroup outgroup difference was found for positive warmth traits. For both negative warmth and negative competence traits, trait stability, was rated lower for ingroup than for outgroup targets, but no ingroup outgroup differences were found for positive warmth or competence traits. The present findings support the primacy of positive over negative traits and of warmth over competence traits in estimating the accuracy, and stability of trait ratings, but also suggest that trait relevant expectations differ as a function of group membership. 1514 38 7 2008 Based on Peeters §s behavioural adaptive model which posits that biases in trait attribution serve to avert potential harm to the individual, this study tested the hypothesis that the evidentiary standards for inferring warmth related traits are affected by the competence of the target being judged. As incorrectly ascribing warmth to a highly competent target is potentially more harmful than incorrectly ascribing warmth to an incompetent target, I expected higher confirmation and lower disconfirmation thresholds for positive warmth related traits and lower confirmation and higher disconfirmation thresholds for negative warmth related traits for competent as opposed to incompetent targets. The hypotheses were confirmed for positive, but not for negative traits. The effect of target competence on instances confirming (but not instances disconfirming) ratings was mediated by differences in the potential harmfulness of making incorrect trait attributions. An alternative explanation for these findings, namely that different expectancies for competent versus incompetent targets can account for differences in (dis ) confirmation thresholds, was ruled out. The implications of these findings for interpersonal relations and group stereotypes are discussed. 1515 38 7 2008 Agency (A) and communion (C) are basic dimensions of social judgment and C is typically more important than A. Building on the two interest account of bidimensionality of social cognition, we hypothesized that this C over A pattern is typical for judging distant persons but is attenuated or even reversed when people judge the self or interdependent persons. In Study I we found that the construal of events leading to changes in a target §s evaluation was different in dependence on perspective. there was a C over A pattern in case of distant others, but an A over C pattern in case of close friends or the self. In Study 2 we found that the degree of dependence on one §s supervisor determined the C over A pattern, as well. C was more important for the supervisor §s overall evaluation if there was no dependence, and conversely A was more important in case of dependence. The studies underline the theoretical significance of a social interaction perspective in social judgment, and particularly in judgments on the two basic dimensions. 1516 38 7 2008 In past research, the presentation of men and women in the same social role has eliminated gender stereotypical ratings of greater agency and lesser communion in men compared with women. The social role interpretation of such findings is challenged from the shifting standards perspective, which suggests that the application of within sex judgmental standards to men and women in roles may have masked underlying gender stereotypes. To clarify this issue, 256 participants judged all average man or woman portrayed as an employee, homemaker or without role information oil agentic and communal traits. These judgments were given oil subjective scales that were vulnerable to shifting standards (trait ratings) or oil common rule measures that restrain shifting standards (estimates of test scores). As predicted from the shifting standards perspective, judgments of greater agency in men than women disappeared in the presence of role information only oil the subjective scales, which enabled shifts to within sex standards. As predicted from the social role perspective, judgments of greater communion in women than men disappeared in the presence of the homemaker role oil both the subjective and common Measures. We discuss the implications of these results for understanding judgments of role occupants §s agency and communion. 1517 38 7 2008 The perceived warmth and competence of men and women who varied in number of hours worked and childcare responsibilities were assessed using either subjective trait ratings or objective behavioural frequency estimates. Trait ratings were determined by number of hours worked, and not tat get gender Estimates of behavioural frequency indicated that women and men were viewed as equally likely to engage in work related competence behaviours, but that women were expected to perform mort warmth related behaviours, and their childcare responsibilities remained more constant regardless of hours worked. Thus although trait perceptions art, driven by individuating information regarding time distribution to work and home, gender affects judgments of who performs childcare related tasks such that women continue to be viewed as more likely to deal with these. 1518 38 7 2008 We examined the ascription of five characteristics (moral, peaceful, antagonistic, smart, show initiative) to Chechens and Jews in a large, diverse, sample of participants in the Russian Federation. Factor analysis showed these five characteristics to fit within the expected two dimensional structure of power (smart, show initiative) and benevolence (moral, peaceful, antagonistic). Consistent with historical stereotypes, Factor analysis showed power to be the more empirically important dimension regarding Jews, whereas benevolence was the more empirically important dimension regarding Chechens. Although the two dimensional model of judgment was supported, attention to the specific characteristics that fell along these dimensions offered complementary information. For example, the ascription of high benevolence to Jews was more pronounced on the characteristics antagonistic and peaceful than on morality. In contrast, the ascription of low benevolence to Chechens was more pronounced on the characteristic peaceful than on antagonistic or moral. Together the two general dimensions of power and benevolence, and the specific characteristics that fall along these dimensions, offer a comprehensive model of the content of outgroup stereotypes. 1519 38 7 2008 In two experiments we show that the context in which groups are perceived influences how they are judged in a compensatory manner on the fundamental dimensions of social judgment, that is, warmth and competence. We manipulate the type of country (high in competence and low in warmth vs. high in warmth and low in competence) to which a target country is compared. Our data show that the target country is perceived as wanner and less competent when the comparison country is stereotypically high (vs. low) in competence and low (vs. high) in warmth. We also found compensation correlationally across targets and across dimensions in that the higher the comparison country is rated oil one of the two dimensions, the higher the target country is rated oil the other Compensation effects are shown to a to affect judgments of both the ingroup (Experiment 1) and all outgroup (Experiment 2). Our results shed new light oil context effects ingroup judgments as well as oil the compensatory relation of the two fundamental dimensions of social judgment. 1520 38 7 2008 Researchers currently know very little about how African Americans regard themselves and their salient outgroup (i.e., European Americans). The current study examines how experiences with individual ingroup and outgroup members affect these evaluations oil two key dimensions in intergroup research: warmth and competence. In particular, the study asks what effect I sharing (i.e., sharing a subjective experience) with oil African American or a European American has on African Americans §s perceptions of the warmth and competence of their ingroup and outgroup. Results revealed an ingroup preference on the dimension of warmth when participants had I shared with a fellow African American but not when they had I shared with a European American. No such ingroup preference emerged oil the dimension of competence. Instead, participants exhibited an outgroup preference oil this dimension after I sharing with a European American. The discussion entertains possible explanations for these differential effects of I sharing oil judgments of the ingroup and outgroup. 1521 38 7 2008 "Structural features of interpersonal relationships, particularly competition and status, can cause people, respectively, to (dis)like and (dis)respect each other, although them think they are reacting to the target §s personality. Two studies manipulate structural relationships between students in a 2 x 2 between participants design. Competition and status, respectively, differentiate perceptions of the target §s warmth and competence. In Study 1 §s pre post design, the pre and post interaction warmth, but status affected only pre interaction competence. Study 2 post interaction only design did replicate both of Study, 1 §s pre interaction results. Competing targets were judged less warm than cooperating targets; high status targets were judged more competent than low status targets. These experiments demonstrate the structural predictors of the intergroup stereotype content model at the interpersonal level. " 1522 38 7 2008 "Despite many convergences in theorizing and research on the two fundamental dimensions of social judgment the operationalizations differ considerably across studies and possible confounds (valence, frequency of word occurrence) are not always controlled. The present study was meant as a first step towards a more standardized operationalization by providing trait words which are clearly distinct in content (agency and communion) but comparable in valence and frequency of word occurrence in written language across different countries. We created a pool of 304 trait adjectives and reduced this pool in several pretests to a list of 69 trait words. These were clearly different in content and covered a large range of valence. In the main study N = 548 participants from five countries (Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland and USA) rated the 69 trait words on agency, communion and valence. The results were quite consistent across countries. The trait adjectives §s agency ratings and communion ratings were negatively correlated with communal content, but not with agentic content; word frequency was barely related to the content ratings. Cluster analyses suggest four clusters of trait words. Based on these findings we propose sets of agentic and communal trait words which do not differ in valence and word frequency.. These item sets can serve as a first step towards a standardized operationalization of the two fundamental content dimensions across languages. " 1523 39 1 2009 Violations of social norms call either be evaluated in an absolute or in a gradual fashion depending on whether group goals are represented as minimal or maximal goals. Recent research has shown that absolute versus gradual deviations lead to increased levels of demanded punishment and inclination to exclude the deviant from the respective moral community. In this article, we investigate whether individual differences in orientation towards setting goals in either minimal or maximal terms predict reactions to norm violation. In three studies we, found that a dominant minimal goal orientation (MIN) relative to maximal goal orientation (MAX) increased punishment inclinations and social exclusion tendencies towards norm violators. These effects were mediated by affective reaction and proved to be unique goal orientation effects when possible effects of need for closure, intolerance of ambiguity and regulatory focus were controlled for 1524 39 1 2009 Biased assimilation is the tendency, to evaluate belief consistent information more positively than belief inconsistent information. Previous research has demonstrated that biased assimilation is due to an inconsistency between an argument and the recipient §s position toward this argument. The present research revealed that an inconsistency between a source §s position (independently of the argument) and the recipient §s position is also responsible for biased assimilation. In two studies, participants evaluated arguments stated by a politician. Party affiliation of the politician was correctly labelled, incorrectly labelled, or not labelled. The politicians §s arguments were evaluated more favourably by their respective voters when party affiliation was correctly labelled. This biased evaluation diminished when party affiliation was not labelled and even slightly reversed when party affiliation was incorrectly labelled. 1525 39 1 2009 The purpose of the present study was to connect personal values to self esteem in 14 samples (N=3612) of pre professionals, high school students, and adults, from Finland, Russia, Switzerland, Italy, and Estonia. Self enhancement values (power, achievement) and openness to change values (self direction, stimulation) were positively, and self transcendence values (universalism, benevolence) and conservation values (tradition) were negatively, related to self esteem. These direct relations between values and self esteem were only partly consistent with predictions derived from Maslow §s theory of growth and deficiency needs. In samples of pre professionals, self esteem was correlated with congruence between personal values and the prevailing values environment. On the group level, endorsement of achievement and universalism values was more strongly and positively related to self esteem in samples where these values were considered more important. In contrast, endorsement of self direction and hedonism values was more strongly and positively related to self esteem in samples where these values were considered less important. These group level results are interpreted as suggesting that attainment of culturally significant goals may raise self esteem, but that high self esteem may be required for the pursuit of less socially desirable goals. 1526 39 1 2009 "This paper investigates whether several aspects of social comparison it? school classes differ as a function of the type of relation between the student and his or her tat get. Participants were 9612 students in the first grade of secondary education in the Netherlands (equivalent to Grade 7 in the US). Results indicated that (1) 78% of the students who hod at least one friend also compared with a friend; (2) social comparison with friends was much more often reciprocal than comparison with non friends; (3) preferences for upward and downward comparison were less often given by students who compared with friends than students who compared with non friends; (4) the similarity in initial performance level between students and their comparison targets was higher when targets were friends; (5) despite these differences, which seem to imply that friends often serve as routine standards whereas non friends are more deliberately chosen as comparison tat gets, it appeared that consequences of social comparison for subsequent performance were about the same for both types of relations. Further findings of this paper suggest that previously found effects of friends §s grades oil subsequent performance may be explained by social comparison. " 1527 39 1 2009 "The current research examines observer reactions to disrespectful treatment of another ingroup member by an ingroup authority. In an empirical study which identifies both the moderating and mediating role of group identification in tandem, specifically with regard to the observed intragroup disrespect, relational motives appeared to underlie subsequent observer evaluations of the group as a whole. Respondents §s pre transgression identification with the group in which the injustice occurred moderated reactions to intragroup disrespect; only when group members identified strongly with the group did they react to more severe disrespect with worse evaluations. Group identification also mediated the impact of disrespect on subsequent reactions toward the group. Additionally, the relationship between observed disrespect severity and post transgression identification with the group was further mediated by perceptions of membership value in the group. " 1528 39 1 2009 Forty eight undergraduate students completed diaries reporting on up to five episodes of anger experienced over the course of a week. Ratings of motivational relevance, motivational incongruence and other accountability appraisals it, ere significantly lower for relatively less reasonable instances of anger Multilevel modelling confirmed that rated reasonableness of anger was a significant continuous predictor of the same three appraisal dimensions, even after controlling for reported anger These results extend earlier findings obtained using retrospective questionnaires, suggesting that reportable other blame related appraisals are generally weaker when anger is perceived as unreasonable. 1529 39 1 2009 Whil does university exposure to a hierarchy attenuating (HA) academic major (e.g., social science) lead to a decrease in anti egalitarianism and group domination (social dominance orientation, SDO)? The reason for this well documented phenomenon remains unclear. In the social sciences, the origins of differences in both behaviour and personality are attributed more to social and environmental factors than to genetic ones. We hypothesized that the normative and informational influences of this academic major would lead to perceptions that genes have a less important role than nurture in the shaping of human behaviour and personality. Our main hypothesis was confirmed. Decreased SDO among psychology students was mediated significantly by a decrease in belief in genetic determinism, the factor we called geneticism. 1530 39 1 2009 Religious and non religious individuals differ in their core beliefs. The religious endorse a supernatural, divinely inspired view of the world, while the non religious hold largely secular worldviews. As a result they may respond differently to existential threats. Three studies confirmed this prediction. After a mortality salience (MS) or control prime, Canadian participants read, and responded to, an essay hostile to Western civilization, allegedly written by a radical Muslim student. Results indicated that the non religious reliably showed the conventional cultural worldview defence by devaluating the content of the message and decreasing support for the civil rights of anti Western individuals when death was salient. No such effect was found for the religious. Religious and non religious participants did not differ in self esteem levels or in death thought accessibility. These results suggest that a religious stance among believers plays a defensive role against the awareness of death. 1531 39 1 2009 This research used a survey design (N = 227) to investigate Scottish people §s support or opposition to independence from Britain. It was hypothesised that political attitudes towards supra national bodies are not a direct function of the degree of ingroup (Scottish) identification, but are moderated by the extent to which the expression of ingroup identity is seen as being undermined within the larger entity. This feeling of identity undermining is assumed to arise from perceptions of incompatibility with the outgroup and ingroup powerlessness within the common group. The results provided support for these hypotheses. Only for those participants who had high feelings of identity undermining did identification lead to stronger separatist attitudes. Moreover, incompatibilit v with the outgroup and ingroup poiverlessness predicted, feelings of identity undermining while this latter mediated their impact on attitudes to being part of Britain. These findings underline the importance of taking into account (a) the contents ascribed to identities and their relations, and (b) the practical ability to pursue a way of live based on these contents in order to understand the way identity processes shape attitudes towards superordinate groups. 1532 39 1 2009 Research suggests there is more inter group discrimination when rewards rather than punishments are distributed between groups (the positive negative asymmetry effect). This study investigated whether intra group interaction and the obstruction of ingroup advancement moderate this finding. Participants were twice asked to divide monetary resources individually (pre consensus) and in interactive groups (consensus). Results confirmed that there was more discrimination when rewards were allocated. Although this replicates the PNAE overall, there were two moderators. First, there was no asymmetry when the outgroup obstructed ingroup advancement: obstruction was sufficient to legitimise punishment. Second, after group interaction the PNAE reversed so that there was more discrimination when punishments were administered. The severity of discrimination was contingent upon group norms that endorsed inter group hostility. is argued that norms changed as a function of group interaction, and so did patterns of discrimination. The results suggest that the intra and inter group context combined to cause ingroup favouritism to slide towards inter group hostility. 1533 39 1 2009 "In three studies the hypothesis was tested that for young Dutch children, who associate Saint Nicholas with the norm to share one §s wealth with othei s, atti iblites of Saint Nicholas (miter; book, and staff) would spontoneouslY activate the sharing norm and subsequent sharing behaviour The results confirmed our expectations. In two studies, Young Dutch children share more candy with others after being primed with attributes of Saint Nicholas compared to being primed with a dwarf in the control condition. In a third study, children evaluate sharing more positively alter being printed with attributes of Saint Nicholas, and more negatively after being primed with the Toys R Us logo, compared to being primed with a dwarf. This is the first empirical evidence that attributes of normative symbols can induce normative behaviour and change norm judgments. " 1534 39 1 2009 "Two types of outgroups are hypothesized to make people feel guilty, about their ingroup §s misdeeds. Given its expertise and legitimacy, a disapproving victimized outgroup should raise guilt. However, when a morally tainted perpetrator outgroup is the evaluator, a need to differentiate the self from this outgroup should characterize the guilt responses. This outgroup §s disapproval should therefore diminish guilt. whereas some understanding toward the ingroup §s position may paradoxically increase guilt. Moreover; these patterns are likely to be accentuated as ingroup identification increases. Predictions were supported among Dutch participants (N = 145) who read how either the current Jewish Dutch (victimized outgroup) or Germans (perpetrator outgroup) evaluated the Dutch collaboration with the Nazis. Results indicated that compassion for the victimized partially mediated the guilt responses. Implications for how perpetrator groups are persuaded to acknowledge their misdeeds art, discussed. " 1535 39 2 2009 "Discrimination often elicits anger, and yet group members typically do not take actions to confront their situation. It may be that other emotions that no? contrary to action taking also arise (e.g., shame), limiting the active expression of anger Indeed, Study 1(N = 36) revealed that, using a failure feedback paradigm, women expressed greater shame when their failure was due to discrimination, compared to a lack of personal merit. In contrast to anger; self reported shame was not associated with action taking. In Study 2, women (N = 91) were emotionally primed to feel either anger or shame (vs. a no mood prime control), and the moderating influence of coping styles on the link between. emotions, actions, and salivary cortisol levels following discrimination were assessed. Among women primed to feel anger; problem focused coping predicted reduced self reported shame, lower cortisol reactivity, and greater individualistic confrontational action endorsements. hi contrast, priming shame increased cortisol reactivity, but diminished the relation between particular coping styles and their capacity to facilitate action. Findings are discussed in terms of the interactive influence of emotions and coping on responses to discrimination. " 1536 39 2 2009 Women remain a minority in politics. In nearly all countries, including parliamentary, democracies, women are still underrepresented in national parliament and other representative institutions. Research has argued that there is a bias against women in elections. Here we study the process behind this phenomenon by investigating the effect of a candidate §s gender and gender prototypicality on judgment of the suitability of this candidate in elections. The first experiment shows that when voters think topics that stereotypically demand male characteristics (e.g., competitiveness) arc, important, they prefer male candidates, while they prefer female candidates when topics that stereotypically demand female for characteristics (e.g., pro sociability) are important. Experiment 2 replicates this and shows that this effect is fully reversed,for counterprototypical (i.e., in physical appearance) candidates. This supports a sterectoping as prediction account, and has important theoretical and practical implications. 1537 39 2 2009 The influence of pro versus anti discrimination ingroup norms oil Swiss nationals attitudes towards foreigners was investigated as a function of national identification and perceived material ingroup threat. As predicted, results revealed a significant interaction between identification and threat: High identifiers showed a more negative attitude than low identifiers mainly when perceived threat was high. In other words, high identifiers conformed to the pro discrimination norm, but showed a counter conformity effect for the anti discrimination norm. Additional results revealed that high identifiers actually disagreed with the anti discrimination norm, when perceived threat was high, but that they were more attached to the ingroup. These findings suggest that when the ingroup, norm is not all appropriate response to an ingroup threat (i.e. anti discrimination norm), high identifiers find themselves in a loyalty conflict: they are unable to simultaneously conform to the group norm and protect the group. This conflict was resolved through a compensatory mechanism: High identifiers distanced themselves from the ingroup norm in order to protect the group (i.e. by increasing negative attitudes towards foreigners) but reinforced other ingroup, ties (i.e. by increasing attachment to the ingroup values). 1538 39 2 2009 "There is evidence that we may be more likely, to share stories about other people to the extent that they arouse emotion. If so, this emotional social talk may have important social consequences, providing the basis for many of our social beliefs and mobilising people to engage or disengage with the targets of the talk. Across three studies, we tested the situated communicability of emotional social information by examining if the ability of emotionality to increase communicability would depend on the emotion that was aroused and the identity of the audience. Study I showed that participants were more willing to share social anecdotes that aroused interest, surprise, disgust and happiness with an unspecified audience. Study 2 provided a behavioural replication of these findings. Study 3 showed that the communicability of emotional social talk did vary with audience identity (friend or stranger). Together; these findings suggest that emotional social events (particularly those that arouse disgust and happiness) are likely to become part of a society §s social beliefs, with important consequences for the structure of social relationships. " 1539 39 2 2009 Two experiments examined the role of threat related action state orientation in how observers become psychologically involved with victims of violence. Observing incidents of random, senseless violence is uniquely threatening to observers because they violate just world beliefs and appear like they could happen to anyone. Because stronger threat related state oriented individuals are less effective in down regulating such threats to the self they should perceive stronger self concerned position identification (i.e., this could happen to me) when confronted with random, senseless violence. In contrast, no such effects should occur for observers §s person identification (i.e., their other concerned empathy for the victim). The results of two experiments supported these ideas and ruled out potential alternative explanations based on individuals §s just world beliefs, need for cognition, and their attribution strategies. We discuss the importance of threat related self regulation processes with regard to self and other concerned mechanisms through which observers come to care for victims of violence. 1540 39 2 2009 This paper reports a study of public order policing during a major anti capitalist riot. Officers were observed it? the control room at New Scotland Yard throughout the event, and the two senior commanders were interviewed. The analysis demonstrates both the importance and the complexity of accountability concerns in determining police decisions. Officers are simultaneously accountable to multiple audiences who place different and sometimes contradictory demands upon them. Moreover officers in different positions may be subject to different accountability concerns. These lead to different action preferences that can create intra organizational conflict. For instance, senior commanders were reluctant to use tactics that the general public and other external audiences might view as escalating the conflict or endangering the safety of protestors. In contrast, junior officers were less concerned with external audiences and supported these tactics as necessary to protect police safety. The theoretical significance of these findings is framed in. terms of the SIDE model. 1541 39 2 2009 In order to induce people to follow rules, sanctions are often introduced. In this paper we argue for the importance of studying the positive influence of sanctioning systems on people §s moral convictions regarding the rule advocated by the sanction and of studying factors that moderate this influence. In three experiments we tested the influence of sanction severity and showed that severe sanctions evoke stronger moral judgments with regard to rule breaking behaviour and stronger social disapproval towards rule breakers than mild sanctions. This was particularly the case when trust in authorities is high rather than low Implications of these findings are discussed. Also, a framework is proposed to understand the possible circumstances that determine whether sanctions either increase or decrease moral norms. 1542 39 2 2009 This research rests on the assumption that individual differences approaches to prejudice benefit from all integration of intergroup factors. Following Duckitt (2001), we assumed that two prominent individual differences variables, right wing authoritarianism (RWA) and social dominance orientation (SDO), would differentially predict majority members §s levels of ethnic prejudice depending on specific factors of the intergroup context: RWA as all index of motivational concerns about social cohesion, stability and security should drive prejudice against outgroups perceived as socially threatening, and SDO as an index of concerns about ingroup superiority and dominance should predict prejudice against outgroups perceived as potential competitors for power status. Across two studies (Ns = 82, 176), using between participants and within participants experimental designs, the effects of RWA on prejudice were particularly powerful when the outgroup was manipulated to be socially threatening, but the effects of SDO on prejudice appeared not to increase when the outgroup was manipulated to be competitive. In Study 2, presenting the outgroup as having low status also increased the effect of RWA, but not the effect of SDO. These results support the differential prediction assumption for RWA, but not for SDO. Implications for the conceptualisation of RWA and SDO are discussed. 1543 39 2 2009 The capacity for victim derogating stereotypes and attributions to justify social inequality and maintain the status quo is well known.. among social scientists and other observers. Research conducted from the perspective of system justification theory suggests that an alternative to derogation is to justify inequality through the use of complementary stereotypes that ascribe compensating benefits and burdens to disadvantaged and advantaged groups, respectively. In two experimental studies conducted in Poland we investigated the hypothesis that preferences for these two routes to system justification would depend upon one §s political orientation. That is, we predicted that the system justifying potential of complementary versus noncomplementary stereotype exemplars would be moderated by individual differences in left right ideology, such that left wingers would exhibit stronger support for the societal status quo following exposure to complementary (e.g., poor but happy, rich but miserable) representations, whereas right wingers would exhibit stronger support for the status quo following exposure to noncomplementary (e.g., poor and dishonest, rich and honest ) representations. Results were supportive of these predictions. Implications for theory and practice concerning stereotyping, ideology, and system justification are discussed. 1544 39 2 2009 Relative ingroup protoopicality (RIP) is an important concept in the ingroup projection model (IPM) of social discrimination and tolerance. This paper reviews measures of RIP currently in use and critically examines how the notion of RIP is captured by statistical tests treating RIP as a single variable. It is concluded that composite measures of RIP imply multiple statistical hypotheses that have previously been confounded. The value of an alternative multiple regression approach is illustrated in a study testing the hypothesis of a negative relationship between RIP and outgroup attitudes. Results based on the conventional univariate analyses would have confirmed or discontinued the hypothesis depending on the scoring method. In contrast, the multiple regression approach described in this paper resolves this ambiguity by suggesting that only outgroup prototypicality may be necessary to predict outgroup attitudes. 1545 39 2 2009 Symbolic self completion theory proposes that individuals uses symbols of attainment to define themselves as accomplished in self defining areas and to communicate their accomplishments to others. The goal of the present research was to examine whether individual professors and academic departments strive for symbolic self completion when communicating through the Internet. We hypothesized that publications, citations, and departmental rankings by the National Research Council (NRC) represent important indicators of attainment for professors, whereas professional titles (i.e., doctor, prqfessor or Ph.D.) may serve as alternate symbols of attainment. We predicted that a lack of important indicators of attainment would motivate the display of professional titles in web pages and email signature files. In Study I, academic departments with less prestigious NRC rankings listed more professional titles on their departmental web pages compared to departments with more prestigious rankings. In Studies 2 and 3, professors with lower annual rates of publications and citations displayed more professional titles in their email signatures compared to professors with higher publication and citation rates. These results suggest that self completion motives help to shape naturalistic Internet communications. The results further suggest that analyses of Internet communications can provide externally valid tests of theories concerned with motivation and self processes. 1546 39 2 2009 In complex social interactions, such as co operation or competition with another person on an ability test, people tend to activate stereotypes strategically in order to achieve their self enhancement goals. If multiple ways of categorizing the target person are available, the selected stereotypical traits that serve their motives might also depend on the specific task context in which the interaction is situated. We assumed that people selectively process trait information in order to increase their perceived chances to win in a currently performed task. We tested this hypothesis in a study in which participants were told to perform an analytical or emotional skills task having as a co operator or rival, a multiple categorizable target person (female computer science student). In the analytical task context, we found stronger inhibition of stereo typically female traits in the co operation than in the competition condition. In the emotional skills task context, we found stronger inhibition of computer scientist traits in the co operation, than competition condition. The interactive nature of goals and context influences on stereotype activation is discussed and some theoretical implications about the dynamics of stereotype activation processes are drawn. 1547 39 3 2009 The present study investigated the relationship between Temporal Collective Relative Deprivation and collective well being in the context of dramatic social change in Kyrgyzstan. Traditional research has evaluated Temporal Collective Relative Deprivation by comparing a group §s present situation to a point it? the recent past or future. We argue that a reconceptualization of Temporal Collective Relative Deprivation is needed. We hypothesized, first, that examining several, as opposed to a single, points of comparison will better predict collective well being. Secondly, we hypothesized that the points of comparison that will best predict collective well being will not necessarily correspond to the most recent past or future. Third, we hypothesized that the overall trajectoty of Temporal Collective Relative Deprivation perceived across time will influence the level of collective well being. A sample of 565 Kyrgyz participants completed a questionnaire. Hierarchical regressions and group based trajectory modelling confirmed our three hypotheses. Theoretical and methodological implications of the findings arc, discussed. 1548 39 3 2009 Justice theory has suggested that transgressions pose a threat to the shared values that underlie broken rules or laws, suggesting that in order to address concerns over the values violated by an offence, perceived consensus regarding those values must be reaffirmed. However, little empirical research has been conducted examining how legal responses can address those value concerns. In the current research vile argue that punishments, as a common response to injustice, can reaffirm perceived value consensus through two routes: (1) by. symbolically labelling the offence as against group values, thus reinforcing values towards observers and (2) by attempting to reform the offender thus reinforcing values towards the offender Consistent with this argument, three empirical studies showed that the public and inclusive nature, of punishment helps restore a perceived value consensus as such characteristics facilitate these two processes. Moreover, these characteristics had a positive effect on perceived punishment appropriateness particularly when value concerns were heightened. These findings implicate symbolic labelling and offender reform. as two processes by which punishments can restore the perception of value consensus and suggest that these processes are integral to justice restoration through punishment when value consensus is a dominant concern. 1549 39 3 2009 Four studies examined the accuracy of the single stereotype by comparing perceptions of single and partnered targets with self ratings and ratings by others of single and partnered participants. Results revealed that single targets were evaluated more negatively than partnered targets in terms of a wide range of personality characteristics, overall well being, and satisfaction with relationships status. These findings were very robust and not qualified by target sex, participant sex, and participant relationship status. In contrast, self ratings of single and partnered participants were remarkably similar for all personality characteristics as well as overall well being, which was corroborated by ratings of participants by others. However, partnered participants were indeed more satisfied with their relationship status than single participants. When all is considered, the single stereotype is largely inaccurate. 1550 39 3 2009 The present research examined how procedural fairness predicts negative emotions and withdrawal behaviour as a function of authority §s display of passion. A first study revealed that reinforcing the concept of passion made the concept of justice and fairness more accessible to participants, as such suggesting that authority passion should make people focus more on procedural fairness information. Corroborating this line of reasoning, a scenario experiment and a laboratory experiment thereafter yielded consistent evidence that the effects of procedural fairness (i.e., voice vs. no voice) were stronger on negative emotions and willingness to withdraw when the authority was passionate relative to not being passionate. In addition, the results of both studies also revealed that negative emotions mediated the effect of procedural fairness on withdrawal, but only so when the authority was passionate (i.e., mediated moderation). It is concluded that more research is needed focusing on the interactions between different authority styles/characteristics and procedural fairness effects. 1551 39 3 2009 "The modern literature regarding the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) supports the distinction between self efficacy (SE) and perceived behavioural control (PBC, Ajzen, 2002). This study compared an extended TPB model (ETPB), incorporating a measure of SE, against the more traditional theory of reasoned action (TRA) and TPB models. In the historically recent context of fair participation and equal opportunity legislation, undergraduate behavioural intentions to apply to the Northern Ireland Civil Set vice (NICS) for employment were explored in terms of: model superiority; the underlying motivational and belief determinants; religious and gender differences. Using structural equation modelling techniques, the overall ETPB model: provided a better fit than either the TRA or TPB variants; exhibited no religion or gender differences, paralleling current NICS employment profile data (EOU, 2002, 2003); and, accounted for 60% of the variance in behavioural intentions. Notwithstanding concerns regarding TPB construct measurement issues, these results provide additional empirical evidence in support of the SE and PBC distinction, and the incorporation of the former within the TPB model. However, descriptive analyses of the underlying motivational and belief determinants of intentions indicated that the students were unimpressed with several perceived NICS employment outcomes and indifferent it? their intentions to apply " 1552 39 3 2009 The present studies sought connections between two highly influential, but separate motivational systems: the regulatory foci and personal values. Study 1 (N = 173) showed that promotion focus was positively associated with Achievement and negatively with Tradition values, where as prevention focus was positively associated with Conformity and Security values, and negatively with Self Direction and Stimulation values. Furthermore, interdependent self construal moderated trait prevention focus §s associations with Power, Benevolence, Universalism, and Conformity values. Study 2 (N = 150) showed that a promotion framed message evoked more compliant behaviour among those scoring high on Stimulation, Achievement, and Self Direction values, but that a prevention framed message evoked more compliance among those high in Conformity values. The results suggested that the regulatory foci are associated with certain values, and that these values may increase motivation in promotion versus prevention relevant situations. 1553 39 3 2009 A large body of research has pointed to the utility) of individual and group goal setting as a performance enhancement strategy. However, group goal setting is more complex than individual goal setting as the group context often strengthens the desire for voice and the possibility, of resistance. In line with this idea, we test the prediction that goal related performance improvements should be more marked where groups participate in goal setting rather than having goals imposed particularly as they become increasingly hard to achieve. These ideas are tested in two experiments (N(groups) = 27, 72). Both confirm the capacity for group goal setting to enhance brainstorming performance. More importantly, both studies also show that the benefits of participative goals relative to imposed goals becomes more marked as goals become more difficult over time. hi line with social identity and self categorization principles, we suggest that this is because increases in participatively set goals appear to provide opportunities for collective self actualization and self enhancement while increases in imposed goals do not. 1554 39 3 2009 When people read a story, feelings of rightness from regulatory fit (consistency between regulatory state and strategic means) could suggest that the story is right on relative to feelings of wrongness from regulatory nonfit. Under these conditions, individuals who are experiencing feelings of rightness should engage more with the narrative and be more persuaded by its implicit messages. Results from two experiments supported these hypotheses. Participants in Experiment 1 were more mentally,, engaged (transported) by the story when they experienced regulatory fit. We replicated this effect in Experiment 2 and extended it to endorsement of story consistent beliefs, an indicator of persuasion via narratives. Additionally, we found that drawing participants §s attention to an earlier event as a source of feelings of rightness eliminated the regulatory fit effects on transportation and persuasion, suggesting attribution of feelings of regulatory fit/nonfit to the plausibility of the narrative world. 1555 39 3 2009 "Embodiment theories predict that activating conceptual knowledge about emotions can be accompanied by re experiencing bodily states, since simulations of sensory, motor; and introspective experiences form the foundation of conceptual representations of emotion. In the present study, we examine whether the activation of the specific emotion concepts of pride and disappointment are embodied in the sense that they are accompanied by changes in posture. Participants generated words associated with pride and disappointment while posture height was measured. Results show that during the generation of disappointment words participants decreased their posture height more than when participants generated pride words. This finding suggests that the activation of conceptual knowledge about disappointment can lead to a spontaneous expression of the associated body posture. In contrast to posture changes along the vertical axis, movement along the horizontal axis was not influenced by concept activation. In addition to bodily simulation the data also indicated introspective simulation, since feelings of disappointment increased after generating disappointment words. The current study, provides the first evidence for the claim that the activation of conceptual knowledge about emotion can instantiate spontaneous simulations at a behavioural level. " 1556 39 3 2009 Prior research suggests that duration bias the tendency to overestimate the duration of affective states is due to individuals §s inordinate focus on event related information. We propose that the impact of focusing on event related (vs. unrelated) content is moderated by the ease with which the information is brought to mind. In the present experiment, participants thought about a possible future negative event and made affective forecasts after retrieving either few or many aspects in their life that would be affected (or unaffected) by the event. Participants estimated longer duration of affective consequences when they retrieved event related rather than event unrelated information. However, this effect was restricted to conditions where the respective information was brought to mind easily. Importantly, results also revealed that individual differences in faith in intuition moderated the effect of manipulated ease of retrieval. 1557 39 3 2009 Research supporting the mnemic neglect model finds that people more easily recall positive than negative personality feedback, even when only asked to imagine that the feedback is real. The same bias is not found when people are asked to recall information about other people. Despite evidence that these findings reflect self enhancement motives, more research is needed to rule out the possibility that they instead simply reflect expectancies. Results supported the mnemic neglect model, and revealed that expectancies predicted recall only for a subgroup of participants who did not demonstrate the self other recall bias characteristic of mnemic neglect: defensive pessimists, who are more likely than other people to process social information by comparing it to their expectancies. These findings suggest that mnemic neglect is not an artifact of expectancies, and is not driven by other self evaluation motives (such as self verification or self assessment). 1558 39 4 2009 To explain differences in women §s endorsement of sexist beliefs, we introduce the gender identity model (GIM). Based oil social identity theory (SIT) and social role theory (SRT), we combine,strength of gender identification and identity content and propose that different types of gender identity can be distinguished, which are predicted to relate to different levels of women §s endorsement of sexist beliefs and engagement in collective action. Results of a correlational study and two experiments support the assumptions of the model: women reject Benevolent (BS), Hostile (HS), and Modern Sexisms (MS) and participate in collective action in particular when they are highly identified with the category women and have, at the same time, internalized progressive identity contents. In contrast, gender role preference has weaker or no effects on sexist beliefs and collective action when women are low identified with their gender ingroup. 1559 39 4 2009 "Although intergroup contact is generally associated with positive intergroup attitudes, little is known about whether individual differences moderate these relations, or how contact might operate among prejudice prone individuals. The present investigation explores Person x Contact and Person x Friendship interaction patterns among heterosexual university students. As expected, the positive relations of right wing authoritarianism (RWA) and heterosexual identification with prejudice against homosexuals were weakened when participants reported increased contact, more positive contact, direct (personal) friendships, or indirect friendships (i.e., ingroup friends with outgroup friends) with homosexuals. These patterns held after controlling statistically for each person or situation variable. Contact and friendship exerted smaller or negligible effects among low authoritarians or low identifiers. Tests of indirect effects revealed that among high. authoritarians or high identifiers, contact and friendship exerted influence on attitudes through group level perceptions that homosexuals promote societal values and through increased self other overlap with gay friends, each otherwise resisted by these individuals. Overall these results suggest that: (a) intergroup contact and intergroup friendship are related but distinct constructs; and (b) past findings underestimate contact effects by collapsing across levels of personal biases. " 1560 39 4 2009 In public good dilemmas, group members often differ in the extent to which they benefit from provision of the public good (asymmetry of interest). In the current paper, we argue that people may readily accept such financial differences in interest when their social needs are met by being accepted by the others. When people are socially rejected, however, members having a low rather than a high interest in the public good may display negative emotional and retributive reactions. This reasoning was supported by the findings of a first experimental study in which we manipulated people §s interest in the public good and social rejection. These effects were replicated in a second experimental study and it was further shown that this two way interaction between social rejection and interest in the public good was moderated by people §s social value orientation. The negative reactions to low interest (vs. high. interest) in the public good when being socially rejected were especially prominent among group members with a proself orientation. Taken together, the current studies illustrate the importance of studying how financial and social needs interact to determine emotional and retributive actions in social dilemmas. 1561 39 4 2009 The article examines the role of organizational identification and job satisfaction in relation to turnover intentions in seven organizations. Two models are proposed in which either job satisfaction or organizational identification was treated as a mediator of the other §s relationship with turnover intention. The organizations varied in terms of culture (Japan vs. UK), and institutional domain (academic, business, health, mail, legal). Within each organization, and meta analytically combined across the seven samples (N=1392), organizational identification, mediated the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention more than job satisfaction mediated the relationship between organizational identification, and turnover intention. Organizational identification also had the larger overall relationship with turnover intention. This pattern remained true when gender, age, type of organization, culture, and length of tenure were accounted for, although the direct relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention was stronger in private than public organizations and when the ratio of men was higher. The findings are consistent with a social identity theory (SIT) perspective and with the idea that identification is a more proximal predictor of turnover intention.. Over and above job satisfaction, organizational identification offers a sting psychological anchor that discourages turnover intention ill a range of organizational contexts. 1562 39 4 2009 "Two longitudinal survey studies were conducted with non indigenous majority Chilean participants (Ns = 755 cross sectional, 198 longitudinal in study 1; 390 cross sectional, 333 longitudinal in study 2). In contrast to most previous research, the longitudinal design allowed to test directly the hypothesised causal direction of effects. There were two broad research questions. Firstly, what is the relationship between acculturation preferences of non indigenous majority members and negative affect towards the indigenous Mapuche? More specifically, does a preference for integration lead to less negative affect than a preference for assimilation, separation. or marginalisation? Related to this, do the dimensions of culture maintenance and contact taken singly predict negative affect and/or vice versa? Secondly; does knowledge about the Mapuche causally and indirectly influence acculturation preferences, partially mediated by sympathy with the Mapuche? Results confirmed that knowledge influenced acculturation preferences, and that sympathy was a partial mediator. Acculturation preferences, in turn, influenced negative affect. The contact dimension underlying the categorical acculturation strategies was a predictor of outcomes, while the culture maintenance dimension was not. Implications of the findings are discussed. " 1563 39 4 2009 This paper reports two studies examining how (in ) congruence between personal and group outcomes affects emotional well being, outcome attributions and procedural justice perceptions of individuals who are exposed to subtle discrimination. In Study 1 (N = 82) participants are either accepted or rejected in a (bogus) job application procedure, and either do or do not receive additional information indicating group level disadvantage. In Study 2 (N=79), participants were either accepted or rejected, and received information indicating either advantage or disadvantage for members of their group. Results of both studies reveal that not only emotional well being and outcome attributions, but also procedural justice perceptions are primarily guided by personal outcomes. That is, being informed of group level disadvantage does not intensify but can. instead alleviate negative affect resulting from personal rejection. Furthermore, group disadvantage is only seen as an indicator of an unjust procedure by individual group members who have personally suffered rejection. Results are discussed in relation to current insights on discrimination, tokenism and social justice. 1564 39 4 2009 "For most people, religion is practiced and experienced within a social group of believers who interact regularly. Yet the role of social psychological intergroup processes has largely been ignored with respect to religious phenomena. The present study explores social attraction as a mechanism by which religious groups affect the psychological well being of their members. Data were taken from a large survey of the members of 411 religious congregations in the United States. Linear mixed modelling analyses were conducted predicting two aspects of well being in the religious context from a range of variables at the levels of the individual, of the group, and of individual group fit. Fit measures between individual characteristics and norms within congregations were found to be significant predictors of well being for a variety of measures across domains of demographics, religious beliefs, religious behaviour; and group integration. These results support the view that the intragroup process of social attraction is a mechanism by which people obtain some benefits from belonging to religious groups. " 1565 39 4 2009 Need for cognition is usually characterized as an intrinsic desire to engage in challenging intellectual activity. In achievement situations, however, it could be associated with more extrinsic goals such as success or the avoidance of failure. Three experiments examined this possibility. Participants in all studies were led to believe they would perform either an easy or a difficult intellectual task that they were likely to fail. After inducing this expectation, indices of extrinsic motivation were obtained. Participants with high need for cognition became more motivated to avoid negative consequences of their behaviour (e.g., failure) when they expected the task they would perform to be difficult. In contrast, participants with low need for cognition were not appreciably affected by these expectancies. The anticipation of engaging in intellectual activity apparently stimulates different motives in people with high and low need for cognition, and the mindset induced by these motives influences their later behavioural decisions. 1566 39 4 2009 The main objective of the present study was to examine the role of motivation and action orientation in forming spontaneous (i.e., without specific instruction or manipulation) implementation intentions for a healthy diet goal. We hypothesized that (1) the adoption of a diet goal would be determined by (either intrinsic or extrinsic) motivation only whereas, (2) forming implementation intentions would be determined by intrinsic motivation and (either low or high) action orientation. These hypotheses were addressed in a sample of 142 normal weight subjects who were concerned about their dietary habits. Primary outcomes were goal intentions and implementation intentions. Our hypothesis regarding the prediction of goal intentions was confirmed whereas results relating to the prediction of implementation intentions demonstrated that intrinsic motivation and low (but not high) action orientation. proved significant predictors of intentions to implement a healthy diet goal. These findings suggest that self regulatory skills as assessed by the concept of action orientation may relate to short term strategies of initiating behaviour change only. 1567 39 4 2009 Emotion displays do not only signal emotions but also have social signal value. A study was conducted to test the hypothesis that expressing anger when complaining may lead to positive outcomes for the complainant because anger signals goal obstruction and hence the presence of real harm. The results suggest that the social signal value of anger enhances the credibility of the complainant and hence leads to better compensation, but only when the complaint itself presents room for doubt. For highly justified complaints the additional expression of anger does not add information and is discounted. In contrast, showing an affiliative smiling demeanor was found to enhance credibility for both types of complaints. Overall, the present research confirmed the important role of emotion expressions as social signals. 1568 39 4 2009 Escalation of commitment refers to the tendency to persist with or even intensify losing courses of action. In this study, we examined whether authentic and contrived dissent reduces escalation ingroup decision making. Participants first individually indicated their preference on how to allocate money between two alternatives. Based on these individual preferences, homogeneous and heterogeneous three person groups were formed. In addition, group discussion was either ,structured by assigning one group member to play the role of a devil §s advocate or was not structured. Results revealed that escalation tendencies over multiple decisions were reduced in heterogeneous groups that used the devil §s advocacy procedure. The rationality of this behaviour is discussed. 1569 39 5 2009 Why does empathy promote prosocial behaviour? Previous research suggests that empathically aroused individuals help those in need, even when physical escape from the need situation is easy, and this evidence has been used to support the claim that empathy evokes an altruistic motive. However, existing research has not addressed the possibility that empathically aroused participants help because ease of physical escape fails to provide adequate psychological escape from awareness of the victim §s suffering and the aversive empathic arousal such awareness produces. The two experiments reported here examined this issue by directly manipulating empathic arousal and the perceived ease of psychological escape among potential helpers. In both experiments, higher rates of helping were observed among empathically aroused participants, even under conditions of easy psychological escape. The findings of both experiments suggest that empathy evokes an altruistic motive to reduce the victim §s suffering rather that? at? egoistic aversive arousal reduction motive. In addition, the results of Experiment I suggest that concern for psychological escape from the suffering of others may constitute an important independent prosocial motive in need of future study. 1570 39 5 2009 Unconditional respect for persons is an orientation that rests on the assumption that all people have intrinsic worth and deserve respect simply by their being human. This paper reports three cross sectional studies concerning unconditional respect in intergroup relations in three very different contexts. In all three studies, unconditional respect was positively related to positive action tendencies, and negatively related to negative action tendencies, toward other groups. Regression analyses showed that respect was a significant predictor of negative action tendencies even when attitude to the other group, social dominance orientation, empathy, and the quality and quantity of intergroup contact were statistically controlled. Moderation analyses showed that respect was particularly important under conditions of high threat. The implications of unconditional respect for intergroup relations are discussed. 1571 39 5 2009 Researchers hypothesize that a state of limited cognitive processing capacity increases aggression. In the context of the triggered displaced aggression (TDA) paradigm, a 2 (Salience of triggering event: high/low) x 2 (Cognitive load at trigger: yes/no) x 2 (Cognitive load at aggression: yes/no) between participants experiment tested this hypothesis. Results showed that inducing cognitive load in. previously provoked participants while they received a triggering provocation augmented aggression toward the target when the latter was highly salient. Affective reactions to the trigger partially mediated this effect. In contrast to expectation, however inducing cognitive load while participants aggressed against their target did not affect aggression levels. 1572 39 5 2009 Causal uncertainty refers to feelings that one may not understand the causes of events. A number of studies have shown that causal uncertainty has significant effects on people §s processing of information and on. important life outcomes. Weary and Edwards have postulated that causal uncertainty is, in part, a cognitive construct that can vary in its accessibility. This assumption has allowed for a variety of predictions to be made about the causes and consequences of causal uncertainty. However, this accessibility assumption has never been directly tested. To do this, in Study I an emotional Stroop procedure Was used. Higher causal uncertainty, was associated with longer latencies to name the colour in which causal uncertainty related words were written compared to uncertainty irrelevant words. M Study 2, both manipulated and chronic causal uncertainty led to faster times to respond to causal uncertainty related stimuli in an attitude accessibility task. Both studies are consistent with the theoretically predicted chronic accessibility of causal uncertainty beliefs. 1573 39 5 2009 "The present study, investigated the underlying mechanism yielding a positive correlation between dyad members §s nultual. liking and meta accuracy (i.e., dyad members who like each other tend to be accurate in judging how their partner sees them). Two pilot studies were first conducted to confirm the presence of the positive correlation. The main study, was conducted to test several possible explanations for the observed positive correlation. In the main study, each participant took part in a series of brief interactions with an unacquainted opposite sex partner three times. In each interaction, participants rated their liking for the partner, evaluated their impression of the partner on 15 items, and finally inferred the partner §s impression of them on the same 15 items. The meta accuracy was operationally defined as the correlation between the partner §s impression and the participant §s inference. Neither of the two types of unilateral liking (i.e., participant §s liking for the partner nor the partner §s liking for the participant) predicted meta accuracy. However; when both members found the partner likeable (i.e., mutual liking was present), the within dyad average meta accuracy tended to be high. The implications of these results for meta perception research are discussed on the basis of Brunswik §s lens model framework. " 1574 39 5 2009 In previous research on the effects of accessible information on social judgments, divergent explanations have been offered for contrast effects that occur as a consequence of prime awareness. Some authors favour a comparison explanation, whereas others favour a correction explanation. In two studies, we successfully disentangled comparison and correction contrast by demonstrating that whereas correction for unwanted influences is a general process that leads to contrast on various dimensions on which a tat get is judged, comparison effects are prime specific and occur mainly on comparison relevant dimensions. In addition, our findings indicate that for correction attempts to occur and succeed, respondents must have the feeling that these primes contaminate their target judgments and should be removed from their true reaction to the target. When people are not suspicious of the potential contaminating influences of priming stimuli, prime awareness is more likely to lead to prime target comparisons than to correction efforts. 1575 39 5 2009 The current studs, examines attachntent style differences in responses to inductions of group respect and disrespect. Participants completed a scale assessing attachment anxiety and avoidance, performed group tasks, and received high, average, or low respect feedback front group members. Then we assessed commitment to this group, actual effort expenditure on behalf of the group, and money donation to the group. For participants scoring relatively high on attachment anxiety, high group respect heightened group commitment and effort expenditure on. behalf of the group, whereas group disrespect led to lower group commitment but to more money donation to the group and higher effort expenditure. Participants who scored relatively low on attachment anxiety were not significantly affected by group respect or disrespect. The implications of attachment theory for group dynamics were discussed. 1576 39 5 2009 Based on conversation research and work showing that affective cues help to tune information processing to situational demands, it was hypothesized that affective expressions of listeners would influence how speakers represent communicated information in language. Participants were asked to orally communicate an event presented in a film clip to two other participants. These other participants were actually confederates who either adopted a positive or negative nonverbal expression during the story of the participant. Results show that participants talking to smiling listeners used more interpretive, abstract language, whereas participants talking to frowning listeners stayed with the concrete and descriptive facts. These effects of external affective cues on language abstraction were not mediated by the speaker §s mood. Implications for interpersonal conversation are discussed. 1577 39 5 2009 Previous research suggests that people form, impressions of others based on their facial appearance in a very fast and automatic manner, and this especially holds for trustworthiness. However as yet, this process has been investigated mostly in a social vacuum. without taking interpersonal factors into account. In the current research, we demonstrate that both the relationship context that is salient at the moment of all interaction and the performed behaviour are important moderators of the impact of facial cites oil impression formation. It is shown that, when the behaviour of a person we encounter is ambiguous in terms of trustworthiness, the relationship most salient at that moment is of crucial impact oil whether and how, we incorporate facial cites communicating (un)trustworthiness in our final evaluations. Ironically, this can result it? less positive evaluations of interaction partners with a trustworthy face compared to interaction partners with all untrustworthy face. Implications for research on facial characteristics, trust, and relationship theories are discussed. 1578 39 5 2009 In the present experiment it was investigated whether the evaluation of rivals could be all unconscious process, engaged in automatically whenever a rival is present. To this end, participants were subliminally primed. with words relating to rival characteristics after which the), read a jealousy inducing scenario and their jealousy was assessed. It was hypothesized that for women, their self reported mate value would act as a moderator on the effect the rival characteristics would have on jealousy. For men, it was expected that their satisfaction with their current relationship would act as a moderator The results confirmed the expectations: women with low mate value reported more overall jealousy, but, women. with high mate value were more jealous after priming with attractiveness words. Men with high relationship satisfaction reported more overall jealousy than men with low relationship satisfaction, and especially after priming with social dominance words. 1579 39 5 2009 The present study utilizes European Social Survey (ESS) data to introduce European norms and equations for computation of the Self Transcendence Self Enhancement and Conservation Openness to Change value dimensions, as measured with the 21 item portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ). Our analysis of ESS round I and 2 data suggest that the two dimensional structure and the equations based on this structure are extremely robust. Presenting the two value dimensions besides the 10 basic values offers the advantages of (a) heightened reliability, (b) control of response tendency, and (c) possibility to present results in two dimensional space. 1580 39 5 2009 The advantage in person memory, of impression formation over memory task instructions is shown to extend to the eyewitness identification paradigm. Instructions to form an impression of target persons led to more accurate identifications in subsequent photo line ups than explicit instructions to memorize the targets (Experiment 1). Prior knowledge that a crime was going on did not affect performance. Two confounded components of the successful instruction condition were decomposed in Experiment 2, showing that the enhanced performance is due to the impression task proper rather than the absence of explicit memory instructions. Analyses of hits and false alarms revealed that the positive influence of impression formation on discrimination performance was due to a genuine enhancement it? discrimination ability rather than merely a shift toward a stricter response criterion. Experiment 3 provided some evidence to suggest that eyewitness performance can even be influenced by recontextualization efforts and impression judgments at the time of retrieval. 1581 39 5 2009 The current study applied integrated threat theory (ITT) to the prediction of implicit and explicit attitudes toward African Americans. We tested models predicting attitudes from threats (intergroup anxiety, realistic, and symbolic) and antecedents to threat (contact, status, ingroup identification, and negative stereotyping). Data collected from 389 White undergraduate participants indicated that ITT is a good model for predicting both implicit and explicit attitudes. With few exceptions, antecedents predicted threats, and threats mediated the impact of antecedents on attitudes. This work adds importantly to ITT as it demonstrated common predictors of explicit and implicit attitudes, distinguished between negative and positive forms of contact, and tested a latent variable model. We discuss theoretical implications for dual process interpretations of implicit and explicit attitudes. 1582 39 5 2009 "Basic social psychological research has suggested several interventions to reduce intergroup conflict. Most of these interventions, however; have been indirect and impractical to implement outside laboratory settings. Although past research has demonstrated that indirect manipulations of the consideration. of future consequences reduce intergroup competition, no study of interindividual intergroup discontinuity has tested this assumption with a direct manipulation. The present study found that when participants (individuals and members of groups) interacting in an iterated prisoner §s dilemma game (PDG) were asked to predict how their opponent §s choice on a second trial would be affected by their own choice on an initial trial, intergroup competition was reduced while interindividual competition remained low regardless of the manipulation. On a practical level, implications of this study provide a simple and easily implemented solution to reducing intergroup conflict in non laboratory situations. " 1583 39 5 2009 This research examined how Dutch Moroccan teenagers in the Netherlands deal with the negative stereotype that they believe the Dutch have about their group. We hypothesize that Moroccans act in line with this negative image when they are prejudiced against the Dutch and feel personally meta stereotyped. A survey study aniong 88 Dutch Moroccan teenagers revealed that Moroccan teenagers who felt negative about the Dutch and thought that they were personally negatively stereotyped, expressed attitudes in line with this negative meta stereotype. That is, they act in line with the outgroup §s negative image by legitimizing criminality, aggression, loitering teenagers, and Muslim extremism. These findings suggest that being confronted with a negative stereotype about one §s group might sometimes lead to a reaction that is both harmful for the stereotyped group as well as society in general. 1584 39 5 2009 In this experiment, we examined how perceivers §s familiarity, with targets moderates person construal. Based oil evidence from object categorization that level of construal varies with expertise in a manner that maximizes cue validity, we reasoned that although social (i.e., group level) categorization is functional for construing unfamiliar others (about whom little or no individuating information is available), it is less functional for familiar others (about whom a great deal of individuating information is available). Results from all automatic priming paradigm provided evidence for our reasoning: Participants categorized unfamiliar faces according to the most salient categorical dimension available in. the visual information (in this case, sex), but did not do so for familiar faces. Implications for models of person perception are discussed. 1585 39 5 2009 An experimental study on the effects of mortality salience aroused by threats against different components of the Self (personal, social and human identities) on intergroup bias is presented. It is hypothesised and found that the mortality salience per se does not inevitably led to increments of intergroup bias. This increment occurs when mortality salience is aroused by threats against personal or social identities. 1586 39 6 2009 This investigation tests a reconceptualization of ethnocentrism based primarily on Summer §s definitions. Ethnocentrism is reconceptualised as ethnic group self centeredness, with four intergroup expressions of ingroup preference, superiority, purity, and exploitativeness, and two intragroup expressions of group cohesion and devotion. The reconceptualization was supported in Study 1 among 350 New Zealand participants and in Study 2 among 212 US, 208 Serbian, and 279 French participants. Ethnocentrism in each country consisted of two correlated second order factors representing intergroup and intragroup ethnocentrism and six first order factors representing the six primary expressions. Analyses in Study 2 supported the measurement invariance of the scale and a third order factor model, with one ethnocentrism factor at the broadest level of generalization. Ethnocentrism was empirically distinct from outgroup negativity and mere ingroup positivity. Intragroup ethnocentrism appeared primarily based on ethnic insecurity, personal self transcendence, and ethnic identification, whereas intergroup ethnocentrism appeared primarily based on self aggrandizement, warlikeness, and generally chauvinistic attitudes. Accordingly, although related, the two kinds of ethnocentrism tend to have quite differential implications for group attitudes and behaviours. 1587 39 6 2009 The purpose of the present study was to compare the emotional reactions of depressed and nondepressed individuals to experiences of romantic rejection versus acceptance. We tested our hypotheses in a sample of 28 depressed and 43 nondepressed undergraduate students. In support of self consistency theories, the results showed that depressed individuals reported significantly greater negative mood in the romantic acceptance versus rejection condition, while there was no significant difference across the two conditions in the self reported mood of nondepressed individuals. Further, symptoms of anxiety mediated the interactive effects of depression status and rejection status on mood. Our findings demonstrate how the responses of depressed individuals to interpersonal feedback contribute to their affective disturbance. 1588 39 6 2009 Three experiments demonstrated structural properties and dynamic effects of self construal on the processing and use of values. In Study 1, it was found that self focus during encoding caused spontaneous cognitive clustering of individualistic versus relational values. Study 2 demonstrated that self construal affected the implicit weight of a value related attribute in a multi attribute choice task. In Study 3, behavioural intentions were, better predicted by personal values than social norms when the personal self was primed, whereas social norms predicted better when the collective self was primed. The effects of manipulated self construal were mimicked when comparing participants with an individualistic versus collectivistic cultural background. No interaction was found between priming and cultural background. Taken together, the studies demonstrated that different domains of the self arc associated with different values, which may instigate different cognitive and behavioural processes when activated. 1589 39 6 2009 "While negative correlations have often been found between a respondent §s education and his attitudes towards foreigners, the reasons for this education effect art, still under debate. Me examined the hypothesis that the highly educated may not be genuinely less xenophobic, but simply more prone to give socially desirable, xenophile answers in attitude questionnaires. We therefore compared the attitudes of respondents who were either questioned directly or using a cheating detection extension of the randomized response technique (RRT). The latter is supposed to yield more holiest answers to sensitive questions by experimentally offering the interviewee a higher degree of confidentiality. Under direct questioning conditions, we replicated the education effect; 75% of the highly educated expressed xenophile attitudes, as opposed to only 55% of the less educated. Under randomized response conditions, we obtained significantly reduced estimates of 53% for the proportion of xenophiles among the highly educated, and 24% among the less educated, indicating a strong distortion of self reported attitudes towards foreigners in both groups. However, a significant proportion of participants disobeyed the RRT instructions regardless of education. Because the education effect was found even after controlling for social desirability, it seems to be a genuine effect, rather than an artefact of a differential response bias. " 1590 39 6 2009 Two experiments focused on examining the influence of mastery avoidance goals on performance improvement, and more specifically, on mastery avoidance goals grounded in an intrapersonal standard. That is, herein, mastery avoidance goals entail striving to avoid doing worse than one has done before. Both experiments demonstrated that in a multiple trial context, mastery avoidance goals are deleterious for performance improvement relative to mastery approach, performance approach, and performance avoidance goals, and a no goal baseline. The findings were shown to be independent of participants §s perceptions of goal difficulty, and were consistent not only across methodology but also across type of participant (undergraduates versus individuals in the workforce), and type and length of achievement task (a verbal skills task versus an ecologically valid managerial competencies exercise). 1591 39 6 2009 People §s interactions with others typically take place in specific situations. Therefore, it is likely that expectancies of others are often situation specific. In two studies, we examined when and how this situation specificity of expectancies affects judgment. We showed that situation specific expectancies (Michael is kind at work)lead to surprise and contrast effects when incongruent behaviour refers to the same specific situation (work), but not in other situations (general or home), whereas general expectancies (Michael is kind) lead to such surprise and contrast effects, regardless of the target situation. These results suggest that people sometimes are situationalists and do not always show dispositional biases. 1592 39 6 2009 This study used a longitudinal design to examine both concurrent and prospective relations between narcissism and several indicators of well being in a non clinical population. Consistent with previous research, the concurrent analyses showed that (1) narcissism was related to greater well being with self esteem fully mediating the association, and (2) narcissism was related to greater self esteem contingency on negative interpersonal events. The prospective analyses Showed that greater well being predicted an increase in narcissism: however higher narcissism did not predict changes in well being. Lower affective reactivity to negative interpersonal events also predicted an increase in narcissism. The would be narcissist appears to be a person reporting feeling well and not overly concerned by an aversive social environment. However, narcissism does not appear to predict future benefits for one §s well being. 1593 39 6 2009 Liking and respect are proposed as two dimensions of interpersonal attitudes. Whereas liking disliking reflects personal preferences, respect disrespect reflects deference. Four studies involving a variety of samples and target persons showed that: (1) liking is more strongly influenced by communal than agentic qualities of the target, (2) respect is more strongly influenced by agentic than communal qualities of the target, (3) influence of communal information on liking is mediated by the perceived benevolence of the target, (4) influence of agentic information on respect is mediated by the inferred status potential of the target person. 1594 39 6 2009 Classical theories of crowd behaviour view crowd conflict as deriving from the pathology of the crowd itself Recent developments in crowd psychology as the elaborated social identity model (ESIM) conceptualize crowd behaviour as a dynamic intergroup process between demonstrators and police. The present study assessed exposure to crowd conflict. adherence to classical views of crowd behaviour, public order policing methods and attributions of responsibility for crowd conflict among 352 Italian police officers. Results showed that exposure to crowd conflict was related to adherence to classical views of crowd, which, in turn, was related to bad practices of public order policing and to system justificatory attributions. Overall, these results offer support and extend the police perspective within the ESIM model. Practical implications for public order policing strategies and training are also discussed. 1595 39 6 2009 "Political efficacy is addressed within the framework of social cognitive theory and a new measure to assess perceived political self efficacy is presented. Three studies document the validity of the new scale of measurement. The first study (N = 1673) examined the psychometric properties of the scale in accordance with classical test theory. This led to the identification of a unidimensional factor structure, including perceived political self efficacy in promoting one §s own political opinion, in sustaining the political programs of the party to which one belongs, and in monitoring one §s own political representatives §s commitment. The second study (N = 632)further confirmed the internal and construct validity of the scale; criterion validity was also investigated using several indicators of political interest and participation. The third study (N = 1176) showed that politicians holding offices have higher levels of perceived political self efficacy than partisans and voters, further corroborating the criterion validity of the scale. " 1596 39 6 2009 Mediators of the effects of other profitable (e.g., sincere vs. irresponsible) or self profitable (e.g., intelligent vs. unintelligent) traits on attraction were investigated. In Experiment 1 (N=256), valence of a single other or self profitable trait was varied, and trust in, respect for and attraction toward the partner were measured. The three constructs were distinct. Moreover the affects of the other profitable traits on attraction were solely mediated by trust, and those of the self profitable traits were mediated more strongly by respect than trust. In Experiment 2 (N = 144), an other profitable trait was crossed with the self profitable one, and diagnosticity ratings of those traits for the partner §s warmth and competence and the previous three responses were taken. The five constructs were empirically distinct. Although trust mediated the effect of other profitable trait on attraction, there was a direct effect also. Respect was the sole mediator the self profitable trait effect. Theoretical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed. 1597 39 6 2009 Three studies tested the effects of symbolic threat to group values and strength of ingroup (political party) identification on social dominance orientation (SDO), a measure of tolerance for social hierarchies. In Studies 1 and 3, conservative participants were made to feel as though their group §s values were either threatened or not threatened by liberals prior to completing the SDO measure. hi Studies 2 and 3, liberal participants were made to feel as though their group §s values were either threatened or not threatened by conservatives prior to completing the SDO measure. Results demonstrated that high ingroup (political party) identification was associated with high SDO scores for threatened conservatives, and with low SDO for threatened liberals. These findings suggest that in response to symbolic threat, SDO can shaft in directions consistent with protecting the ingroup §s identity. 1598 39 6 2009 Building on the notion of embodied attitudes, we examined how body postures can influence self evaluations by affecting thought confidence, a meta cognitive process. Specifically, participants were asked to think about and write down their best or worse qualities while they were sitting down with their back erect and pushing their chest out (confident posture) or slouched forward with their back curved (doubtful posture). Then, participants completed a number of measures and reported their self evaluations. In line with the self validation hypothesis, we predicted and found that the effect of the direction of thoughts (positive/negative) on self related attitudes was significantly greater when participants wrote their thoughts in the confident than in the doubtful posture. These postures did not influence the number or quality of thoughts listed, but did have an impact on the confidence with which people held their thoughts. 1599 39 6 2009 This study was designed to examine whether self esteem can be used as a source of evaluative conditioning, and whether implicit or explicit self esteem was more predictive of the evaluative conditioning effect. Moreover. the role of contingency awareness in the acquisition of the evaluative conditioning effect was also examined. Words related to the self and a general other were served as unconditioned stimuli (USs) in the evaluative conditioning process in order to see whether the evaluation could be transferred to neutral, abstract paintings after 10 times of pairing. An evaluative conditioning effect was demonstrated in that the evaluation of the paintings became more positive after repeatedly paired with words about the self but not words about general others. Implicit self esteem predicted the magnitude of the evaluative conditioning effect, while the association between explicit self esteem and the evaluative conditioning effect was nonsignificant, both with and without the effect of contingency awareness being controlled for. 1600 39 6 2009 In this research, we examine the emergence of social identity threat among members of high status groups, by assessing physiological responses to threat in addition to more traditional (self report) measures. We argue that physiological measures are, better stated than explicit responses to indicate the emergence of social identity threat when high status groups face the possibility of future group status loss. In Experiment I, members of an experimentally created high status group displayed higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) and pulse pressure (PP) when inter group status differences were unstable than when they were stable, even though participants in both conditions reported identical levels of collective self esteem. In Experiment 2, only male participants (i.e., high status group members) displayed increased SBP and PP when discussing changing gender status relations in society, particularly when this happened in an inter group context (i.e., when discussing with females). The increased threat that emerged under these conditions could not be inferred from self reported inter group perceptions (endorsement of sexism). We conclude that whereas self report measures can help assess how high status group members perceive the current inter group situation, physiological measures are needed to reveal the social identity threat they experience when they anticipate the possibility for future change in inter group relations. 1601 39 6 2009 Internal motivation to behave nonprejudiced reduces prejudice. The present research looks at the impact of internal motivation in a special case of prejudiced behaviour, namely benevolent discrimination. It was hypothesized that internal motivation does not reduce, but rather increases benevolent discrimination as long as individuals are not aware of its negative consequences. This is because of the positive intention required to show benevolent discrimination. Once the negative consequences have been made salient, internal motivation will facilitate self criticism of one §s own benevolently discriminating behaviour, which will be reflected in a more critical reappraisal of previous benevolently discriminating behaviour. The predictions were supported in three studies. Study 1 analysed the impact of internal motivation on benevolent discrimination. Study 2 and 3 analysed the effect of internal motivation on the critical reappraisal of one §s own benevolently discriminating behaviour. The implications for the regulation of benevolent discrimination in the broader context of social discrimination are discussed. 1602 39 6 2009 Recent research has documented how single facial features can trigger person categorization. Questions remain, however, regarding the automaticity of the reported effects. Using a modified flanker paradigm, the current investigation explored the extent to which hair cues drive sex categorization when faces comprise task irrelevant (i.e., unattended) stimuli. In three experiments, participants were required to classify target forenames by gender while ignoring irrelevant flanking faces with and without hair cues. When present, hair cues were either congruent or incongruent with prevailing cultural stereotypes. The results demonstrated the potency of category specifying featural cues. First, flanker interference only emerged when critical hair cues were present (Experiment 1). Second, flankers with stereotype incongruent hairstyles (e.g., men with long hair) facilitated access to information associated with the opposite sex (Experiment 2), even when the flankers were highly familiar celebrities (Experiment 3). The theoretical implications of these findings are considered. 1603 39 6 2009 The present study examined the influence of two regulatory mode concerns a locomotion concern with movement from slate to stale and an assessment concern with making comparisons on choices between immediate and delayed (from 2 to 6 weeks) money rewards. Regulatory mode orientation was induced by means of a priming procedure. We predicted that the choices in the assessment condition would be less impulsive and more far sighted than those in the locomotion condition. After taking into account the effects of amount of early reward, length of delay and increase in delayed reward all of which were, in the direction of previous studies this regulatory mode prediction was supported. Our findings suggest that it might be possible to induce more far sighted (or economically rational) inter temporal choices by means of instructions that induce all assessment orientation independent of stable inter individual differences in discount rate. 1604 39 6 2009 The present research examined bystanders §s reactions to uncivil behaviours. We tested a proposed mediator of the effect by which bystanders are more likely to exert social control over ingroup compared to outgroup members. Participants were asked to report their likely reaction if they were to witness a woman throwing a plastic bottle into a flowerbed. Participants reported that they were more likely to express their disapproval to the woman if she was an ingroup rather than an outgroup member. This effect was mediated by the moral emotions that participants expected the woman to feel if they were to intervene: Participants expected the woman to feel more embarrassment and shame when she was an ingroup member, and this explained why they were more likely to exert social control toward an ingroup member than an outgroup member 1605 39 7 2009 Adaptive action is the function of cognition. It is constrained by the properties of evolved brains and bodies. An embodied perspective on social psychology examines how biological constrains give expression to human. junction in socially situated contexts. Key contributions in social psychology have highlighted the interface between the body and cognition, but theoretical development in social psychology and embodiment research remain largely disconnected. The current special issue reflects on recent developments in embodiment research. Commentaries, from complementary perspectives connect them to social psychological theorizing. The contributions focus on the situatedness of social cognition in concrete interactions, and the implementation of cognitive processes in modal instead of amodal representations. The proposed perspectives are highly compatible, suggesting that embodiment can serve as a unifying perspective for psychology 1606 39 7 2009 Current theories in social cognition and cognitive psychology conceptualize understanding of actions and of language describing actions as the performance of sensorimotor simulations. Although there is emerging empirical evidence for these theories, they arc, currently underspecified and the evidence is correspondingly coarse. Language is a sensitive tool that allows us to construe actions in myriad ways. This paper discusses several challenges that face simulation theories aimed at capturing the subtlety of language. 1607 39 7 2009 We argue that embodiment (via use of action based representations) plays a crucial role in dialogue. To illustrate the argument we use studies of language comprehension. We first compare two distinct literatures, one concerned with the activation of non linguistic action based representations of meaning, and the other with representations of linguistic form associated with language production. We then argue that both types of embodiment support emulation and prediction. Hence, such embodiment enables addressees to anticipate both what their partner is likely to say next and what she is likely to do. We conclude by suggesting that such anticipation is essential for fluent and timely social interactions. 1608 39 7 2009 Embodied cognition, or the notion that cognitive processes develop front goal directed interactions between organisms and their environment has stressed the automaticity of perceptual and motor resonance mechanisms in other cognitive domains like language. The present paper starts with reviewing abundant empirical evidence for automatic resonance mechanisms between action and language and examples of other cognitive domains such as number processing. Special attention is given here to social implications of embodied cognition. Then some more recent evidence indicating the importance of the action context on the interaction between action and language is reviewed. Finally, a theoretical notion about how automatic and selective mechanisms can be incorporated in an embodied cognitive perspective is provided. 1609 39 7 2009 "In this paper; we argue that Young infants serve as ideal models for disentangling the relative contributions of embodied and symbolic processes to mature social cognition and behaviour Based on evidence suggesting that infants possess a nascent ability to understand others §s actions, and to interact and communicate with others in meaningful ways, we argue that the embodiment processes underlying these skills in infancy may also account for a significant portion of adults §s social understanding and behaviour Based on evidence suggesting both continuity and change in social understanding and behaviour as children encounter a formal language system, and evidence suggesting that manipulating the mode of processing influences social understanding, we argue that embodied and symbolic modes of understanding are potentially dissociable and can yield different construals of the same social behaviour Finally, we suggest that the study of infancy can elucidate outstanding issues in the adult social psychology, and close by providing one illustration of the way in which it might do so. " 1610 39 7 2009 A roadmap toward a more radically embodied social psychology is offered. The perspective embeds embodied minds in a niche: A physical and social environment with action possibilities (affordances) that humans are equipped to utilize. At the heart of this embedded perspective is the suggestion that the methods and conceptualizations of integrating the body into social psychology must be inherently more relational, approaching meaning as emerging from the relation of the individual to its environment, as instantiated in the affordance construct (Gibson, 1977, 1979). Moreover, a more radical embodiment also demands that scientists reexamine the environment, in a way that goes beyond the truism that the environment influences the individual, to understand how, meaning §s emergence from individual environment interactions obeys universal dynamical principles. In addition, the perspective illustrates that embedding an individual within an emergent social unit of action, a dyadic relationship or a group, provides new possibilities for perceiving and acting that both constrain and extend an individual §s way of interacting with the environment. 1611 39 7 2009 This paper integrates concepts from evolutionary and embodied approaches to psychology to generate a theoretical framework for understanding social cognition. We begin with the claim that cognition evolved to facilitate the ability to plan and execute action it? the world. This evolution was shaped by the adaptive challenges faced by humans throughout their evolutionary history (e.g., self protection, mate selection, navigating status hierarchies, building social coalitions). We discuss how several elements of the embodied cognitive system (perception action links, the perception of projectable and non projectable properties of the environment, and the ability to generate mental simulations) have been shaped by evolution, and how these elements of the cognitive system ground our understanding of social cognition. We also point to areas where our framework can lead to novel directions for research. 1612 39 7 2009 "It has long been a staple of psychological theory that early life experiences significantly shape the adult §s understanding of and reactions to the social world. Here, we consider how early concept development along with evolved motives operating early in life can come to exert a passive, unconscious influence on the human adult §s higher order goal pursuits, judgments, and actions. In particular; we focus on concepts and goal structures specialized for interacting with the physical environment (e.g., distance cites, temperature, cleanliness, and self protection), which emerge early and automatically as a natural part of human development and evolution. It is proposed that via the process of scaffolding, these early sensorimotor experiences serve as the foundation for the later development of more abstract concepts and goals. Experiments using priming methodologies reveal the extent to which these earl), concepts serve as the analogical basis for more abstract psychological concepts, such that we come easily and naturally to speak of close relationships, warm personalities, moral purity, and psychological pain. Taken together; this research demonstrates the e extent to which such foundational concepts art, capable of influencing people §s information processing, affective judgements, and goal pursuit, oftentimes outside of their intention or awareness. " 1613 39 7 2009 The way humans move and comport their bodies is one way they (literally) carry their culture. In pre wired embodiments, body comportment triggers basic, evolutionarily prepared affective and cognitive reactions that subsequently prime more complex representations. Culture suffuses this process, because (1) cultural artefacts, affordances, and practices make certain body comportments more likely, (2) cultural practices, rituals, schemas, and rules promote the learning of an otherwise underspecified connection between a given. body,, comportment and a particular basic reaction, and (3) cultural meaning systems elaborate basic affective and cognitive reactions into more complex representations. These points are illustrated with three experiments that examine how moral systems can become embodied. We also discuss totem embodiments, in which cultural practices and rituals establish connections between body comportment and complex cultural representations, without the aid of any evolutionarily, prepared connection to basic affective and cognitive states. 1614 39 7 2009 The commentaries make important points, including ones about the purposeful uses of embodiment effects. Research examining such effects needs to look at how such effects play themselves out in people §s everyday lives. Research might use filly integrate work on embodiment with work on attribution and work in other disciplines concerned with body psyche connections (e.g., research on somaticizing versus psychologizing illnesses and hypercognizing versus hypocognizing emotions). Such work may help us understand the way positive and negative feedback loops operate as culture, psyche, and body make each other up. 1615 40 1 2010 Social psychological research is increasingly coming to grips with the complexity of social identity within the individual, both from the perspective of perceivers trying to form impressions and make judgments about multiply categorizable targets, as well as from the perspective of actors using their different self aspects as a framework for guiding their interactions with the social world. I review, several contributions to the effort to better understand these issues and then explore some of their possible implications for understanding the nature and consequences of diversity within the group. 1616 40 1 2010 The present research investigated whether mental self control strategies can reduce the automatic positivity elicited by tempting stimuli. In two studies employing chocolate as the temptation of interest, we found that participants instructed to imagine a chocolate product in a nonconsummatory manner exhibited significantly less automatic positivity with regard to the product as compared to participants instructed to imagine the hedonic, consummatory aspects of the product and control participants engaged in a neutral task. These findings were replicated in a second study. Additionally, in Study 2 we found that automatic evaluations of chocolate were lowest for participants instructed to form implementation intentions to refrain from consumption. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that mental self control strategies such as nonconsummatory transformation and implementation intentions extend to the level of automatic processing by reducing the positivity of automatically activated affective responses. 1617 40 1 2010 How do we interpret other §s behaviour when we lack important pieces of information? Do we give the other the benefit of the doubt, believing that the other behaves in a fair manner? Or do we fill in the blanks with self inferest? To address these questions, we designed a new method the dice rolling paradigm in which participants observed another person assigning outcomes by rolling two dice and allocating one of them to the participant, who only had information about one of the two dice. Using different baselines, the results revealed that participants underestimated the outcomes the other allocated to the participants, and overestimated the outcomes the other allocated to self indicating that people assume self interest from others when information is incomplete. 1618 40 1 2010 Recent research conducted in Western, democratic societies indicates that temporary uncertainty inductions lead to intolerance of religious dissent, increased conviction in religious attitudes, and even increased support for holy war. Past and current conflicts based on religious ideology underscore the danger such responses to uncertainty can pose. This paper responds to the need to learn how to control responses to uncertainty. After having confirmed through pilot testing that uncertainty increases self report religious faith, two subsequent studies investigate different techniques to control compensatory responses to uncertainty. Study 1 demonstrates that uncertainty induced increases in religiosity can be eliminated by a post uncertainty directed positive recall writing task. Study 2 presents evidence for an uncertainty inoculation, whereby a pre uncertainty self affirmation exercise can protect against uncertainty compensation effects. These findings, in combination with a consideration of previous research, offer insight into how undesirable uncertainty compensation effects, might be reduced and even prevented. 1619 40 1 2010 Studies in cognitive psychology, marketing, and education indicate that humour distracts attention from non humorous information presented at the same time. Two experiments investigated why humour distracts attention. The two basic components of humour comprise (1) incongruency resolution, which poses cognitive demands and (2) positive affect. We disentangled the contributions of cognitive demands and positive affect on distraction based on the notions that (a) both components ore possible sources of distraction, and (b) the components were always confounded in previous research. In an evaluative conditioning paradigm, novel products were consistently paired with humorous stimuli, whereas other products were paired with stimuli that were either (1) equally demanding but neutral, (2) equally positive but undemanding, and (3) undemanding and neutral. The results showed that cognitively demanding stimuli distracted attention, irrespective of stimulus positivity. These findings suggest that the cognitive demands of humour: not the positive affect it evokes, underlie the distraction effect. 1620 40 1 2010 The temporal coupling of behaviour serves as a foundation for effective social exchange with synchronized actions moderating core components of social cognitive functioning. Questions remain, however, regarding the precise conditions under which this form of behavioural coordination emerges. In particular do social factors moderate the extent to which people synchronize their movements with others? Given that synchrony serves as an important non verbal route through which interpersonal connections can be forged, the current investigation considered whether contextual influences moderate the emergence of behavioural coupling. To explore this issue, movements were recorded while participants performed a repetitive activity (i.e., stepping) with an interaction partner who either turned up for the experiment on time or was 15 minutes late. Results revealed that coordination (i.e., in phase synchrony) was substantially reduced when participonts interacted with a tardy partner, a finding that highlights the impact that social factors exert on the spontaneous emergence of behavioural synchrony. 1621 40 1 2010 Implicit attitudes are automatic evaluations that occur upon encountering an object. Pairing a particular object with one §s self should lead to a positive implicit evaluation of that object as, on the whole, people evaluate themselves positively. Study 1 (N=83) demonstrated that asking participants to associate themselves with a particular drink (A) and others with an alternative drink (B) was enough to enhance implicit preference for drink A over drink B indexed by scores on the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Two further studies were conducted to rule out the possibility that the effects of the manipulation were restricted to the procedure and measures adopted in Study 1. Study 2 (N = 81) tested the mechanism underlying the effects of the manipulation. The results suggested that the change in implicit attitudes towards the drinks varied as a function of the level of one §s self esteem. Specifically, associating one §s self with drink A led to more favourable implicit attitudes towards drink A particularly when one §s self was evaluated more positively. In the third study (N = 44), the basic effect of the manipulation was replicated in an alternative measure of implicit attitudes (the Affect Misattribution Procedure). It? all three studies, the effects were unique to implicit measures and did not generalize to explicit measures. 1622 40 1 2010 In the current paper the author examines whether independent observers of criminal offenses have a relative preference for either retributive justice (i.e., punishing the offender) or compensatory justice (i.e., compensating the victim for the harm done). In Study 1, results revealed that participants recommended higher sums of money if a financial transaction was framed as offender punishment (i.e., the offender would pay money to the victim) than if it was framed as victim compensation (i.e., the victim would receive money from the offender). In Study 2, participants were asked to gather information about court trials following three severe offenses to evaluate whether justice had been done in these cases. Results revealed that participants gathered more information about offender punishment than about victim compensation. In Study 3 these findings were extended by investigating whether observers §s relative preference for punishing is moderated by emotional proximity to the victim. Results revealed that the relative preference for punishing only occurred among participants who did not experience emotional proximity to the victim. It is concluded that observers prefer retributive over compensatory justice, provided that they do not feel emotionally close to the victim. 1623 40 1 2010 In two cross sectional surveys and one experiment. we tested the hypothesis that attributions for outgroup ideologies would mediate the relationship between quality of contact and reduced prejudice. In Study 1, a British sample (N = 85) rated their perceptions of and attributions for their political outgroup §s (i.e., conservative or liberal) belief system. Supporting our hypothesis, the relationship between contact and outgroup attitudes was mediated by rationality attributions attributions that outgroup members obtained their views via rational thought processes. Study 2 was a replication of Study 1 with an American sample (N=229) and expanded construct measurement. The results of Study 2 replicated those of Study 1, showing support for rationality attributions as a mediator of the contact prejudice link. In Study 3 (N=132), we experimentally manipulated the priming of past positive or negative outgroup contact with individual outgroup members and measured the proposed mediational constructs with respect to that outgroup encounter. Results further supported the role of rationality attributions as mediators of the contact prejudice link. The implications of these finding for perceptions and relations between antagonistic ideological groups are discussed. 1624 40 1 2010 The study investigated the effect of severe terror attacks on Israeli Jewish public opinion regarding peace in a context of progress toward peace (1994 1997) compared to a context of conflict escalation (2001 2002). We hypothesized that ideological orientations supporting peace (doves) or opposing it (hawks), as well as the social context in which terror occurs, would moderate its effects. We used the database of Peace Index polls, administered monthly to representative samples of Israeli Jews. Polls pose three recurring questions regarding peace. We selected eight polls conducted within a week or less following a severe terror attack, and matched each to a control poll, taken at the nearest available time and not preceded by terror Findings showed that during the 1990s, hawks §s opinions regarding peace became less favourable following terror, whereas doves exhibited minimal opinion change. During 2001 2002, however doves §s opinions regarding peace became less favourable following terror, whereas hawks §s support for peace increased while their belief in peace did not change. This suggests that the effect of terror on opinions regarding peace varies according to ideological orientations and the transitional context in which terror occurs, implying that contextual factors from multiple levels may interact to affect individuals §s opinions. 1625 40 1 2010 Recent research from different perspectives suggests that uncertainty, mortality salience (MS), and other fundamental threats that cause feelings of insecurity motivate people to adhere to specific kinds of anxiety reducing political attitudes and values. In the current studies, we examined a complementary prediction that providing people with an alternative source of security would reduce their need to defend against, insecurity, resulting in lower endorsement of the anxiety reducing political attitudes. Results supported this prediction, showing that security primes buffered or reversed the effects of insecurity and threats on political attitudes and leadership preferences. Participants primed with attachment security showed reduced liking of a strong, charismatic political candidate (Study 1), and lower support for the Iraq war, even in the face of mortality reminders (Study 2). Me discuss these findings in the context of research on motivated social cognition, political psychology, and the effects of security and insecurity on attitudes and behaviours. 1626 40 1 2010 Two studies were conducted to investigate the role of social identity in appraisals of the purpose and acceptance of surveillance. In Study 1 (N=112), a survey study demonstrated that there is a negative relationship between identification with one §s city and the extent to which public closed circuit television (CCTV) surveillance is perceived as an invasion of privacy. This relationship was mediated by perceptions that the purpose of surveillance is to ensure safety. Study 2 (N=139) manipulated identity salience at the sub group and superordinate level and the source of surveillance. Results demonstrated that surveillance originating from fellow sub group members was perceived as less privacy invading than surveillance originating from the superordinate group, but only when that sub group identity was salient. No differences in perceptions of privacy invasion were found when the more inclusive identity was made salient. We argue that whether surveillance is perceived as an invasion of privacy depends on the perceived social relationship with the source of the surveillance surveillance is perceived as more acceptable when it originates from a group with which one identifies or shares an identity. Practical implications are discussed. 1627 40 1 2010 Two studies analysed the impact of international exchange programs on students §s identity development. More precisely, the authors predict that exchange students integrate the host society (hostgroup) into their self concept during an exchange year. Study 1 found a stronger social identification with the hostgroup and higher commitment for former exchange students than for future exchange students. Study 2 replicated the difference between former and future exchange students and found in addition that both former and future exchange students had a stronger identification and commitment in comparison to a control group that did neither take part in nor apply for an exchange program. Moreover, in this study the inclusion of the hostgroup into the self concept was assessed via a response time paradigm. The results indicate that former and future exchange students have a stronger association between the self and the hostgroup than the control sample, but no difference between former and future exchange students was found. The results provide evidence for the impact of interest in and actual intensive intergroup contact on students self concept. 1628 40 1 2010 In two studies, we show that comparisons with past or possible future selves shape current self evaluation and that the direction of this influence is determined by one §s current comparison focus. In Study 1, participants primed to focus on similarities versus dissimilarities were asked to remember an introverted or extraverted past self and then to evaluate their current level of extraversion. Participants who focused on similarities assimilated current self evaluations to the past self, whereas those who focused on dissimilarities contrasted current self evaluations away from the past self. In Study 2, participants imagined a possible future self that differed from their current self in terms of body weight. Participants who imagined a moderate weight change exhibited assimilation to the possible self, whereas those who imagined an extreme weight change exhibited contrast. These studies highlight the important role cognitive factors such as comparison focus play in shaping the consequences of temporal self comparisons. 1629 40 1 2010 Ingroup members who criticize their group face much less resistance than outgroup members who say the same thing (the intergroup sensitivity effect). In the context of intergroup conflict, however, it was predicted that treatment of ingroup critics would not be so generous. Muslim Indonesians read an extract from an interview in which the speaker criticized Muslims. The comments were attributed to either another Muslim or to a Christian. Before reading the criticism, half of the participants had read an article describing intense conflict between Muslims and Christians in Indonesia, whereas the other half read a neutral article. As predicted, negativity toward the ingroup critic and the ingroup critic §s comments increased in the conflict salience condition, to the point that the intergroup sensitivity effect disappeared. However, conflict salience did not have an effect on attributions of motive or on agreement with the message. Implications for our understanding of patriotic criticism are discussed. 1630 40 1 2010 The present research investigates the influence on cooperative behaviour of accessibility experiences associated with the retrieval of fairness relevant information from memory. We argue that the decision whether to cooperate in negotiations depends not only on information about the appropriateness of the negotiation procedure, but also on the experience of how difficult or easy it is to come up with this information. Supporting this hypothesis, it is shown that in the context of a bargaining experiment, participants §s experiences of ease or difficulty in retrieving unfair aspects of the respective negotiation procedure strongly influence their cooperation behaviour. In addition, we hypothesize and empirically substantiate that the influence of accessibility experiences on cooperation behaviour occurs particularly in situations of certainty salience. Implications for future research on cooperation and on accessibility experiences are discussed. 1631 40 2 2010 If appreciate the opportunity offered by the editor to reflect on the relationship between cognitive This topic has interested me my entire professional life, because I was admitted to graduate school to study social psychology and then eventually migrated to cognitive psychology. The organization of this paper is as follows: I first relate my (somewhat puzzling) personal experiences that led me to wonder about relations between cognitive and social psychology. I suggest that for many topics, the placement of a topic of study in one field or the other is arbitrary. Next I selectively review some common historical influences oil the development of both fields, ones that have made them similar, Both grew from common seeds, which include Gestalt psychology as it became applied to a wider array of topics, experimental psychologists becoming interested in attitude change during and after World War II, and Bartlett §s famous book on Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Next I review some research from my lab that picked up themes from Bartlett §s work and that, in some aspects, combines cognitive and social approaches. I also discuss the issue of memory conformity or the social contagion of memory, and conclude with thoughts about how social and cognitive psychologists might collaborate on an exciting new arena, creating empirical studies of collective memory. 1632 40 2 2010 "The present studies aimed to extend Regultaory Fit Theon, in the domain of persuasive communication by (a) using printed advertisement images without any verbal claim, instead of purely or mostly verbal messages; (b) selecting the images to fit the distinct orientations of regulatory mode rather than regulatory focus: and (c) priming regulatory mode orientation instead of relying on chronic prevalence of either locomotion or assessment orientation. We found that recipients printed with a locomotion orientation experienced fit, and were more persuaded, when exposed to dynamic versus static visual images; conversely, recipients primed with an assessment orientation experienced fit and were more persuaded when exposed to static versus dynamic images. Our findings show that the experience of fit can be induced by visual Messages, resulting in positive effects in terms of attitude toward product advertisement and estimated price of advertised products. " 1633 40 2 2010 "Publication records of 85 social personality psychologists were tracked from the time of their doctoral studies until 10 years post PhD. Associations between publication quantity (number of articles), quality (mean journal impact factor and article influence score), and impact (citations, h index, g index, webpage visits) were examined. Publication quantity and quality were only modestly related, and there was evidence of a quality quantity; trade off. Impact was more strongly associated with quantity than quality. Authors whose records weighed quality over quantity tended to be associated with more prestigious institutions, but had lesser impact. Quantity and quality favouring publication strategies may have important implications for the shape and success of scientific careers. " 1634 40 2 2010 Self esteem has been proposed to serve as a sociometer a gauge of one §s value as a relationship partner Based on evolutionary reasoning, we hypothesized that the sociometer is particularly sensitive to capacity rejection in the mating domain. Capacity rejection implies that one has low potential to be all acceptable mate now and in the future. In Study I, participants received no feedback or negative feedback regarding their capacity for being an acceptable mate or friend. Although participants in both mate and friend conditions felt rejected, only those in the mate condition exhibited significantly lower state self esteem. In Study 2, we examined sex differences in attributes relevant to mate capacity Participants were given no feedback or negative feedback regarding their capacity as a mate: Some were told that their low male capacity is due to their physical attractiveness whereas others were told it is due to their competence and status. Among men, state self esteem was lower only after competence and status based rejection: among women, state self esteem was lower only after physical attractiveness based rejection. In both studies, additional results revealed that even while self esteem decreased, positive beliefs about the self were maintained, suggesting that feelings and beliefs about the the self react differently to rejection. 1635 40 2 2010 University (n = 175) and high school (n = 162) students rated their commitment to three personal projects self identified as central to their lives, the extent to which each project generated experiences of relatedness, competence and integrity, and how, much approval it received from significant others. This study compared the life (hobbies, fitness, church. life transitions, intrapersonal. etc.) mid education projects of participants who spontaneously generated an example of each (98 university and 70 high school participants). Integrity and competence received higher ratings than relatedness and were the most important predictors of commitment to both types of project. For both groups. education projects received more family/adult approval than life projects and there was much greater variation in approval ratings for the latter. The results suggest that, at least for young people in New Zealand, feeling that you are good at a project and it fits with your values, is almost a proxy for commitment. It is possible that social factors play a less direct role, perhaps by influencing the choice of interpersonal settings in which to carry out important projects. 1636 40 2 2010 The principal aim of this study is to determine why police officers are generally found to be more prejudiced towards disadvantaged groups than are the standard population. Two independent processes were expected to account for this effect: Selection and group socialisation. Using a cross sectional design (N = 170), firstly, we compared, newly recruited police officers ivith a control population (selection eflect), andsecondiv, police officers with I vear of training with the newly recruited ones (group socialisation effect). Results reveal a significant effect of both selection and group socialisation, the two being underlined by distinct processes: right wing authoritarianism (RWA) in the case of the former and internalisation of a prejudice norm in the case of the latter Finally, the results show that group identification moderates the change in internalisation of the prejudice norm. 1637 40 2 2010 The current research investigated biases in attributions of the origins of others §s preferences in a group decision situation. In two experiments, students indicated their preferred alternative in a decision on an important issue in their school, and then explained the bases for preferences of those agreeing and disagreeing with them. Results showed that participants saw preferences of those who agreed as more rationally and less externally based than of those who disagreed. This effect increased with perceived issue importance, when the decision was made by ingroup representatives, when the decision Outcome was concordant with their own preference (Study 1), and, on the externality dimension, when their representatives were in the majority when deciding on an important issue (Study 2). Findings have important implications for our understanding of the tolerance of others and acceptance of group decisions, and ultimately, how group members behave and interact. 1638 40 2 2010 Public transgressions by group members threaten the public image of a group when outside observers perceive them as representative of the group in general. In three studies, we tested the effectiveness of rejection of a deviant group member who made a racist comment in public, and compared this to several other strategies the group could employ to protect their image. In Study 1 (N = 75) and Study 2 (N = 51), the group was judged less racist after rejecting the deviant than after claiming a non racist position or not responding to the transgression. Perceived typicality of the deviant partially mediated this effect in Study 2. In Study 3 (N = 81), the group was judged least racist after forcing the deviant to apologize and as most racist after denying the severity of the transgression. Results also showed a negative side effect of rejection. Perceived exclusion of the deviant contributed to a perception of the group as disloyal to its members, which resulted in a less favourable overall group evaluation. Potential benefits and risks of rejection, denial, and apologies are further discussed in the General Discussion. 1639 40 2 2010 Over the last decade a number of theorists have advanced a multifaceted conceptualization of self esteem. Central to this idea is the notion that self esteem is less secure and more defensive when individuals are more focused on extrinsic contingencies. To test the hypothesis that individuals with high dispositional levels of extrinsic contingency focus (ECF) are insecure and respond defensively to threat, we developed a measure of ECF and conducted two validation studies. Study 1 showed that the extrinsic contingency focus scale (ECFS) was positively correlated with measures of defensiveness and was negatively correlated with measures of security and well being. Study 2 showed that people with a high (vs. low) focus on extrinsic contingencies were more likely to defensively distance from a socially insensitive person following negative feedback about their own social sensitivity. Study 3 showed that when mortality (vs. dental pain) was salient, high ECF individuals responded more defensively toward a worldview violator than low ECF individuals. Discussion is focused on theoretical issues related to ECF and defensiveness. 1640 40 2 2010 The Implicit Association Test is a paradigm designed to assess individual differences in implicit cognition. The goal of this report was to examine the reasons for discrepant effect magnitudes obtained with two presumably interchangeable versions: Picture IAT(P IAT) and Word IAT(W IAT). We show that this discrepancy is due to the relation between stimuli and referent category: the level of representation (LR) at which a stimulus represents an intended category. Experiment I replicates the discrepancies found in previous research. Experiments 2 4 show that increasing the LR of stimuli increases the IAT effect. LR affects the magnitude of the IAT effect even when modality and other features of the stimuli are kept constant. The utility of LR for future investigations examining the IAT paradigm is discussed. 1641 40 2 2010 We provide evidence that, compared to old timers, newcomers §s intentions to confront deviants are more sensitive to the Social context when confronted with ride violations. Female rugby players (N = 71) were asked for their disapproval of, and willingness to sanction, ingroup and outgroup members who broke important rides in rugby. We also manipulated the status of the audience and found that newcomers were more likely to confront deviants when the audience was high status, and when there was little risk of alienating other ingroup members. In contrast, old timers expressed relatively high intentions to confront deviants regardless of the context. Discussion focuses on the idea that newcomers resiled from confronting deviants when an ingroup rule breaker had to be directly confronted, presumably because the perceived costs of doing so exceeded the potential benefits of ingratiating oneself to the high status audience. 1642 40 2 2010 Extending the self reference effect to the level of group identities, previous research has shown that participants §s encoding of trait adjectives with reference to ingroups, facilitates recall relative to a control condition ill which judgments are made about adjectives meanings. We contend that this experimental comparison may have exaggerated the extent of the group reference effect. Two studies are reported that examine this contention. In Study 1 participants encoded adjectives with reference to an ingroup. an outgroup or to its semantic properties. Study 2 was nearly identical but required that adjectives be encoded with reference to an ingroup, the personal self or a specific person other than the self, Notwithstanding the use of more stringent controls, both studies provided evidence for the group reference effect. 1643 40 2 2010 Negotiating about a larger number of issues is often argued to enhance the potential for integrative bargaining. However, the enhanced complexity may also make negotiators more susceptible to bias, making it less likely for them to reach win win agreements. Me argue that epistemic motivation, the motivation to hold accurate perceptions of the world, provides a key to solve this paradox. In a negotiation experiment we manipulated complexity by having participants negotiate about 6 or 18 issues and we manipulated epistemic motivation by making participants process accountable or not. Under low complexity, there, was no effect of epistemic motivation on created value. Under high complexity, however: negotiators with high epistemic motivation created more value than negotiators with low epistemic motivation. Thus, negotiating about larger numbers of issues was only beneficial for negotiators they were motivated to think deeply and thoroughly. 1644 40 2 2010 According to the linguistic category model (LCM), behaviour can be described at concrete (e.g. Kath hit Kim ) and abstract (e.g. Kath is aggressive ) levels. Variations in these levels convey information about the person being described and the relationship between that person and the describer In the current research, we examined the power of language abstraction to create impressions of describers themselves. Results show that describers are seen as less likeable when they use abstract (vs. concrete) language to describe the negative actions of others. Conversely, impressions of describers are more favourable when they opt for abstract descriptions of others §s positive behaviours. This effect is partially mediated by the attribution of a communicative agenda to describers. By virtue of these attributional implications, language abstraction is an impression formation device that can impact on the reputation of describers. 1645 40 3 2010 Social comparison information fluctuates over time. We examined how people evaluate their task performance and ability after receiving test feedback specifying not only that they ranked above or below average, but also that their social status was rising, falling, or remaining constant. Participants §s self evaluations were more positive when their social standing was rising over time rather than. remaining constant. On the other hand, participants whose status was falling did not evaluate themselves less favourably than those with a constant position in the performance distribution. These reactions to performance feedback were observed on self evaluations of ability, but not on more even handed assessments of performance. Implications for social comparison and self evaluation maintenance theories are discussed. 1646 40 3 2010 We investigate whether people prefer voluntary causes to physical causes in unfolding causal chains and whether statistical (covariation, sufficiency) principles can predict how people select explanations. Experiment 1 shows that while people tend to prefer a proximal (more recent) cause in chains of unfolding physical events, causality is traced through the proximal cause to an underlying distal (less recent) cause when that cause is a human action. Experiment 2 shows that causal preference is more strongly correlated with judgements of sufficiency and conditionalised sufficiency than with covariation or conditionalised covariation. In addition, sufficiency judgements are partial mediators of the effect of type of distal cause (voluntary or physical) on causal preference. The preference for voluntary causes to physical causes corroborates findings from social psychology, cognitive neuroscience and jurisprudence that emphasise the primacy of intentions in causal attribution processes. 1647 40 3 2010 Commonly it is understood that forgiveness means sacrificing justice. However, the present study shows that the act of forgiving can increase a sense of justice, which in turn facilitates benevolent sentiments towards the offender University students (N = 88) imagined themselves as victims and, after the offender either did or did not offer an apology, they either were or were not instructed to express their forgiveness to the offender (via an email). Results showed that, irrespective of apology, the expression of forgiveness led to a greater sense of justice in victims, mediated via feelings of status/power and the perception of a value consensus with the offender The feeling of justice further mediated the effects of the forgiveness expression in terms of reducing hostile emotions, revenge motivation and retributive attitudes, as well as increasing the willingness to reconcile with the offender 1648 40 3 2010 "The present set of studies investigates the role of competitive conflict regulation and informational dependence in peer learning. Previous studies have shown that peer work on identical information produces not only confrontation of viewpoints but also competitive conflict regulation, the latter of which is detrimental for learning. Conversely, working on complementary information produces positive interactions but also informational dependence, and good quality information transmission is needed to foster learning. The present research shows that discussion aids (note taking and access to the study materials during discussion), a variable related to the quality of informational input, moderated the relationship between information interdependence and learning. This moderation was mediated by competitive conflict regulation: Students who worked on identical information with discussion aids reported more competitive conflict regulation than those without discussion aids, which in turn reduced learning, a pattern that did not appear for students working on complementary information. Moreover; when students worked on complementary information, the good quality of information transmission elicited by discussion aids led to high levels of learning for all students. Contributions to research on resource interdependence, socio cognitive conflict, and peer learning are discussed. " 1649 40 3 2010 This paper investigates religious identity consolidation in terms of the endorsement of the rights of Dutch Muslims to publicly express their identity, and identity mobilization in terms of the attitude towards normative forms of political organization. Identity consolidation and mobilization were examined as a function of the content of Muslim identity. A distinction was made between an individualized and a communal interpretation of what it means to he a Muslim, in addition to orthodox belief Personal meaning and personal certainty as two aspects of an individualized interpretation were found to be positively associated to the endorsement of Muslim expressive rights, but not to the attitude towards political organization. Behavioural involvement and Muslim group interdependence were positively associated with identity organization. Orthodoxy was related to both identity consolidation and mobilization. Theoretical implications of these results are discussed. 1650 40 3 2010 "Adults with different attachment orientations rely on different areas of life to maintain self views. This paper reports two studies that examine the link between attachment and feedback seeking patterns in interpersonal and competence related domains. Participants in Study I imagined receiving feedback from a friend. Participants in Study 2 completed dyadic tasks and were promised feedback from interpersonal and competence relevant sources. Across both studies, secure individuals consistently chose the most positive feedback. Individuals high in attachment avoidance sought negative feedback over positive, although dismissing avoidant individuals sought positive hypothetical feedback about autonomy. Study 2 further suggested that highly avoidant individuals were more open to negative feedback than positive feedback and than were secure individuals. Moreover; individuals high in attachment anxiety failed to seek positive interpersonal feedback but pursued interpersonal over competence feedback. Results highlight the role of feedback seeking in maintenance of positive or negative self views for adults with different attachment orientations. " 1651 40 3 2010 "The Stereotype Content Model (SCM) suggests potentially universal intergroup depictions. If universal, they should apply across history in archival data. Bridging this gap, we examined social groups descriptions during Italy §s Fascist em. In Study I, articles published in a Fascist magazine La Difesa della Razza were content analysed, and results submitted to correspondence analysis. Admiration prejudice depicted ingroups; envious and contemptuous prejudices depicted specific outgroups, generally in line with SCM predictions. No paternalistic prejudice appeared; historical reasons might explain this finding. Results also fit the recently developed BIAS Map of behavioural consequences. In Study 2, ninety six undergraduates rated the content analysis traits on warmth and competence, without knowing their Origin. They corroborated SCM §s interpretations of the archival data. " 1652 40 3 2010 The person perception literature has shown that negative information on warmth influences impression formation more than other kinds of information. In the present paper we argue for the usefulness of using the knowledge accumulated on the negativity effect on warmth when studying how members of a group who are disconfirming the group stereotype are perceived. We show that negative divergent information on warmth is perceived as more surprising because it appears to be more discrepant than positive divergent information on warmth or than competence information. We also show how stereotype holders protect their stereotype by rating the surprising incoherent information as atypical. Results are discussed in terms of the necessity to apply our knowledge of the two fundamental dimensions of social perception and their properties to typicality ratings and, beyond them, to stereotype change research. 1653 40 3 2010 Social control is the generic term for any reaction through which a bystander communicates to the perpetrator of a norm transgression that his/her action is socially unacceptable. In order to understand the characteristics of behaviours that lead to social control reactions in public settings, we conducted a study with respondents from eight different countries. Respondents were presented with a description of 46 uncivil behaviours and indicated for each behaviour (a) its prescriptive normativity (how deviant it was), (b) its descriptive normativity (how frequent it was), and (c) how likely it was that they would express their disapproval to the perpetrator Results showed that in all eight countries, prescriptive normativity was the primary determinant of respondents §s social control reactions. In addition, respondents from collectivistic cultures reported that they would exert more social control than respondents from individualistic cultures. The findings suggest that people will exert social control when they feel personally implicated by the uncivil behaviour 1654 40 3 2010 The present research investigates how reading stories about past mistreatment of children who had been in institutional care affects support for reparations, perceived difficulty of reparations and group based guilt were investigated in two experiments. In Study 1 we showed that, when the stories increased in perceived harm, so did the perceived difficulty of making reparations whereas group based guilt decreased. Furthermore, both perceived difficulty of making reparations and group based guilt predicted support for reparation. It was suggested that these findings were due to a natural confound between the severity of harm and the difficulty of reparations. Study 2 included a direct manipulation of perceived difficulty that was intended to weaken or strengthen the ability to make reparations. This study demonstrated stronger group based guilt when reparations were potentially possible and not when they are impossible. Moreover, support for reparations varied as a function of perceived difficulty of reparations and group based guilt mediated that relationship. The research has two key implications. First, advocates of reparations as a mechanism for reconciliation and community healing need to consider the degree to which reparations are perceived to be possible and consider ways of addressing those perceptions. Second, the research provides an experimental demonstration to the power of stories about experience to bolster support for social change. 1655 40 3 2010 There is ample evidence of the power of social influence on pro environmental behaviours. Beliefs about the conservation behaviour of others (descriptive normative beliefs) have a strong positive correlation with one §s own conservation actions. However this relationship has not been investigated much further in terms of possible moderators or involved mechanisms of information processing. The present study examines two potential moderators and draws links to underlying processing mechanisms. We hypothesized that personal involvement with Conservation issues and beliefs about other §s approval of conservation (injunctive normative beliefs) would moderate the relationship between descriptive normative beliefs and conservation behaviour. The sample consisted of 1604 California residents that were recruited through random digit telephone dialing. Results showed that both injunctive normative beliefs and personal involvement moderated the relationship between descriptive normative beliefs §s and conservation behaviour High personal involvement weakened the relationship, whereas high injunctive normative beliefs strengthened it. We conclude from these findings that descriptive normative beliefs influence conservation behaviour through a rather nonconscious, peripheral route of information processing, while personal involvement motivates a more elaborate, central route of information processing. 1656 40 3 2010 A link between romantic love and face recognition and sexual desire and verbal recognition is suggested. When in love, people typically focus on a long term perspective which enhances global perception, whereas when experiencing sexual encounters they focus on the present which enhances a perception of details. Because people automatically activate these processing styles when in love or sex, subtle reminders of love versus sex should suffice to change ways of perception. Global processing should further enhance face recognition, whereas local processing should enhance recognition of verbal information. In two studies participants were primed with concepts and thoughts of love versus sex. Compared to control groups, recognition of verbal material was enhanced after sex priming, whereas face recognition was enhanced after love priming. In Experiment 2 it was demonstrated that differences in global versus local perception mediated these effects. However, there was no indication far mood as a mediator 1657 40 3 2010 Can imitation lead to less liking? Previous research on mimicry and imitation suggests that imitation should lead to more liking, at least when it concerns neutral behaviours. In the present studies, we looked at behaviour with a clear message: Facial expressions. As predicted, we found in two studies that an affiliative facial expression (happiness) leads to more liking when imitated, whereas a non affiliative facial expression (anger) leads to less liking when imitated. Thus, imitating someone does not always lead to more liking: Imitating behaviour that communicates an unfriendly message can have negative consequences. 1658 40 3 2010 A large number of authors have observed that the experience of power increases behavioural approach tendencies. There are however some important unresolved problems. Predominantly, the literature relies on lab manipulations, priming, and student populations. This has resulted in low face validity. Also, it is unclear what process underlies this effect. A large scale survey (N = 3082) reliably measures power among real low and high power employees in existing organizations and finds strong support for the effect of power on behavioural approach. Consistent with expectations, this effect is mediated by increased access to resources. We also discuss findings that suggest the shape of this power approach effect might be quadratic. 1659 40 3 2010 The current investigation proposes that symbolic identity concerns underlie retributive desires following a transgression, but that the type of identity concern that primarily drives that retribution varies between infra and intergroup contexts. More specifically, a respondent §s social identity may be threatened by calling into question his or her ingroup §s status and power in the larger superordinate society, a concern that is particularly relevant in intergroup contexts. Identity may also be threatened by questioning a group §s identity defining values, a concern that is particularly relevant in intragroup contexts. In support of these assertions, the current study shows that desires for retribution following an intergroup terrorist attack were stronger when the attack was framed as attempting to undermine the victimized nation §s status/power but were stronger following an intra group terrorist attack when framed as attempting to undermine national values. Moreover, these differences only occurred for respondents high in national identification, underscoring that the effects are based on identity processes. 1660 40 4 2010 Prejudice and stereotyping are central to research and theorizing in social psychology. Yet, all too often this work tacitly assumes that these phenomena spring into existence fully formed in adults. This special issue originates from the need to integrate adult social psychological approaches with developmental inquiry into the ontogenetic and phylogenetic origins of prejudice and stereotyping. The diverse set of nine papers in this special issue demonstrates the utility of this interdisciplinary approach. In this introduction, we make the case for giving developmental research a seat at the social psychological table, and briefly summarize the contributions contained in this special issue. 1661 40 4 2010 "Group biases based on broad category membership appear early in human development. However; like many other primates humans inhabit social worlds also characterised by small groups of social coalitions which are not demarcated by visible signs or social markers. A critical cognitive challenge for a young child is thus how to extract information concerning coalition structure when coalitions are dynamic and may lack stable and outwardly visible cues to membership. Therefore, the ability to decode behavioural cues of affiliations present in everyday social interactions between individuals would have conferred powerful selective advantages during our evolution. This would suggest that such an ability may emerge early in life, however, little research has investigated the developmental origins of such processing. The present paper will review recent empirical research which indicates that in the first 2 years of life infants achieve a host of social cognitive abilities that make them well adapted to processing coalition affiliations of others. We suggest that such an approach can be applied to better understand the origins of intergroup attitudes and biases. " 1662 40 4 2010 In this paper we review evidence from social, developmental, and evolutionary psychology to raise a common question: Are there priorities in how humans categorize their social world? Are some social groupings more prominent in childhood, and more resilient in adulthood than others? We review and compare evidence from each field, with a particular emphasis on exploring the relative robustness of gender, race, age, and language as social categories. We highlight the value of developmental approaches for characterizing the origins and nature of social categories in adults, and provide suggestions for how collaborative research from social, developmental, and evolutionary psychology could inform our understanding of potential priorities in social categorization. 1663 40 4 2010 For children as well as adults, object categories (e.g., dog, animal, car, vehicle) serve as a rich base for inductive inferences. Here, we examine children §s inferences regarding categories of people. We showed 4 year old children a picture of an individual (e.g., a white woman), taught them a novel property of the individual (e.g., is good at a new game called zaggit), and examined children §s projections of that property to other individuals. Experiment 1 revealed that children used the broad category person as an inductive base: they extended the novel property to other people, regardless of their race or gender, but not to non human animals or artifacts. However, naming prompted children to use more specific social categories as an inductive base. When the target individual was identified as a member of a named, novel social category, children were more likely to extend the property to members of the same race based (Experiment 2) or gender based (Experiment 3) category as the target. Implications of naming in children §s formation of social categories based on race or gender are discussed, and the consequences on the emergence of stereotypes are considered. 1664 40 4 2010 The present study sought to determine whether children discriminate between different group types with respect to perceived entitativity, and if so, whether the group properties that determine their perceptions of entitativity differ from those of adults. Ten year old children and adults were required to rate 12 social groups on a number of properties, including entitativity. In a further task, participants also sorted 30 social groups into discrete group types. Two major findings emerged. First, over the two tasks both children and adults were found to classify groups in terms of at least four maingroup types: Intimacy groups, task groups, social categories and loose associations. Second, children and adults appeared to have different perceptions concerning which group properties determine the degree of entitativity of the different group types. In particular children put much more emphasis on the level of interaction among group members whereas adults emphasized the importance of the group among its members. 1665 40 4 2010 Intergroup attitudes were assessed in 7 and 10 years old European American and African American children from ethnically heterogeneous schools and in 7 and 10 years old European American children from ethnically homogeneous schools in order to test hypotheses about racial biases and judgments regarding cross race peer interactions (N = 302). Using an Ambiguous Situations Task, the findings revealed that European American children attending homogeneous schools displayed racial bias in their interpretations of ambiguous situations as well as in their evaluations of cross race friendship. Bias was not found, however, in the interpretations and evaluations of European American or African American children from heterogeneous schools. This study is the first to empirically demonstrate significant and direct relationships between intergroup contact in the school environment and children §s intergroup biases as well as judgments about the potential for cross race friendships. 1666 40 4 2010 Based on Schwartz theory of cultural values, the present research tested whether the level of outgroup negativity among adolescents is influenced by the preferred values shared by the individual §s cultural group. Furthermore, it was expected that this correspondence increases during adolescence, due to (individual and social) identity development in that age period. Measures of cultural values as well as derogatory attitudes towards outgroups were administered to young (age 9 12) and older (age 15 18) adolescents in Germany (Native Germans, Turkish and Former Soviet Union immigrants) and Israel (Native Israelis, Former Soviet Union immigrants, Arab Israelis). Data were analysed on both the individual and the group level. Results confirm the hypothesis that cultural values are associated with outgroup negativity, especially for the culture level value dimension of hierarchy versus egalitarianism. Both the degree to which a cultural group prefers one value and the degree to which the individual accepts this value for itself are influential for the level of outgroup negativity On both levels of analyses, our data show that the relationship between the culture level value dimension of hierarchy versus egalitarianism and outgroup negativity is stronger among older compared to younger adolescents. Our data imply that the cultural context an individual lives in needs more attention when examining origins of outgroup negativity among adolescents. Furthermore, it is argued that relationships between outgroup negativity and relevant predictors undergo crucial changes during adolescence. 1667 40 4 2010 This study provides an experimental investigation of the consequences of conflict between children §s personal identities and experimentally manipulated group identities. Elementary school aged children (N = 82, ages 5 11) attending a summer school pro grain rated their own academic and athletic abilities and were then randomly assigned to one of two novel groups. Children §s views of the academic and athletic skills of the novel groups were assessed both before and after information about the groups §s academic and athletic skills was manipulated via posters placed in their classrooms. Following the manipulation, children §s self views, ingroup identification, and intergroup attitudes were assessed. Results indicated that (a) in the absence of information about the novel groups, children projected their personal identities onto their ingroup identities, (b) children maintained their ingroup identities in the face of new information that should have altered their ingroup identities, and (c) more positive personal identities predicted ingroup bias, which in turn predicted happiness with one §s ingroup membership. The latter finding suggests that a tendency for children to generalize from their idiosyncratic positive self views, rather than an indiscriminate desire for self enhancement or positivity, may be responsible for ingroup bias. 1668 40 4 2010 Using a longitudinal approach, we examined intergroup bias based on randomly assigned novel groups in fourth and fifth grade children (roughly 9 11 years old) involved in an afterschool program. We investigated not only the development of intergroup bias but also its persistence over multiple weeks. Our intergroup bias measure assessed children §s evaluations of group members uninvolved in the program to determine if intergroup bias could be applied beyond the immediate context. We found that children §s intergroup bias toward group members outside their program developed when they were first segregated into classrooms based on their novel groupings and persisted over multiple weeks, adding to our understanding of the impact of categorization on the development and persistence of children §s intergroup biases. We consider our findings both. in terms of how categorization influences the development of intergroup bias and ways to use re and cross categorization to defeat children §s intergroup biases. 1669 40 4 2010 The aim of this research was to identify what factors deter explicit intergroup bias in childhood. Two studies were conducted to examine what facilitates the control of ethnic bias amongst 6 9 year old majority children. In both studies ingroup accountability was either low (i.e., only accountable to experimenter) or high (i.e., also accountable to classmates and teachers). Study 1 (n=287)found that only 8 9 year old with low social emotions reduced their bias with increased accountability Study 2 (n=236) showed children with. low Theory of Social Mind (ToSM: Abrams, Rutland, Ferrell, & Pelletier, 2009), who perceived an anti prejudice ingroup norm, decreased their bias when accountability increased. In both studies children high in social emotion and ToSM showed low bias irrespective of accountability. Together these studies make a novel contribution by showing for the first time affective and social cognitive factors that influence how children learn to control explicit bias. 1670 40 5 2010 Objectification theory posits that as a result of pervasive sexual objectification of the female body in American culture, women are socialized to take an observers §s perspective towards the self resulting in self objectification. This tendency, combined with an objectifying context, is hypothesized to increase cognitive load, thereby impairing peiformance. Two experiments tested this hypothesis by investigating the joint impact of trait and state objectification on cognitive load among women. Results of the first experiment showed longer response latencies on a Letter Number Sequencing task, specifically among women high in trait self objectification (TSO), in a highly objectifying condition. The second experiment replicated results from the first while also exploring possible correlates of the effects. 1671 40 5 2010 Because red pens are closely associated with error marking and poor performance, the use of red pens when correcting student work can activate these concepts. People using red pens to complete a word stem task completed more words related to errors and poor performance than did people using black pens (Study 1), suggesting relatively greater accessibility of these concepts. Moreover, people using red pens to correct essays marked more errors (Study 2) and awarded lower grades (Study 3) than people using blue pens. Thus, despite teachers §s efforts to free themselves from extraneous influences when grading, the very act of picking up a red pen can bias their evaluations. 1672 40 5 2010 Philosophers have argued that when people are objectified they are treated as if they lack the mental states and moral status associated with personhood. These aspects of objectification have been neglected by psychologists. This research investigates the role of depersonalization in objectification. In Study 1, objectified women were attributed less mind and were accorded lesser moral status than non objectified women. In Study 2, we replicated this effect with male and female targets and extended it to include perceptions of competence and pain attribution. Further, we explored whether target and perceiver gender qualify depersonalization. Overall, this research indicates that when people are objectified they are denied personhood. 1673 40 5 2010 "Three studies tested the effects of essentialist beliefs regarding the national ingroup in situations where a perpetrator group has inflicted harm on a victim group. For members of the perpetrator group, it was hypothesised that essentialism has a direct positive association with collective guilt felt as a result of misdeeds conducted by other ingroup members in the past. Simultaneously, it was hypothesised to have an indirect negative association with collective guilt, mediated by perceived threat to the ingroup. Considering these indirect and direct effects jointly, it was hypothesised that the negative indirect effect suppresses the direct positive effect, and that the latter would only emerge if perceived ingroup threat was controlled for This was tested in a survey conducted in Latvia among Russians (N = 70) and their feelings toward how Russians had treated ethnic Latvians during the Soviet occupation; and in a survey in Germany among Germans (N = 84), focussing on their feelings toward the Holocaust. For members of the victim group, it was hypothesised that essentialism would be associated with more anger and reluctance to forgive past events inflicted on other ingroup members. It was proposed that this effect would be mediated by feeling connected to the ingroup victims. This was tested in a survey conducted among Hong Kong Chinese and their feelings toward the Japanese and the Nanjing massacre (N = 56). Results from all three studies supported the hypotheses. " 1674 40 5 2010 Our goal was to identify factors that shape women §s responses to ingroup members who protest gender discrimination. We predicted and found that women who perceived gender discrimination as pervasive regarded a protest response as being more appropriate than a no protest response and expressed greater liking and less anger towards a female lawyer who protested rather than did not protest an unfair promotion decision. Further beliefs about the appropriateness of the response to discrimination contributed to evaluations of the protesting lawyer Perceptions that the complaint was an appropriate response to the promotion decision led to more positive evaluations of an ingroup discrimination protester 1675 40 5 2010 The present study seeks to understand how social comparison information may be used to provide individuals with information about their level of risk and to promote health behaviour The effect of peer comparison information, presented alone or in the context of expert recommendations, was examined across two studies using distinct experimental manipulations. Study I showed that regardless of whether expert standards were available or not, participants who were provided with inflated estimates of peer flossing behaviour demonstrated increased behavioural intentions and increased flossing behaviour measured 3 months later This pattern was replicated in Study 2 with effects on attitudes toward flossing and intentions to floss. These findings add to a growing literature identifying comparative feedback as distinct from objective information and are discussed in terms of implications for health promotion and risk communication. 1676 40 5 2010 In this study, we used a paradigm similar to the one used by Milgram in his classic obedience study, using an immersive video environment. We manipulated the victim §s degree of visibility and his ethnicity. When the victim was hidden, the level of obedience we obtained was similar to Milgram s. Replicating previous findings observed in real environments, participants were more obedient when the victim was hidden than when he was visible, and the more obedient participants negated their own responsibility by projecting responsibility on both the victim and the experimenter State anger and right wing authoritarianism (RWA) emerged as two significant predictors of the level of obedience. Illustrating an underlying process of racial dehumanization, participants reported less anxiety and distress when the victim was a North African than when the victim was of the same racial origin as the participant. These results underscore the usefulness of using immersive environments when studying extreme social behaviours. 1677 40 5 2010 Attempts to suppress stereotypes have often been found to result in an increased accessibility of these stereotypes. According to thought suppression literature together with research on prime to behaviour effects, we hypothesized that suppression of stereotype can lead people to subsequently behave in accordance with its content and that these effects are stronger after suppression (rebound) than after a classical priming condition (i.e., no suppression condition). Experiment 1 showed that suppression of the stereotype of sportsmen (associated with poor math performance) but not of Italian men (not related to math performance) led participants to subsequently perform worse on a calculus task in comparison to non suppressors. These effects were replicated in a second experiment with another stereotype (elderly) and another behaviour that does not require self regulation (walking speed): Suppressors walked slower than non suppressors. These findings are considered in the context of mental control and social stereotyping. 1678 40 5 2010 "Three studies investigated the association of social approach and avoidance motivation with cognition, behaviour; emotions, and subjective well being. Study 1 (N = 245), a correlative self report study, showed that approach and avoidance motivation mediated the effects of adult attachment styles on social anxiety A secure attachment style was associated with co occurring approach and avoidance motivation. Study 2, a social interaction study (N = 38), revealed an association of avoidance motivation with a negative experience and passive behaviour; and approach motivation with a positive experience and active behaviour Interestingly, the interaction of approach and avoidance motivation predicted engaged behaviour and a positive emotional experience. Study 3 (N = 203), an online survey, showed that subjective well being was negatively associated with high avoidance motivation, irrespective of the strength of approach motivation. Taken together, the studies show that social approach and avoidance motivation interact in predicting positive experiences and social behaviour in a concrete social situation. However; from the long term perspective, the negative consequences of social avoidance motivation seem to prevail when approach and avoidance motivation co occur " 1679 40 5 2010 The present study investigated the attitudes of one disadvantaged minority group in Australia, Asian Australians (N = 87), towards another more severely disadvantaged minority group, Aboriginal Australians. Asian Australian attitudes were compared to European Australian attitudes (N = 273). Cognitions of outgroup rejection, identification and intergroup anxiety were assessed in relation modern racism, desire for intergroup avoidance and support for a national apology. Both Asian and European participants who perceived Aboriginal Australians as rejecting were more likely to express intergroup anxiety. Anxiety mediated the relationship between cognitions of rejection and the dependent variables. Whilst there was a direct positive relationship between European Australian identification and prejudice, for Asian Australian participants, identification moderated the relationship between cognitions of rejection and the dependent variables. Highly identified Asian Australian participants were particularly sensitive to cognitions of rejection, which increased modern racism and avoidance and lowered political support. The pattern was reversed for low identifiers, who were more likely to endorse a national apology to Aboriginal Australians when they perceived Aboriginal Australians as rejecting. The role of perceived rejection in predicting prejudice and avoidance, and the moderating role of Asian Australian identification, are both discussed. 1680 40 5 2010 The authors examine the impact of predictors for ingroup favouritism and a positive attitude towards a university merger by conducting a longitudinal field study investigating students §s perceptions of a merger Thus, the focus of this paper lies on the developmental and dynamic aspect of social identity processes and the test of directional hypotheses in an applied setting. Based on a cross lagged regression approach, it was shown that pre merger identification increased favouritism, but favouritism also increased pre merger identification. Moreover ingroup favouritism was uni directionally related to a negative attitude towards the merger Contact with the merger partner revealed lagged effects on ingroup favouritism. These results confirm that issues of identity change and compatibility are crucial aspects in understanding merger adjustment and support. 1681 40 5 2010 "Previous research has found that people prefer information that supports rather than conflicts with their decisions (selective exposure). In the present paper; we investigated whether selective exposure was influenced by the method of information collection. Based on Prospect Theory we hypothesized that the method of selection (MOS), where simply selected pieces of information are considered, would lead to a higher selective exposure compared to the method of elimination (MOE), where pieces of information are rejected and the remaining pieces of information are considered. In fact, we found that participants collected information more selectively when they were instructed to use the MOS compared to the MOE. " 1682 40 5 2010 As the tendency to compare oneself with others may be associated with the tendency to focus on similarities, we hypothesized that individual differences in social comparison orientation (SCO) may moderate the consequences of upward and downward comparisons. In Study 1, high comparers were found to focus more on similarities than low comparers, suggesting that high comparers are more likely to assimilate in general. In Study 2, SCO was found to be positively associated with mood following exposure to an attractive target, and negatively associated with mood following exposure to a less attractive target. In Studies 2 and 3, SCO was found to be positively associated with self evaluations of attractiveness following exposure to an attractive target and negatively associated with self evaluations of attractiveness following exposure to a less attractive target. These results indicate that research on the consequences of social comparison must attend to individual differences in SCO. 1683 40 5 2010 Cooperation in social dilemmas is often challenged by negative noise, or unintended errors, such that the actual behaviour is less cooperative than intended for example, arriving later than intended for a meeting due to an unusual traffic jam. The present research was inspired by the notion that doing a little more for one §s interaction partner, which may be movitvated by empathetic feelings, can effectively reduce the detrimental effects of negative noise, or unintended incidents of noncooperation. Consistent with hypotheses, negative noise exhibited detrimental effects on cooperation, but such effects were absent when empathy motivated cooperation was present. We conclude that empathy has broad benefits for social interaction, in that it can be an effective tool for coping with misinterpreted behaviours, thereby maintaining or enhancing cooperation. 1684 40 5 2010 The sharing of bodily states elicits in mimicker and mimickee corresponding conceptualisations, which facilitates liking. There are many studies showing the relatedness of mimicry and liking. However, the mimicry liking link has not been investigated under conditions in which the mimickee is liked or disliked a priori. In two studies, we examined moderating effects of a priori liking on the mimicry liking link. Liking was measured via self report measures (Studies 1 and 2) and behavioural measures using a virtual environment technology (Study 2). Results showed that when participants intentionally mimicked a disliked person, liking for that person was not improved, whereas when participants mimicked a liked person, liking for that person increased. These effects were shown to be mediated by affiliation. These studies not only provided further evidence of a link between mimicry and liking, but also demonstrated that this relationship is moderated by a priori liking. 1685 40 6 2010 Previous research demonstrated that individuals spontaneously prefer ingroup members who display ingroup favouritism rather than egalitarian behaviours (Castelli, Tomelleri, & Zogmaister, 2008). In the current work, we explored what specific strategies toward ingroup favouritism are spontaneously preferred. Results from four studies showed that ingroup members who made it possible for the ingroup to achieve a positive intergroup differentiation were preferred as compared to ingroup members who maximized the absolute gain for the ingroup. Study 5 further demonstrated that in the search for positive distinctiveness people are sensitive to the ratio between the gains of the ingroup and outgroup. Study 6 ruled out a possible alternative explanation. Overall, the current findings indicate that group members who set the difference from an outgroup elicit the most positive spontaneous responses demonstrating that the search for a positive intergroup distinctiveness automatically affects intragroup perception. 1686 40 6 2010 Getting rejected can either push newcomers out of the group or make them try harder to become accepted. It is suggested that newcomers §s internal motivation to become a group member and their strategies determine the outcomes of rejection. It was expected that in rejected newcomers, avoidance strategies (but not approach strategies) lead to stronger disidentification. Moreover, the disidentification effect of avoidance strategies is predicted to be buffered by the internal motivation to become a group member. Two studies supported these predictions. Study 1 manipulated the group §s feedback (rejection vs. acceptance) and assessed internal motivation and strategies. Study 2 measured feedback and replicated the findings in the field. Thus, by the adoption of the right motivational approach, newcomers can prepare themselves not to be driven out of a new group by the almost unavoidable experiences of rejection. 1687 40 6 2010 In many non human primate species, a display of red by a female increases attraction behaviour in male conspecifics. In two experiments, we investigate an analogous effect in humans, specifically, whether red on a woman §s shirt increases attraction behaviour in men. In Experiment I, men who viewed an ostensible conversation partner in a red versus a green shirt chose to ask her more intimate questions. In Experiment 2, men who viewed an ostensible interaction partner in a red versus a blue shirt chose to sit closer to her. These effects were observed across participants §s perceptions of their own attractiveness (Experiment 1) and general activation and mood (Experiment 2). Our findings suggest that red acts as a basic, non lexical prime, influencing reproduction relevant behaviour in like manner across species. 1688 40 6 2010 We propose a concept of restorative justice as a sense of justice deriving from consensus about, and the reaffirmation of values violated by an offence (in contrast to punishment based retributive justice). Victims should be more likely to seek restorative justice (and less likely retributive justice) when they perceive to share a relevant identity with the offender In Study 1, when the relevant identity (university affiliation) shared with the offender was made salient (vs. not), participants found a consensus based response more justice restoring. In Study 2, when the group (company) shared with the offender was cohesive (vs. not), participants more strongly endorsed a restorative justice philosophy and, mediated by this, responded in consensus restoring ways. In Study 3, when the offender was an ingroup (vs. outgroup) member, participants more strongly endorsed a restorative justice philosophy, fully mediated by sadness emotions. 1689 40 6 2010 We examined the moderating role of personal values on social projection. Study 1 was conducted prior to the 1999 Israeli elections among activists of the Center party, a newly established centrist party. The more importance activists attributed to conservation values (values that emphasize stability and certainty) the more they projected their political views to their party. Study 2 was conducted prior to the 2003 Israeli elections among students with varied attitudes toward the Kadima party, another newly established centrist party. Conservation values interacted with support for the Kadima party in their effect on social projection: The more importance participants attributed to conservation values, the more positive was the relationship between support for the party and social projection. In Study 3, we examined the role of conservation values in an experimental study in which participants were members of a virtual team: Raising the accessibility of conservation values resulted in higher levels of social projection. Taken together, findings indicate that emphasizing conservation values leads to greater social projection. 1690 40 6 2010 Group members tend to be biased in their evaluation of the information discussed. The present study aimed to disentangle the effects of preference consistency, social validation, and ownership on information evaluation in a single experimental design. Participants first received information about a personnel selection task. After having made a decision, they read a transcript of a fictitious discussion. In the transcript, preference consistency, social validation, and ownership of information were orthogonally manipulated as within subjects factors. As hypothesized, preference consistency, social validation, and ownership all increased the perceived quality of information. Furthermore, participants intended to discuss a larger proportion of their preference consistent information than of their preference inconsistent information. This discussion bias was significantly associated with the evaluation bias favouring preference consistent information. These results provide the first empirical demonstration that the evaluation of information ingroups is characterized by three distinct biases and that biased evaluation of information may contribute to biased discussion of information. 1691 40 6 2010 Building and extending on just world theory, this paper studies people §s negative reactions to innocent victims of rape or sexual assault. Specifically, we focus on an as yet unexplored variable that may help to explain these reactions, namely whether the perpetrator of the crime was similar or dissimilar to people who observed what happened to the victim. Perpetrator similarity refers to whether the perpetrator belongs to the personal world of the observer or not, and in accordance with predictions derived from just world theory, findings of three studies reveal that especially men take more physical distance from an innocent victim (Study 1) and blame (Study 2) and derogate (Study 3) an innocent victim more when the perpetrator is similar to them as opposed to when the perpetrator is different from them. Implications are discussed. 1692 40 6 2010 We examined the role of desired, feared, and expected possible future identity structures in the restructuring of identity after two life transitions. A longitudinal study was conducted on 86 young adults during the transition from school to university and 143 adults during the transition to parenthood. In both samples, pre transition desires and expectations about the restructuring of identity predicted post transition actual identity structures. Post transition emotional wellbeing was higher among those whose post transition identity structures more closely matched their initial desires and less closely matched their initial fears, and among those who reported a greater magnitude of identity change. We propose that possible future identity structures play an important role in the identity accommodation process during life transitions, and that they have significant implications for well being. 1693 40 6 2010 Immigration, cultural diversity and integration are among the most central challenges for modern societies. Integration is often impeded by negative emotions and prejudices held by the majority members towards immigrants in a common society. Based on the ingroup projection model (Mummendey & Wenzel, 1999), we examined the impact of perceived relative ingroup prototypicality on intergroup emotions and prejudice. Additionally, we examined whether this impact is causal and explored the issue of causality in more detail contrasting a linear causal model with bi directional or reciprocal causality. Hypotheses were tested in a study with a two wave panel of majority members (N=1085) in Germany. We examined the proposed relations between relative ingroup prototypicality, intergroup emotions and prejudice and determined the causal direction of these relationships. Results support the predictive power of relative ingroup prototypicality on intergroup emotions and prejudice. Moreover, most causal relations between our measures are reciprocally causal. We discuss the implications of these findings for the general conception of prejudice and intergroup emotions. 1694 40 6 2010 "To investigate the process of habit formation in everyday life, 96 volunteers chose an eating, drinking or activity behaviour to carry out daily in the same context (for example after breakfast ) for 12 weeks. They completed the self report habit index (SRHI) each day and recorded whether they carried out the behaviour. The majority (82) of participants provided sufficient data for analysis, and increases in automaticity (calculated with a sub set of SRHI items) were examined over the study period. Nonlinear regressions fitted an asymptotic curve to each individual §s automaticity scores over the 84 days. The model fitted for 62 individuals, of whom 39 showed a good fit. Performing the behaviour more consistently was associated with better model fit. The time it took participants to reach 95% of their asymptote of automaticity ranged from 18 to 254 days; indicating considerable variation in how long it takes people to reach their limit of automaticity and highlighting that it can take a very long time. Missing one opportunity to perform the behaviour did not materially affect the habit formation process. With repetition of a behaviour in a consistent context, automaticity increases following an asymptotic curve which can be modelled at the individual level. " 1695 40 6 2010 This study examined relationships between ethnic identification and ethnic minority members interactions with majority group members. Members of Muslim minority groups, ethnic Turks and Moroccans in the Netherlands and Chechens in Poland, described the social interactions they had for two weeks using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record (RIR). They also completed measures of ethnocultural identification that distinguished involvement with and attachment to their ethnic minority culture and to the majority culture. Relationships between ethnic identification and contact with the majority group varied as a function of the dimension and source of identification and the aspect of interaction (quantity or quality) being considered. Across the samples, involvement with the ethnic minority culture was negatively related to the quantity of contact with majority group members, whereas emotional attachment to the majority culture was positively related to the quality of interactions with majority group members. Attachment to the ethnic minority culture was not related to either the quantity of interaction with majority group members or to the quality of these interactions. These results suggest that when studying interethnic contact, it is important to distinguish different dimensions and sources of ethnic identification and different aspects of interethnic contact. 1696 40 6 2010 A questionnaire measuring social sharing of emotion, coping, intensity of emotions and rumination related to March 11th (2004) terrorist attacks in Madrid, emotional climate, social integration, and post traumatic growth was completed by 644 students and their relatives (38%) in 5 Spanish regions and 8 universities 1 week, 3 weeks, and 8 weeks after the terrorist act. Results supported a two sided model of the effects of social sharing of emotion derived from Durkheim §s classic model of the social functional effects of collective remembering. Higher levels of sharing initially predicted (1) higher event related emotional arousal and mental rumination and (2) superior social integration and well being assessed in later weeks. Structural equation. modelling showed that higher levels of initial sharing and coping by search for social support predicted directly or indirectly (1) higher social integration (2) higher perceived post traumatic growth, and (3) higher perceived contentment, hope, solidarity, and confidence in the emotional climate. 1697 40 6 2010 In two studies we investigate how level of surveillance moderates followers §s responses to leaders with whom they either do or do not share identity. Study 1 (N=80) demonstrated that imposing high surveillance where identity is shared with a leader undermined perceptions of the leader as a team member, reducing levels to that of leaders without a shared identity. Study 2 (N=84) replicated this finding, also demonstrating that willingness to work for the group declined when leaders with shared identity used high surveillance (compared to a low surveillance condition). This process was partially explained by perceptions that surveillance was an invasion of privacy Together, these studies illustrate that the benefits of shared identity are easily undermined when a leader uses surveillance in a context where it is unnecessary. 1698 40 6 2010 The present research examined processes of impression formation within an online dating context. Across two studies, female participants formed impressions of a potential partner based on an online dating profile containing information about the target §s facial attractiveness and self described ambition. Afterwards, deliberate evaluations of the target were assessed with a self report measure and spontaneous evaluations were measured with an affective priming task. The results showed that deliberate evaluations varied as a function of both self described ambition and facial attractiveness. In contrast, spontaneous evaluations varied only as a function of facial attractiveness. Experiment 2 further showed that these effects were independent of the order in which the two types of information had been encoded. The results are discussed in terms of associative and propositional processes, and the conditions under which these processes can lead to conflicting evaluations of the same potential romantic partner 1699 40 6 2010 "The present studies investigated the extent to which three basic moral prototypes, just, brave, and caring , are related to moral, prosocial behaviour: In five studies, we tested (a) whether people would associate three basic types of moral behaviour (helping behaviour; moral courage, and heroism) with three moral prototypes, and (b) whether specific emotional precursors of moral behaviour and moral behaviour itself could be promoted by activating the respective moral prototype. As expected, Studies 1 3 revealed that people associated helping behaviour with the caring prototype, moral courage with the just prototype, and heroism with the brave prototype. Studies 4 and 5 showed that the activation of the three prototypes differentially influenced emotional precursors of the three types of moral behaviour (Study 4) as well as actual moral behaviour (Study 5). Thus, the five studies revealed that people associate different moral behaviours with different moral prototypes and that a certain moral behaviour can be activated by the priming of the related prototype. " 1700 40 7 2010 Schooling in a Western cultural environment has been shown to promote context free (analytic) at the expense of context dependent (holistic) processing. In the present study, we examined whether these differences in processing styles also induce a tendency to use more abstract (i.e., dispositional) language when describing human behaviours. Portuguese literate, illiterate, and ex illiterates were asked to freely describe behaviours presented visually. Using the linguistic category model, we found that literates relied on more abstract descriptions than ex illiterates and illiterates. This effect of schooling was strongly associated with their relative superiority on an analytic (vs. holistic) task. These findings suggest that schooling influences the elaboration of social information. 1701 40 7 2010 How do group members respond when their group wrongfully punishes a group member? In two experiments, participants were presented with an ingroup member who argued for group change on moral (Experiment 1, N=73) or scientific grounds (Experiment 2, N=94). Despite being right, the member was treated as deviant by the group. We manipulated whether the group retained its former opinion or adopted the deviant §s position, and whether the deviant §s punishment was ongoing or whether the deviant was reinstated. We tested opposing predictions about how these group actions would affect group members §s negativity towards the deviant. Both studies showed that negativity towards the deviant was highest when the group opinion was unchanged and the deviant was not reinstated. Further, opinion change or reintegration defused negativity towards the deviant. Implications of groups rejecting or embracing change, and their effects on the evaluation of wrongfully accused deviants are discussed. 1702 40 7 2010 According to the Motivated Information Processing ingroups (MIP G) model, groups should perform ambiguous (non ambiguous) tasks better when they have high (low) epistemic motivation and concomitant tendencies to engage in systematic (heuristic) information processing and exchange. The authors tested this prediction in an experiment with four person groups performing a complex and dynamic decision making task. Group confidence was measured after extensive training and prior to actual group decision making. Task ambiguity was manipulated. Results showed that when task ambiguity was low, group confidence indeed benefits decision quality and group performance. But when task ambiguity was high, group confidence hurt decision quality and group performance. Implications for theory and practice are discussed. 1703 40 7 2010 We provide a novel, inferential, account of the trait centrality phenomenon. We suggest that a trait possesses the property of centrality to the extent that it is subjectively deemed to imply other traits. Five studies explore four central elements of this view. First, trait relations can be stored as unidirectional rules (if X then Y but not necessarily if Y then X ). Second, the strength of individuals §s lay inference rules determines the effect of traits on impressions. Third, situationally manipulating the strength of lay inference rules influences the impact of traits on impressions. Fourth, the impact of an inference rule is reduced when it is difficult to discern the inference rule and when processing resources are limited. 1704 40 7 2010 A long tradition in the help giving literature assumes that mood states determine the level of prosocial behaviour shown by individuals. Most research in this area has been conducted in the context of low cost prosocial behaviour, whereas research has been neglected in which participants were confronted with situations involving potential severe and dangerous negative consequences (i.e., high cost situations) with the help giver risking his moral integrity and social disapproval (i.e., moral courage). To address this gap in the literature, the present studies investigate differential effects of positive and negative compared with neutral mood states on help giving versus moral courage. Study 1 shows that in situations requiring low cost helping, participants were more likely to help in positive and negative moods than those in a neutral mood, whereas in situations requiring moral courage (high cost), participants were comparably likely to help in each of the three mood conditions. In Study 2, we find that salience of moral norms mediates the interaction between type of prosocial behaviour and mood. Finally, Study 3 investigates whether the apparent discrepancy between help giving and moral courage as established by the differential impact of mood states can be determined still differently. It reveals that justice sensibility, civil disobedience, resistance to group pressure, moral mandates, and anger lead to moral courage, but not to help giving. Differences between these two types of prosocial behaviour are discussed. 1705 40 7 2010 The present study was part of a large scale cohort study among several thousand students in the Netherlands. The purpose of the study was to investigate the long term effects of comparison choice, i.e., comparison with a target performing better or worse than oneself, and academic comparative evaluation, i.e., the extent to which one thinks one §s performance is better or worse than that of others, on scores on standardized tests for reading comprehension and mathematics. While controlling for earlier performance, the results showed that both comparison choice and academic comparative evaluation positively predicted test scores over a period of 2 years. Moreover, it was found that the positive effect of comparison choice only applied to students with a favourable comparative evaluation. 1706 40 7 2010 Terror management theory research has shown that reminders of mortality tend to decrease liking for people who threaten one §s worldview. In research, these worldview threats typically come from outgroup members, but they may also come from ingroup members who are negatively characterized. Presumably the negative characteristics of ingroup members threaten to diminish or undermine the worldview by their association with it. In this research we examine anxious individuals as potentially threatening ingroup members. We hypothesized that a brief contemplation of mortality would lead people to decrease their liking for anxious individuals associated with their ingroup. Study 1 showed that a mortality reminder led people to react more negatively to an anxious police liaison from their community, but not to a calm police liaison. Study 2 showed that a mortality reminder led people who strongly identified with university students to react more negatively to a fellow university student who was anxious, but not to a student who did not display anxiety. 1707 40 7 2010 A laboratory experiment examined the effect of confederate status and task structure on group members §s use of the confederate §s problem solving strategies (private/indirect influence) and divergent thinking. Twenty eight three member, all female groups, with an experimental confederate acting as one of the group members, solved an open structured or closed structured logic problem. The confederate, randomly assigned to be higher , lower , or of undesignated status, presented a scripted but unique solution to the group while solving the task. Lower status confederates and open structured tasks, relative to higher status confederates and closed structured tasks, had more private, indirect influence on group members and caused more divergent thinking. We discuss the implications of these findings for group dynamics and social influence literatures. 1708 40 7 2010 This study tested whether the degree of association among aspiration level, intended opening offer, actual first offer, actual counter offer, and final agreement was moderated by negotiator gender. Results show that gender does moderate the association between the predictor variable of intended opening offer and the criterion variable of actual first offer and the relationship between intended opening offer and actual counter offer. Interesting, this latter association was statistically non significant for women and statistically significant for men. These results suggest that gender differences disadvantaging women seem to manifest with the actual first offer and the actual counter offer. 1709 40 7 2010 Three studies were conducted to investigate the relation between perceptions of group entitativity and group similarity. The first two studies tested whether entitativity and similarity would be perceived differently in participants §s ingroups and outgroups. Across several different group types, we found that, in comparison to outgroups, ingroups were perceived to be relatively more entitative than outgroups, whereas outgroup members were perceived to be highly similar in comparison to ingroup members. The results of Study 3 showed that manipulation of group entitativity influenced perceptions of group entitativity but not of group similarity, whereas manipulation of similarity influenced perceptions of group similarity but not of group entitativity. The results of these studies provide support for the contention that entitativity and similarity are distinct (though related) concepts that function differently ingroup perception. 1710 40 7 2010 "This research analyses the mediational role of threat perception in the relationship between prejudice and discrimination (opposition to immigration and opposition to naturalization of immigrants). In the first study, using representative samples in 21 European countries (N=36 566) from European Social Survey (2002), we showed that the relationship between prejudice and opposition to immigration was more strongly mediated by realistic than by symbolic threat perceptions. In Study 2, using representative samples in two countries with different traditions of immigration (Switzerland, N=940; Portugal, N=1514), we showed that realistic threat more strongly mediated the relationship between prejudice and opposition to immigration, while only symbolic threat perception mediated the link between prejudice and opposition to naturalization. The theoretical implications of considering threat perceptions as factors that legitimize discrimination are discussed. " 1711 40 7 2010 While research on counterfactuals has closely examined the psychological antecedents and consequences of thinking counterfactually (imagining alternatives to past events), little is known about the effects of counterfactual communication, and in particular, how such thoughts are interpreted by others. In this paper, I argue that counterfactual communication differentially affects impressions formed of speakers by receivers depending on the general content of the counterfactual. Findings from an archival study and a scenario study demonstrated convergent results: Individuals who communicated upward counterfactuals (thoughts of how things could have been better) were more positively perceived by receivers than were individuals who communicated downward counterfactuals (thoughts of how things could have been worse). This difference stemmed from an enhancement effect of upward counterfactuals. Further analysis revealed that the relationship between counterfactual communication and impression formation was mediated by receivers §s perceptions of the extent to which speakers took responsibility for their actions. 1712 40 7 2010 Health promoting messages can be framed in terms of the gains that are associated with healthy behaviour (gain frame) or the losses that are associated with unhealthy behaviour (loss frame). In the present research, we examined the role of positive and negative affect in the persuasive effects of gain and loss framed health promoting information. Experiment 1 (N=98) showed that gain framed information resulted in higher levels of information acceptance than loss framed information and that this effect was mediated by positive affect. The results of Experiment 2 (N=129) showed that gain framed information resulted in higher levels of information acceptance and attitude, an effect that was again mediated by positive affect. In addition, loss framed information resulted in more negative affect than gain framed information and negative affect increased participants §s intention to engage in the healthy behaviour. These results suggest that affect may be of great importance in the persuasion process and may be particularly helpful to explain the underlying mechanisms of message framing effects. The findings also suggest that gain and loss framed messages offer distinct pathways to persuasion. 1713 40 7 2010 In two experiments a self regulatory strategy combining mental contrasting with the formation of implementation intentions (MCII) was tested for its effectiveness in diminishing unhealthy snacking habits. Study 1 (N=51) showed that participants in the MCII condition consumed fewer unhealthy snacks than participants in a control condition who thought about and listed healthy options for snacks. In Study 2 (N=59) MCII was more effective than mental contrasting or formulating implementation intentions alone and mental contrasting was found to increase perceived clarity about critical cues for unhealthy snacking. Together, these findings suggest that MCII is an effective strategy for fighting habits and that one of the underlying processes making MCII superior to implementation intentions alone may be that mental contrasting produces clarity about the critical cues for the unwanted habitual behaviour. 1714 40 7 2010 People differ in the way they regard justice. Although some people may be relatively unaffected by justice issues, many others regard justice as a very important concept and react to it accordingly. Prior research suggests that this sensitivity to justice is a stable personality trait. In three studies, we show that (compared to neutral events) experiencing just and unjust events (directed toward the self or others) can elevate state levels of justice sensitivity. We discuss the implications of these findings, including the notion how these results can lead to a better understanding of the justice judgment process. 1715 40 7 2010 Previous research has found that an electoral candidates §s eight is correlated with their image. Many studies have found that height is a great asset for a candidate as height correlates with electoral outcome. In this research the previously obtained results were partially confirmed in the first study the supporters of a given candidate estimated him as taller than his opponents (confirmed by six out of 10 candidates). The second study, conducted during the presidential elections in Poland, showed that electorate perceived height of candidates for the Presidency changed after the first phase of elections (confirmed by three from six main candidates). These changes in electoral perceived height depended more upon their electoral support than attitudes toward them. 1716 40 7 2010 One of the most pervasive gender stereotypes in Western culture concerns expectations regarding men §s and women §s emotionality. Whereas men are expected to be anger prone, women are expected to smile more. At the same time, men are generally perceived as more facially dominant and facially dominant individuals are expected to show more anger. That is, both facial appearance and social role expectations would lead observers to expect men to show more anger. The present research had the goal to disentangle the unique contribution of these two factors. As it is impossible in our society to fully untangle the influence of these factors since they are highly confounded, we created an alien society where these factors could be unconfounded. In this alien world, Deluvia, child rearing is exclusively assumed by a third gender, the caregiver, whereas men and women share the same social roles. The facial appearance of the Deluvians was varied along the dominance continuum. The results showed that facially dominant Deluvians, regardless of gender, were expected to show more anger, disgust, and contempt and less happiness, fear, sadness, and surprise. Also, the nurturing caregivers were expected to show less anger, contempt, and disgust as well as more fear, sadness, and surprise, regardless of facial appearance. No effect of gender per se on perceived emotionality was found. 1717 41 1 2011 The present study shows that the paradigm relative to Black Sheep Effect (BSE) may be used to reveal normative stakes whose existence is not clearly identified. To this end, our study focuses on alcohol drinking practices among students, specifically with regard to drinking contexts (solitary vs. group). Our hypothesis was that the drinking norms are determined by their context (i.e. social vs. solitary drinking). More specifically, we suggested that social drinking is viewed by students as pro normative, while solitary drinking is viewed as anti normative. The results confirmed our hypotheses and enable us to consider that the BSE paradigm has the potential to reveal normative stakes. 1718 41 1 2011 "One line of theorizing suggests considering death reminders i.e., mortality salience (MS) inductions unique in their effect on worldview defences (e. g., Pyszczynski et al., 2006). Other theorizing suggests that meaning and certainty threats produce effects similar to MS and thus that these threats be considered theoretically equivalent (e. g., Proulx & Heine, 2006; McGregor, 2006). To help reconcile these discrepant perspectives, we meta analytically examined MS effects as a function of the control condition utilized (meaning/certainty threats vs. other topics) and the length of delay between threat induction and subsequent defence. Results showed that MS and meaning/certainty threats both increased defensiveness after a short delay. But with a longer delay, MS produced even higher levels of defensiveness while meaning/certainty threats produced lower levels of defensiveness. Thus, the evidence supports a similarity between MS and meaning/certainty threat effects, but also a difference in time course that warrants their study as unique psychological threats. " 1719 41 1 2011 The present research hypothesizes that thinking about one §s genetic origin (i.e. ancestors) provides people with a positive psychological resource that increases their intellectual performance. To test this line of reasoning, we manipulated whether participants thought about their ancestors or not (manipulation of ancestor salience), and measured their expected as well as actual intellectual performance in a variety of intelligence tasks. Four studies supported our assumptions: participants show higher expected (Study 1) and actual intellectual performance (Studies 2 4) when they are reminded about their ancestors. We also have initial evidence that this effect may be fuelled by increased levels of perceived control and promotion orientation. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. It is certainly desirable to be well descended, but the glory belongs to our ancestors. (Plutarch 46 120 AD). 1720 41 1 2011 It is a psychological truism that thought shapes language. However, the idea that language constrains cognition is less well understood and has been debated in philosophy, linguistic, and psychology. The goal of the present research was to investigate the influence of language, as given in linguistic categories, on the formation of evaluations in an interpersonal impression formation context. Specifically, we examined the role of different verb classes in the formation of interpersonal (dis )likes within an evaluative conditioning (EC) paradigm. EC refers to the change in liking in a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of its §s pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (US). In contrast to traditional EC accounts that assume the rigid and unrestricted change in valence due to CS US co occurrence, we found that EC was moderated by language, that is, by the linguistic status of the US. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. 1721 41 1 2011 Policies and programs designed to challenge the effects of racial discrimination (such as affirmative action) are hotly contested. Factors which have been proposed to explain opposition to these policies include racial prejudice, group threat and self interest, and perceptions of intergroup justice. We report the results of two random national telephone surveys which tested a theoretically based model of the predictors of policy support in post apartheid South Africa. The results provided limited support for Blumer §s group position model. Compensatory and preferential treatment policies had different underlying predictors: Violated entitlement featured in the models of compensatory policy attitudes, but not preferential treatment policy attitudes, where threat was the strongest predictor. In addition to threat and violated entitlement, policy attitudes among the black sample were related to ingroup identification but those of the white sample were related to prejudice. The effects of these variables were in the opposite directions for the two samples: Policy support was associated with strong ingroup identification and high levels of threat among the black sample (i.e. prospective beneficiaries of the transformation policies), but with low levels of prejudice and threat among the white sample. We conclude by considering the implications that these findings have for social change programs. 1722 41 1 2011 Planning interventions have proven effective to change behaviour. However, less is known about their underlying mechanisms. To better understand the processes by which planning interventions unfold their effects, a combined action planning and coping planning intervention was tested in a field setting, with the focus on mediating and moderating effects of theory derived social cognitive variables. In a randomized controlled trial, 374 employees of a logistics company were asked to participate in either a combined action planning and coping planning intervention or an active control group. Four weeks later, self reported changes in fruit and vegetable intake, action planning, coping planning, intentions and self efficacy were measured. Single and simultaneous mediating effects on behaviour were tested with intention to treat analyses, along with interaction effects between planning processes. Action planning and coping planning mediated intervention effects on fruit and vegetable intake not only separately, but also simultaneously (multiple mediation). Action planning and coping planning had main and interactive effects on behaviour change (moderation). Action planning and coping planning may exert both additive and synergistic effects on health behaviour change. Volitional interventions should include both action planning and coping planning components and stimulate the use of planning in everyday life. 1723 41 1 2011 Why, how and when does mood influence positive testing, that is, the selection of matching questions, when people actively search for information about others they meet? In four experiments, we demonstrated that happy mood increased positive testing compared to sad mood. Experiment 1 showed that happy participants were more strongly motivated to get along and smooth the interaction to come than sad ones. In addition, evidence was provided by a mediation analysis that happy mood increased the preference for positive testing because of such an improved motivation to get along. Furthermore, Experiment 2 showed that happy participants §s preference for positive testing vanished when cognitive resources were limited. The preference for positive testing appeared under happy mood only when the context made salient the goal to get along (Experiments 3 and 4). Together, these results suggest that positive testing in a social hypothesis testing paradigm may have social values. 1724 41 1 2011 Two studies investigated how values affect competitive versus cooperative behaviour. Each Study presented a new social dilemma game, in which participants §s interpretations of the dilemma (i.e., their subjective payoff matrix) and consequently the dominant (i.e., rational) behavioural choice depended on their values. The Paired Charity Game (Study 1) framed the situation in terms of cooperation. As hypothesized, contribution correlated positively with universalism and benevolence values that reflect concern for others and negatively with power, achievement, and hedonism values that promote self interests. Furthermore, values, but not traits, predicted the participants §s contribution. The Group Charity Game (Study 2) was designed to frame the situation in terms of competition. As hypothesized, contribution correlated positively with emphasizing benevolence over power values. Moreover, the impact of values was stronger when they were rendered accessible, indicating a causal influence of values on behaviour. Furthermore, when their value hierarchy was rendered accessible, participants explained their choices in terms of those values that were (a) important to them and (b) relevant to the situation. The findings thus point to the mechanism through which accessible values affect behaviour. Taken together, the studies promote our understanding of the value behaviour relationships, by highlighting the impact of values on perception. 1725 41 1 2011 We argue that offers in bargaining are guided by the emotions that proposers anticipate when contemplating their offers. In particular, we reason that positive offers may be driven by fear and guilt, where fear is more related to the perceived consequences of having one §s offer rejected, and guilt is more related to concerns for the opponents §s outcomes. Two studies on ultimatum bargaining corroborate this view. In Study 1, we used two well documented manipulations to affect the consequences of having one §s offer rejected and the initial entitlements of one §s opponent. Both factors affected offers: Offers were higher when the consequences of having one §s offer rejected were lower, and when the initial entitlements of one §s opponent were higher. In agreement with our predictions, the former effect was mediated by anticipated fear and the latter by anticipated guilt. In Study 2, we directly manipulated both mediators. The findings further corroborate our reasoning by showing that both feelings also have a direct effect on ultimatum offers. These findings highlight the potential contribution of studying specific emotions in bargaining behaviour. 1726 41 1 2011 Despite the potential benefits of looking young, we predicted that older adults who attempt to look younger than they are would threaten the distinctiveness of young adults §s social identity and, for this reason, such passers would be evaluated negatively. In three experiments we found that both male and female young adults negatively evaluated older adults who attempt to look younger compared to older adults who do not attempt to do so. Both male and female targets who attempt to look younger were evaluated negatively (Experiment 2), and these negative evaluations were a function of experienced threat to young adults §s social identities (Experiment 3). Older adults may attempt to look young to avoid age based prejudice or conform to existing standards, but doing so can result in negative evaluations by younger people. 1727 41 1 2011 This paper examines memory for collective apologies. Our interest was in determining whether people are aware of intergroup apologies and whether this contributes to forgiveness for offending groups. Surveys conducted in three nations affected by Japanese World War II aggression found that participants were more likely to believe (incorrectly) that Japan had not apologized for WWII than to believe (correctly) that they had (Study 1). In contrast, participants were eight times more likely to believe that a corporation had apologized for misconduct than to (correctly) recall that they had not (Study 1). Forgiveness levels were higher among those who believed the group had apologized than among apology deniers, although the effect was weak and inconsistent. However, in a follow up study that measured identification with the victim group it was found that high identifiers were significantly less likely to remember an apology (Study 2). Results suggest that memories for collective apologies are fluid and may not be causally related to intergroup forgiveness. 1728 41 1 2011 Studies suggest that Mexican American youths who feel attached to their ethnic group engage in more prosocial behaviours. However, the psychological mechanisms that account for this association are not clear. Drawing on social identity and self categorization theories, we examined whether the association between ethnic group attachment and tendencies to engage in six distinct types of prosocial behaviours was mediated by familism and Mainstream American values among Mexican American youths. Ethnic group attachment, familism, Mainstream American values, and prosocial tendencies were assessed among 207 Mexican American early adolescents using an interview format. Latent variable path models showed that ethnic group attachment was associated with greater tendencies to engage in compliant, emotional, dire, and anonymous helping, and that each of these associations was at least partially mediated by greater familism values. Mainstream American values were related to greater tendencies to engage in public prosocial behaviour and less altruistic behaviour, but did not mediate the associations between ethnic group attachment and prosocial tendencies. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are addressed. 1729 41 1 2011 In contrast to everyday use of the term discrimination, we propose that discrimination can be appraised as either illegitimate or legitimate, and a comprehensive analysis of responses to discrimination needs to account for both ways of experiencing discrimination. We examine how perceived pervasiveness of discrimination and legitimacy appraisals affect group commitment among women in academia (Study 1) and tobacco smokers facing an upcoming smoking ban (Study 2). We found support for our hypothesis that legitimacy of discrimination appraisals moderates the effect of pervasiveness of discrimination. In both studies, group identification and collective action intentions were undermined most when the ingroup claimed that discrimination against them was legitimate and discrimination was perceived as pervasive. In both studies, group identification mediated the effects on collective action intentions. The results highlight the important role of legitimacy appraisals in understanding disadvantaged group members §s responses to discriminatory treatment. 1730 41 1 2011 Previous theory and research suggests that perceiving shared humanity with others should be a positive force for intergroup relations. The present research considers the alternative possibility, that notions of shared humanity might protect people from feelings of guilt over ingroup perpetrated harm by obscuring the ingroup §s unique role in these events. Consistent with this idea, Study 1 (N = 58) found that perceiving shared humanity with a harmed outgroup was associated with less guilt and stronger expectations of forgiveness among members of the perpetrator group. Study 2 (N = 52) demonstrated that these effects only occurred when the moral integrity of the ingroup was open to question. When ingroup morality was instead secure, defensive use of humanity was not apparent. Together, these studies suggest that perceiving harmful ingroup actions as only human can sometimes be a moral defence that absolves group members of feelings of responsibility for wrongdoing. 1731 41 2 2011 Research on the two fundamental dimensions of social judgment, namely warmth and competence, has shown that warmth has a primary and a dominant role in information gathering about others. In two studies we examined whether the sociability and morality components of warmth play distinct roles in such a process. Study 1 (N = 60) investigated which traits were mostly selected when forming impressions about others. The results showed that, regardless of the task goal, traits related to morality and sociability were differently processed. Furthermore, participants were more interested in obtaining information about morality than about sociability when asked to form a global impression about others. Study 2 (N = 98) explored the adoption of asymmetric/symmetric strategies when asking questions to make inferences on others. As predicted, participants adopted an asymmetrically disconfirming strategy on morality traits, while they looked for more symmetrical evidence on sociability or competence traits. Overall, our findings indicated a distinct and a dominant role of the moral component of warmth in the information gathering process. 1732 41 2 2011 Research has found the dimensions of warmth and competence to be subject to a negative relation when two targets are compared, a phenomenon which has been called the compensation effect. However, all the available empirical evidence rests on direct traits ratings. The aim of the present work is to test whether compensation is merely a response strategy or whether it has larger implications. In two experiments, we show that the compensation effect is also obtained on indirect measures that rely on attribution theory (Experiment 1) and on implicit measures derived from the Linguistic Category Model (Experiment 2). Results are discussed in terms of the importance of the compensation effect and its consequences on the interpretation of newly acquired information about social targets. 1733 41 2 2011 Three studies investigated antecedents and consequences of stereotype threat for female employees. The results of Studies 1 and 2 suggest that social comparisons with men are associated with feelings of stereotype threat whereas social comparisons with women are not. Stereotype threat, in turn, was associated with conflict surrounding women §s identity as female employees and with decreased perceived likelihood of achieving career goals. Study 3 extended these findings by demonstrating that feelings of stereotype threat are also negatively related to workplace attitudes and turnover intentions. Furthermore, the effect of stereotype threat on these job attitudes and intentions was itself mediated by identity conflict and perceived likelihood of achieving career goals. Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed. 1734 41 2 2011 Causal impact is maximal when weak causes have strong effects. Do people understand this logic when they assess causal impact? In four experiments, participants judged the causal impact of strong or weak dietary treatments leading to strong or weak health effects in fictitious health studies. Rather than following the ratio of effect strength to treatment strength, judgments were influenced by three aspects of the detectability of a cause effect relation. First, because detectability depends on the effect being strong more than on the cause being subtle, causal judgments were mainly determined by effect strength, whereas the strength of the causal treatment necessary to induce an effect was often neglected. Second, if causal input was not ignored, judgments increased when the maximal covariation between a strong causal treatment and a strong effect rendered the causal link most detectable. Or, third, causal judgments increased when a plausible causal schema facilitated detection. Consistent with sampling models of judgment and decision making, causal impact ratings were driven by an uncritical assessment of a detectable difference in a study sample. However, ratings were insensitive to the logical implications of the underlying causal treatment that was necessary to induce a detectable effect. 1735 41 2 2011 Moral outrage anger at violation of a moral standard is claimed to be a prevalent and powerful moral emotion. However, evidence for moral outrage has been compromised by failure to distinguish it from personal anger anger at harm to self felt by victims of a moral violation. Although it does not seem possible to distinguish these two forms of anger by measurement, it is possible to do so by experimental manipulation of their distinct eliciting conditions. Extending previous research, the current study manipulated how a victim (self vs. stranger) was excluded (fairly vs. unfairly) from a favourable experience. Reported anger and behavioural retribution provided evidence of personal anger and revenge, not of moral outrage. These findings suggest that the prevalence and power of moral outrage has been exaggerated. 1736 41 2 2011 Hypotheses about psychological processes are often tested using traditional mediation analysis. This analysis relies on measurement of a transmitting variable. Conducting this analysis has become almost synonymous with examining process hypotheses. An alternative strategy to mediation analysis (the Testing a Process hypothesis by an Interaction Strategy, TPIS) is illustrated here. TPIS is based on a fully experimental design whereby a hypothesized process is tested by an interaction between the hypothesized cause of an effect and a contextual variable. In the interaction term, the contextual variable allows comparison of the causal effect observed when the process is uninterrupted to the effect observed when the process is interrupted. Thus, TPIS translates a theoretical process hypothesis into a statistical interaction hypothesis that uses a fully experimental design to directly examine the hypothesized process. 1737 41 2 2011 This paper describes how different self construals influence people §s perception of temporal distance and in turn their task evaluation. We hypothesize that people with a more accessible interdependent (vs. independent) self construal perceive future events as temporally more proximal, and that people §s reaction toward a task is intensified when the temporal distance to the task matches (vs. mismatches) their self construal. Across four studies, we showed that individuals with a more accessible interdependent self construal (Study 1) and East Asians (Study 2) perceived future events as more proximal than those with a more accessible independent self construal and European Americans. Further, when considering a task at a temporal distance that fits their self construal, individuals perceived a pleasant task as more motivating (Study 3) and an unpleasant task as less motivating (Study 4). 1738 41 2 2011 "Studies on dehumanization demonstrated that denying certain human characteristics might serve as a strategy for moral disengagement. Meat consumption especially in the times of cruel animal farming is related to the exclusion of animals from the human scope of justice. In the present research, it was hypothesized that the conception of human uniqueness (denying animals certain psychological characteristics) might be a strategy of meat eaters §s moral disengagement. Three studies compared the extent to which vegetarians and omnivores attribute psychological characteristics to humans versus animals. In Study 1, vegetarian participants ascribed more secondary (uniquely human) emotions to animals than did the omnivores; however, there were no differences in primary (animalistic) emotions. Study 2 showed that omnivores distinguish human characteristics from animalistic ones more sharply than vegetarians do, while both groups do not differ in distinguishing human characteristics from mechanistic ones. Study 3 confirmed the results by showing that omnivores ascribed less secondary emotions to traditionally edible animals than to the non edible species, while vegetarians did not differentiate these animals. These results support the claim that the lay conceptions of human uniqueness are strategies of moral disengagement. " 1739 41 2 2011 This research investigates whether explicit goals interact with implicit processing goals that are activated simultaneously. Based on the idea that (a) explicit goals are used as comparison standards, and (b) implicit processing goals have motivational consequences by influencing the process of comparison with those standards, these studies elucidate the mechanism by which explicit and implicit goals combine to influence task performance. Study 1 demonstrated that a primed goal to process similarities versus differences interacted with explicit goal standards in influencing subsequent task performance. High explicit goals resulted in better performance when participants had the implicit goal of processing similarities, whereas low explicit goals resulted in better performance when the implicit goal was processing differences. Study 2 provided evidence that perceived similarity to a target person is a critical factor for the pursuit of explicit goals and that this similarity influences task performance in the same way as the primed goal to process similarities. Study 3 indicated that processing similarities results from assimilation to a moderately high goal, whereas processing differences is the result of contrasting away from an extremely high goal. These findings confirm that implicit processing of similarities versus differences has a combined influence with explicit goals on task performance. 1740 41 2 2011 The present investigation examined how individuals higher in social dominance orientation (SDO) react to experimentally induced intergroup threat in terms of support for helping immigrants. Participants read editorials describing an incoming immigrant outgroup posing realistic threats (to tangible resources and well being), symbolic threats (to values and traditions) or no threats. Participants higher in SDO exhibited greater resistance to helping immigrants upon exposure to realistic, symbolic, (Experiments 1 and 2), or combined realistic symbolic (Experiment 2) intergroup threats, but not when the same immigrants posed no threats. In Experiment 2, SDO exerted indirect effects on modern prejudice through both heightened infra humanization and intergroup anxiety, with modern prejudice itself predicting greater resistance and indifference to helping immigrants. Moderated mediation analyses revealed strongest SDO infra humanization relations under conditions of symbolic threat. Implications for prejudice reduction interventions are considered. 1741 41 2 2011 Negative histories threaten collective identity. Much research has focussed on how group members strategically defend against such threats. However, within certaingroups such defence is difficult because the group §s past actions were unambiguously negative and because these were public and continue to frame relations with outgroups. We explored the consequences of this form of identity constraint on the individual §s experience of the self. Two studies varied the salience of the past as German participants expressed their national identity to either an ingroup (German) or outgroup (English) audience. In both studies expressing German identity to an outgroup audience when the past was salient resulted in a more fragmented sense of self and reduced self esteem. This effect was mediated through a perceived inability to enact the self. Results are discussed with respect to the power of context to constrain identity expression, and the consequences of this for the self. 1742 41 2 2011 In three studies we examined how observers making meaning of victimization by finding benefits for the victim leads to the perception that victims are morally obligated to help others and not do harm. In Experiment 1, participants perceived a victim as having greater moral obligations when the meaning of victimization was considered for the victim rather than the perpetrator. This effect on moral obligations was mediated by the extent to which participants believed victims should have found benefits. Experiments 2 and 3 examined the consequences when victims fail or fulfill their moral obligations. Greater social distance from a victim who did harm was sought when participants focused on the meaning of victimization for the victim as compared to the perpetrator. Less social distance from a victim who helped was sought when participants focused on the meaning of victimization for the victim as compared to the perpetrator or when they made no meaning. These studies show that how observers make meaning of victimization has implications for subsequent responses to victims. 1743 41 2 2011 Implicit attitude tasks have become very popular in various areas of psychology. However, little is known about the cognitive processes they involve. To address this issue, we investigated the underlying processes of the Go/No go Association Task (GNAT), a go/no go variant of the well known Implicit Association Test (IAT). More precisely, we tested two alternative multinomial processing tree (MPT) models of GNAT performance, the Trip Model and the generalized Quad Model. Both models assume that GNAT performance is influenced not only by automatic associations but also by response biases and a controlled discrimination process. However, the two models differ with respect to an additional overcoming bias process. In contrast to the Quad Model, the Trip Model assumes that overcoming bias does not play a major role in GNAT performance. Instead, the Trip Model emphasizes the role of response biases. We report three experiments that demonstrate the validity of the Trip Model for GNAT data. 1744 41 3 2011 People often mimic each other §s behaviours. As a consequence, they share each other §s emotional and cognitive states, which facilitates liking. Mimicry, however, does not always affect liking. In two studies, we investigate whether the mimicry liking link is influenced by people §s social value orientations. More specifically, we examine whether prosocials and proselfs are differently affected when being mimicked or not. Prosocials and proselfs indicated their liking for the interaction partner after being or not being mimicked in a face to face interaction. The results of two studies showed that prosocials rated the interaction partner as less likeable when they were not mimicked than when they were mimicked. Proselfs, however, were not affected by mimicry. These results show that people §s social motives play a role in whether or not the effects of mimicry on liking occur: Proselfs are less sensitive to the mimicry acts of others. 1745 41 3 2011 In two experiments, we examine and find support for the general hypothesis that memory for behavioural information in the context of an impression formation task depends on where that information is located in vertical space. These findings extend earlier work showing that memory for location and shifts of spatial attention are influenced by the good is up metaphor. Specifically, we show that person memory is better for behavioural information in metaphor compatible locations (positive in upper space and negative in lower space) than in metaphor incompatible locations (positive in lower space and negative in upper space). These findings show for the first time that person specific information, and person memory in general, is structured spatially. 1746 41 3 2011 This series of studies examined the effect of temptation strength on self regulation processes in the context of eating behaviour. Based on the critical level model, it was hypothesized that weak, rather than strong, temptations yield the most unfavourable conditions for effective self regulation, because the negative consequences of the former are underestimated. In line with the assumptions of this model, Studies 1 and 2 showed that weak temptations inhibited the mental accessibility of the weight watching goal, in contrast to strong temptations. Study 3 showed that exposure to weak temptations lead to higher consumption in comparison to exposure to strong temptations. It is concluded that weak temptations, as compared to strong temptations, have an inhibiting effect on self regulation processes and may therefore form a bigger threat for long term goal attainment. 1747 41 3 2011 Potential loss of group distinctiveness can represent a threat to the existence of a group. Across three studies (Ns = 42, 60, 94), a mediated moderation model was tested in which the interactive effects of group identification and potential ingroup distinctiveness loss predicts the desire to engage in ingroup protective action to the extent that collective angst (i.e., concern for the ingroup §s future vitality) is aroused. It was hypothesized that the threat of potential distinctiveness loss would result in collective angst and subsequent support for protective action among high, but not necessarily low, identified group members. Results provided support for this model within the context of French Canadian distinctiveness from English Canada (Experiment 1, where the outcome measure was the desire for a sovereign Quebec) and Canadian distinctiveness from the United States (Experiments 2 and 3, where the outcome was support for action to protect Canadian sovereignty and rejection of a North American Union respectively). When and why collective angst facilitates ingroup protective action is discussed. 1748 41 3 2011 Previous research has shown that exposure to successful role models can restore performance that had been impaired by stereotype threat, and that some role models are more effective than others. The present research examined the effects of role model deservingness on women §s mathematics test performance after being placed under stereotype threat. In Experiment 1, a woman who attained success by herself (deserved) proved a more effective role model than an equally likable and successful woman whose success was handed to her (not deserved). In Experiment 2, women role models proved more effective at combating stereotype threat when their successes were attributable to internal stable (deserved) than external unstable (not deserved) causes, an effect that was partially mediated by reduction in extra task thinking. The results are seen as having implications for theories of stereotype threat and causal attribution. 1749 41 3 2011 This study explores whether the dynamic path to group affect, which is characterized by interactive affective sharing processes, yields different effects on task performance and group dynamics than the static path to group affect, which arises from non interactive affective sharing. The results of our experiment with 70 three person work groups show that groups performed better on creative tasks than on analytical tasks when they were in a positive mood, and better on analytical tasks than on creative tasks when in a negative mood, but only when affect was interactively shared. Moreover, analysis of videotaped group member interactions during task performance showed similar results for work group dynamics, such that group affect influenced belongingness and information sharing only when affect was interactively shared and not when affect was non interactively shared. Results support the idea that affective sharing processes are fundamental for understanding the effects of group affect on behaviour. 1750 41 3 2011 This research uses a crossed categorization design for examining the perception of peer victimization. Using vignettes and an experimental design, perpetrator and victim evaluations of Dutch and Turkish Dutch early adolescents were examined in terms of ethnic and gender similarities between (1) respondent and perpetrator, (2) respondent and victim, and (3) perpetrator and victim. When the perpetrator was a double ingroup member of the respondent (same ethnicity and same gender), perpetrators were evaluated less negatively and victims less positively than when the perpetrator was a single (gender or ethnicity) or double outgroup member. Further, when the victim was a double ingroup member of the respondent, perpetrators were evaluated more negatively and victims more positively. No perpetrator victim crossed categorization effects were found for perpetrator and victim evaluations. Perceived norms of intervention in the classroom had the expected main effects but did not moderate the crossed categorization effects. The usefulness of a crossed categorization approach for examining the perception of negative peer behaviour is discussed. 1751 41 3 2011 "In two studies, we examined how perceptions of historical continuity affect group members §s responses when their group is facing an upcoming merger. We found that perceived historical continuity was a unique predictor of resisting an upcoming merger between various army regiments in Scotland among those associated with the Black Watch (Study 1; N = 308) and those associated with a range of Scottish army regiments (Study 2; N 498). We found that the perceived break with the past that the merger would involve mediated the relationship between historical continuity perceptions and merger resistance. However, we also found that when there was some reassurance that historical continuity of the pre merger group would be preserved in the merged context (i.e. regiments could keep their pre merger names), resistance to the merger was reduced (Study 2). We conclude that historical continuity perceptions can be a resource for groups that they will strive to protect in the face of future identity change. The findings underline the important role of group history perceptions in understanding present group dynamics. " 1752 41 3 2011 Four studies examined the relation between the number of equifinal means to a goal, actors §s commitment to that goal, and their commitment to the means. In Study 1, participants freely generated varying number of means to two of their work goals. In Study 2, they generated social means to their goals (people they viewed as helpful to goal attainment). In Studies 3 and 4, the number of means to participants §s goals was experimentally manipulated. All four studies found that means commitment is negatively related, whereas goal commitment is positively related, to means number. Consistent support was also obtained for the notion that the relation between means number and goal commitment is mediated by the expectancy of goal attainment, and by goal importance. Conceptual and practical implications of the findings were considered that link together the notions of substitutability and dependency within a goal systemic framework. 1753 41 3 2011 The effect of the cause of a disaster, i.e. whether it was perceived to be caused by human or natural factors, on willingness to donate money to disaster victims was examined. In Study 1 (N = 76), the cause of a fictitious disaster was experimentally varied. In Study 2 (N = 219), participants were asked about their views regarding donations to two real life disasters, one of which was perceived to be naturally caused while the other one was perceived to be caused by humans. In Study 3 (N = 115), the cause of a fictitious disaster was experimentally varied, but this time measures of the proposed psychological mediators of the effect on donations were included, namely perceived victim blame and the extent to which victims were thought to make an effort to help themselves. A measure of real donation behaviour was also added. In Study 4 (N = 196), the proposed psychological mediators were manipulated directly, and the effect of this on donations was monitored. Across all studies, more donations were elicited by naturally caused rather than humanly caused disasters. This difference was driven by a perception that the victims of natural disasters are to be blamed less for their plight, and that they make more of an effort to help themselves. Implications for theory and practice are discussed. 1754 41 3 2011 The present paper aims to elucidate under what conditions victims of injustice who seek revenge feel satisfied and perceive that everybody got what he or she deserved. Two hypotheses are discussed: The comparative suffering hypothesis states that seeing the offender suffer from fate is sufficient for evoking satisfaction and perceptions of deservingness among victims. The understanding hypothesis states that revenge can only be satisfactory when the offender understands it as a response to his or her prior behaviour. These hypotheses were tested in three experimental studies. The comparative suffering hypothesis received only weak support. The understanding hypothesis, on the other hand, received much stronger support: When the offender understood revenge as punishment, revenge led to satisfaction and deservingness among victims. These findings are discussed with regard to the question why people take revenge. 1755 41 3 2011 Six studies investigate whether the effect of racist biases on judges §s legal decisions on minority defendants is reduced by a justice focus. Given that people associate legal decision making with the need to do so in a colourblind manner, a justice focus blocks the effect of racist biases on legal decisions. Experiment 1 shows that explicit instructions to adopt a justice goal decrease biases. Experiment 2 shows that a primed justice focus also decreases biases. Experiments 3a and 3b show the role of pre existing legal expertise, which makes people more susceptible a justice goal. Experiments 4a and 4b apply these findings by studying the role of a justice focus among professional courtroom judges. Together, these results demonstrate the importance of a justice focus in preventing racist biases in legal decision making. Importantly, a justice focus is a necessary but no sufficient condition for the colourblind administration of justice. 1756 41 3 2011 We used a computer harassment paradigm to test the hypothesis that affirming the legitimacy of discrimination against homosexuals increases the likelihood that heterosexual men will engage in verbal gay bashing. Legitimacy of discrimination was varied among heterosexual males (N = 167) by suggesting that denying homosexuals rights and benefits is either illegitimate or legitimate, and participants interacted online with either a gay or straight bogus discussion partner. Results show that (a) participants sent more offensive comments when the legitimacy of discrimination against homosexuals was affirmed, and (b) legitimacy affected gay bashing through its effect on collective guilt. These findings suggest that challenging the legitimacy of discrimination can be an effective strategy for reducing outgroup derogation. 1757 41 3 2011 Previous research has stressed the positive effects of receiving autonomy oriented help over dependency oriented help but has overlooked a potential downside in terms of recipients §s evaluations of the helper. Participants in the current experiment (n = 77) requested help while working on difficult puzzles and received either autonomy or dependency oriented help from either an expert or a peer. In line with previous findings, receiving autonomy oriented help led to more self competence and positive feelings than dependency oriented help. However, in support of our prediction, participants also felt angrier, had less respect for and less trust in the peer who provided autonomy oriented help than the peer who provided dependency oriented help. No differences in the evaluation of the expert helper were found. These findings highlight the importance of considering both the helpers §s characteristics and the type of help provided when investigating the psychological consequences of receiving help. 1758 41 4 2011 "Social image, or the views that others have of us and our groups, plays a role in a wide array of psychological processes, including impression management, interpersonal relationships, mate selection, intragroup and intergroup processes, the experience and expression of emotion, gender differences in behaviour, and the construction and maintenance of social status. The 13 papers included in this special issue reflect the centrality of social image in these and other social psychological processes. Five major themes integrate this diverse selection of papers: (i) self presentation of social image; (ii) culture specific conceptions of social image; (iii) the role of social image in emotion; (iv) respect and status as reflections of social image; and (v) the influence of social image on ingroup and outgroup perceptions. Taken together, these papers illustrate the importance of social image for understanding the complexities of human behaviour and point to new ways to study this important topic. " 1759 41 4 2011 Over the past 50 years, research on self presentation has revealed a great deal about how people construct social images by managing the impressions that others form of them. However, inspection of the dominant research paradigms reveals that most researchers have not addressed central features of self presentation as they occur in everyday life. Using a framework that identifies four primary features of everyday self presentation, we compare and contrast the nature of naturalistic self presentation in everyday life with the ways in which self presentation has been reconceptualised, operationalized, and studied by researchers. We also discuss the implications of failing to incorporate naturalistic features of self presentation into research contexts and offer recommendations for ways to enhance and expand research on self presentation. 1760 41 4 2011 People often adopt self image goals to increase others §s regard for them and perhaps their own self esteem. But do these impression management goals achieve their intended result in close relationships? And do they endure over time? We suggest that self image goals predict decreased self esteem and close others §s regard for the self through decreased responsiveness to others. In contrast, compassionate goals, which reflect a genuine concern for others §s well being, predict increased self esteem and others §s regard through increased responsiveness. We tested these hypotheses in a longitudinal study of college roommates followed across a semester. Path analyses supported both predictions, suggesting a paradox for interpersonal goals in close relationships: explicit attempts to increase close others §s regard for the self backfire and damage self esteem, but having goals to meet others §s needs result in others §s positive regard and promote self esteem. 1761 41 4 2011 Two studies examined regional differences in self and other presentational styles in the Southern and Northern regions of the USA. A content analysis of 400 personal ads from Northern and Southern newspapers revealed that Northern ads contained more descriptions of the self and desired partner that are context free and under personal control, whereas Southern ads depicted more contextualized and less controllable aspects of self and partner (study 1). Moreover, self identified Northern and Southern Americans were shown to prefer ads in the style of their region over other ads (study 2). We conclude that not only do regional differences in self and other presentations exist in the USA but that these differences are also reinforced by others who share the regional culture. 1762 41 4 2011 Face plays an important role in social life. However, little is known about the psychological consequences of an individual §s face experiences. This study examined the effects of face experiences on emotions and self esteem in a diary study conducted in Japanese culture, in which face functions as a mechanism to maintain interpersonal harmony. Participants reported the occurrence of face related events, maintenance/loss of face, emotions and self esteem twice a week for 10 weeks. We predicted and found that (1) the occurrence of one §s own face events increased participants §s depressiveness, (2) the maintenance of one §s own face heightened joyfulness and decreased depressiveness, (3) the maintenance of one §s own face heightened participants §s self esteem, and (4) the maintenance of other people §s face increased joyfulness and calmness but did not affect self esteem. These findings provided empirical supports for fundamental assumptions that have never been subjected to empirical scrutiny in face research. 1763 41 4 2011 "The body is a carrier of relatively complex cultural values. Three experiments examined links between body comportment and honour (a cultural syndrome prizing female chastity, familial loyalty, and reputation). We put participants from nonhonour (Anglo Americans; Experiment 1) and honour (Latinos; Experiment 2) cultures in upright versus slouched postures and primed them with honour versus control words. In our third experiment, we surveyed participants from nonhonour (native Dutch) and honour (Arab and Turkish Dutch) cultures about their attitudes toward honour related violence and then measured posture change. Concerns with honour were embodied by men from honour cultures bi directionally. For persons from nonhonour cultures, body posture can be connected to honour concerns, if participants are appropriately primed. However, with all else equal, the rejection of honour in such cultures is embodied in much the same way that men from honour cultures embody honour. Links between body comportment and values are not arbitrary but not simple either. The ways embodiments are conditioned by culture and gender are discussed. " 1764 41 4 2011 Moral failure is thought to damage self image when people appraise it as indicating a global self defect. This appraisal is thought to be associated with the feeling of shame and thus self defensive motivation. However, a damaged social image better explains self defensive motivation to hide from and avoid others. Based on an integrative review of theory and research, we offer a conceptual model of how concern for self image and social image guides the experience of moral failure. The model distinguishes the appraisals (of self defect and other condemnation) and feelings (of rejection, inferiority, and shame) embedded in the shame concept. Concern for a damaged social image is represented in an other condemnation. rejection combination, whereas concern for a damaged self image is represented in a (global) self defect. inferiority combination. As these appraisal feeling combinations are concerned with damage done to one §s image, they should be linked to self defensive motivation. As the (specific) self defect. shame combination is concerned with a repairable defect in self image, it should be linked with self improvement motivation. Thus, our model explains why shame is sometimes tied to self defensive motivation and sometimes tied to self improvement motivation after moral failure. 1765 41 4 2011 The present research investigated the role that threat to social image and self conscious emotions play in reaction to deviance. In three studies, participants were invited to imagine themselves in a situation in which they were bystanders of a deviant behaviour. We manipulated the threat to the ingroup §s social image through the deviant group membership (Study 1), the visibility of the deviant behaviour to a third party (Study 2), and the stereotype salience of the deviant behaviour (Study 3). Social image concerns, emotional reactions, and intention of sanctioning the deviant were measured. The results revealed that the situations in which the threat to the social image of the group was high provoked the greater intentions to sanction the deviant. Moreover, intentions were accounted for by the more intense shame and embarrassment (but not guilt) reported by the participants when faced with a group threatening situation. The findings indicate that reactions to deviance are highly dependent on the damage caused to the group §s social image and on self conscious emotions. 1766 41 4 2011 "Embarrassment arises when we reveal an apparent flaw of the self in front of others, for instance, in a faux pas situation. An audience is crucial for embarrassment, but the group membership of the audience has not yet been studied. According to the social identity approach, we assign more importance to evaluations by ingroup than by outgroup members, particularly when we identify highly, and the outgroup is of lower status. A pilot study (N = 30) showed that embarrassment correlated positively with group membership of the audience and with identification. Studies 1 to 3 presented participants with several faux pas scenarios. In Study 1 (between participants design; N = 75), participants reported higher embarrassment in ingroup (Norwegian) and equal status outgroup (Swedish) conditions than in a lower status outgroup condition (Polish). In Study 2 (within participants design; N = 135), participants reported higher embarrassment when they imagined the audience to be other Scots (ingroup) than Americans or Poles (outgroups), particularly when they perceived the outgroup to be lower in status. In Study 3 (between participants design; N = 59), high identifiers but not low identifiers showed the expected ingroup outgroup audience effect. Implications for intergroup relations are discussed. Key Message: Embarrassment following faux pas situations depends on the group membership of the audience, relative status of the audience and ingroup identification. " 1767 41 4 2011 The study presented in this article examined the role of social recognition as an equal ingroup members §s motivation to serve their ingroup as well as actual group serving behaviour. We predicted and found that social recognition as opposed to non recognition as an equal, communicated by fellow group members, increased participants §s group serving motivation and behaviour. In addition, the psychological processes underlying this effect were examined. We theoretically derived a mediational chain, which was then tested empirically. As expected, social recognition as an equal led to experiences of being respected, and perceived equality of self played a mediational role in this relationship. The experience of respect, in turn, was associated with stronger collective identification, which played a mediating role linking the respect experience with higher motivation and better behavioural performance ingroup serving tasks. Moreover, these effects operated over and above group members §s perceptions of being liked by others. The practical and broader social implications of equality based respect are discussed. 1768 41 4 2011 Self image is deeply affected by social evaluations. One source of evaluation is respect, individuals §s perceptions of their inclusion within, and value to, the group. Despite the importance of respect to the self concept, the study of affective responses to disrespectful experiences has been largely neglected. A series of three studies focused on the following questions: (1) which emotions accompany the experience of disrespect? (2) how does gender influence emotional responses? and (3) how does disrespect differ emotionally from other interpersonal evaluations (i.e., disliking)? Results shed light on gender differences in emotional responses to disrespect, with men appearing to be more concerned with respect and responding to disrespect with more anger, whereas women were more likely to be sad. Implications for the study of respect and disrespect as social evaluations, and sex differences in reactions to these evaluations, are discussed. 1769 41 4 2011 "We studied the incidence and correlates of status projection use of material possessions to emphasize social status to others among 100 adolescents in a historical context of rising affluence. Participants listed 10 possessions, rated each for its value as a status symbol, and chose five to discuss with another participant in a forthcoming interaction. Participants selected especially those of their possessions that they had rated higher in status value (p <.001). This effect was stronger among those reporting upward or downward change in their families §s socioeconomic status (p <.05), greater actual ideal self discrepancies (p <.05), and stronger commitment to materialistic values (p <.01); moreover, the effect of changing status was stronger among higher materialists (p <.05). These results indicate that people self complete through presenting their possessions selectively to others, and they help to clarify the precise role of identity commitment in symbolic self completion. " 1770 41 4 2011 This research examined the prediction that group members §s levels of identification with the ingroup would be influenced by the valence of salient metastereotypes. Specifically, we expected those group members who activate negative metastereotypes to report lower levels of identification with the ingroup compared with those who activate positive metastereotypes. We further expected the above effect to be mediated by fluctuations in self view: Those group members who activate negative metastereotypes should experience lowered self view (or self esteem), which would then lead them to downplay their membership of the negatively valued ingroup. In addition, we expected this mediated effect to be particularly visible among those who were less strongly identified with the ingroup to begin with. Results obtained across two studies in which metastereotype valence was manipulated support the predicted main effect and the moderated mediation hypothesis. Discussions highlight the need for a positive social image when concern about the negative connotations of one §s social group membership is raised. 1771 41 4 2011 Two studies examined the moderating effects of right wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation on the relationship between terrorist images (soldiers versus criminals) and preference for counterterrorist actions (military aggression versus criminal prosecution). Study 1 indicated that the perception of Al Qaeda terrorists as soldiers was related to preference for military counterterrorism, especially among people high in social dominance orientation. The relationship between the perception of Al Qaeda terrorists as criminals and preference for the criminal prosecution of terrorists was strengthened among those high in right wing authoritarianism. Study 2 showed that when terrorists were framed as soldiers, social dominance orientation was related to support for military counterterrorism. When terrorists were framed as criminals, only people who endorsed high levels of right wing authoritarianism supported criminal prosecution of terrorists. Social dominance orientation was related to opposition towards military counterterrorism when terrorists were not perceived as soldiers or framed as criminals. It was also related to opposition towards criminal prosecution of terrorists when terrorists were framed as criminals. The findings suggest that different terrorist images are related to preference for counterterrorism that corresponds with the content of the images and individuals §s chronic ideological orientations. 1772 41 5 2011 People often forget their long term strivings because their environment confronts them with attractive temptations. Previous research suggests that self control failures can be prevented by reminding people of their higher order goal. Therefore, we hypothesized that using implementation intentions as a tool to directly re activate people §s higher order goal in tempting situations would effectively enhance self control. We tested this in the domain of dieting behaviour. Results demonstrated that this specific planning strategy activated the dieting goal for unsuccessful dieters when exposed to tempting food cues (Study 1) and reduced their consumption of calorically dense food across 2 weeks (Study 2) compared to those in control conditions. This suggests that preparing people to think of their higher order goal when tempted can be used to protect ongoing goal striving. Appealing to higher order goals potentially makes implementation intentions flexible instruments of self regulation as this should trigger motivated behaviour to reach goals and initiate various goal instrumental actions. 1773 41 5 2011 Two experiments tested the hypothesis that the accessibility of disease concerns would be associated with a preference for faces high in symmetry, a cue to good health and pathogen resistance. Disease concerns (perceived vulnerability to disease) were measured as an individual difference in Experiment 1 and were situationally primed in Experiment 2. Across both studies, heightened disease sensitivity predicted a preference for symmetrical faces. Importantly, this increased preference for symmetrical faces when disease threats were salient did not generalize to non face stimuli. These results suggest a domain specific preference for symmetry in human faces, an adaptive response due to the ability of faces to signal resistance to infectious diseases in individuals and situations where disease is a salient threat. 1774 41 5 2011 One line of research indicates that people are more aggressive when they are insulted publicly rather than privately, whereas another indicates that subclinical narcissism predicts aggression. Drawing on these lines of research, we predicted that aggression would be increased among participants who scored higher on narcissism (as opposed to lower), received negative (as opposed to positive) self relevant feedback, and did so in public (as opposed to private). The findings supported that prediction and further confirmed that narcissism was only predictive of aggression in the negative public condition. The findings thus indicate that aggression is influenced by the interaction of situational and dispositional factors. 1775 41 5 2011 Appealing to common humanity is often suggested as a method of uniting victims and perpetrators of historical atrocities. In the present experiment (N = 109), we reveal that this strategy may actually work against victim groups §s best interests. Appealing to common humanity (versus intergroup identity) increased forgiveness of perpetrators but independently also served to lower intentions to engage in collective action. Both effects were mediated but not moderated by reduced identification with the victim group. We, thus reveal an important feature of appeals to common humanity: That this strategy may reduce social change at the same time as helping to promote more positive intergroup attitudes. These novel findings extend research on the human identity to a new theoretically interesting and socially important domain. 1776 41 5 2011 Despite widespread conjecture regarding the functions and consequences of gossip, little empirical attention has investigated how gossipers are perceived by others. In the present study, 128 individuals were asked to think about a person who either frequently or rarely discussed others while not in their presence. Gender of the target and valence of the gossip were also manipulated. High frequency gossipers were perceived as less powerful and were liked less than low frequency gossipers, and those who gossiped negatively were liked less than those who gossiped positively. High frequency negative gossipers emerged as the least powerful and least likable targets. These results are discussed in relation to the transfer of attitudes recursively effect. 1777 41 5 2011 Many studies attest to the beneficial and prosocial effects of perspective taking. The present research tests the notion that such perspective taking is a process involving active self regulation and, hence, that effects of perspective taking on prosocial behaviour are more pronounced when self control resources are high, rather than low. Results confirmed this hypothesis. Across two experiments using acts of compliance as a specific form of prosocial behaviour, perspective taking participants were more willing to comply with a request for help by the experimenter (experiment 1) and donated more time to a charitable cause (experiment 2) than participants who did not engage in perspective taking, but only when self regulatory resources were in sufficient supply. Under conditions of ego depletion, the impact of perspective taking on compliance was attenuated. 1778 41 5 2011 We propose that to understand how rejection perceptions affect immigrants §s acculturation orientations, we need to take account of perceptions of rejection and group identification with both the host society and the country of origin. In line with previous work, we found among Romanians and Moroccan immigrants in France that perceived French rejection directly affected French identification and acculturation orientations. In addition, perceived rejection by the country of origin (Romanians and Moroccans in the country of origin) negatively affected immigrants §s identification with this group. In turn, identification with the country of origin positively predicted endorsement of integration and separation orientations, and negatively predicted endorsement of assimilation. Overall, results suggest that identification with the country of origin is an additional important factor in determining acculturation decisions. 1779 41 5 2011 When communicators are perceived as likely to bring proposed outcomes to fruition, they have source efficacy. Although perceptions of source efficacy are common in persuasion settings, this construct has received little direct research attention. The present research explored how source efficacy may impact persuasion in different ways at different levels of motivation to process messages. Across three experiments, participants encountered message arguments of varying quality from a source manipulated to be relatively efficacious or inefficacious. When motivation to process the message was low, source efficacy served as a peripheral cue (Experiment 1). When motivation was high, efficacy information learned before the message biased processing of ambiguous messages (Experiment 2), but source efficacy learned after the message affected the amount of confidence people had in their message related thoughts (Experiment 3). These effects of source efficacy were distinct from effects of perceived source expertise/credibility. 1780 41 5 2011 When people occupy different social positions within a cooperative task they experience discrepant role and situation demands and thus have divergent perspectives. The reported research predicts that exchanging social positions within a cooperative task can overcome divergences of perspective. This prediction was tested in two experiments using the Communication Conflict Situation. The first experiment (n = 88) found that position exchange increased the ability of dyads to solve a communication conflict arising through discrepant perspectives. The second experiment (n = 120) found that the effect of position exchange exceeds that of purely cognitive perspective taking, thus suggesting that it cannot be reduced to a purely cognitive process. Exchanging social positions is a newly identified and powerful social mechanism through which perspective taking, within a cooperative task, can be enhanced. 1781 41 5 2011 We present a Double Perspective Model (DPM) explaining why agency (competence) and communion (warmth) constitute two basic content dimensions of social cognition. Every social action involves two perspectives: of the agent (a person who performs an action) and of the recipient (a person at whom the action is directed). Immediate cognitive goals of the agent and recipient differ, which results in heightened accessibility and weight of content referring either to agency (from the agent §s perspective) or to communion (from the recipient §s perspective). DPM explains why evaluations of other persons are dominated by communal over agentic considerations and allows a novel hypothesis that self esteem is dominated by agentic over communal information. We present several studies supporting this hypothesis. 1782 41 5 2011 The present paper investigates how cognitive projection processes instigate social identification. We complement the classical self stereotyping approach (i.e., conforming to prototypical group norms) by investigating self anchoring (i.e., projection from self to group) as a distinct cognitive route to social identification. Self anchoring has mainly been investigated as predictor of intergroup differentiation. Surprisingly, no reliable link has been provided yet between self anchoring and social identification. In Study 1, we provide first evidence for this positive link. In Study 2, we add self stereotyping to our model and show that self anchoring is still positively related to social identification when controlling for self stereotyping. Additionally, we show that self anchoring is positively related to affective components of identification, while self stereotyping is positively related to cognitive components. Moreover, we examined the impact of self concept stability on self anchoring. Self concept stability was positively related to self anchoring, and hence to social identification (Study 1), independently from self stereotyping (Study 2). In the discussion, we argue that disentangling self anchoring from self stereotyping is important as it increases our insight in how people identify, and how this may vary depending on self concept and group context. 1783 41 5 2011 As previous research has demonstrated numerous times, humans show a robust tendency for cooperation. However, part or indeed all of this cooperativeness may be due to socially desirable responding. To address this problem, we propose and apply a new approach for the unbiased measurement of cooperativeness in social dilemma games. Specifically, we employ an extension of the randomized response technique (RRT). The RRT protects the privacy of respondents by adding random noise to their responses. It thus encourages more honest responding and thereby provides less biased estimates of sensitive attributes. In a large scale study with 2043 respondents we maximized anonymity in a one shot prisoner §s dilemma game through use of the RRT. Comparing the prevalence rates for cooperation obtained via the RRT with those from direct self report showed that traditional direct questioning formats overestimate cooperation rates, with a relative bias of 18%. This finding suggests that to a considerable extent, self reported cooperation is due to socially desirable responding, rather than actual cooperativeness. However, our results also demonstrate that cooperation remains substantial even under conditions of maximized anonymity. 1784 41 5 2011 This study examined whether cultural values predict individuals §s moral attitudes. The main objective was to shed light on the moral universalism and relativism debate by showing that the answer depends on the moral issues studied. Using items from the Morally Debatable Behaviours Scale (MDBS) fielded in the World Value Survey (WVS), we found that moral issues can be differentiated cross culturally into attitudes towards (1) dishonest illegal and (2) personal sexual issues. Drawing upon evolutionary and cultural theories, we expected that the former moral domain is not related to cultural values, whereas the latter is influenced by cultural conceptions of the self (i.e. independent versus interdependent selves). We used multilevel modelling with Schwartz cultural values as the independent variables and the two moral domains as assessed through the MDBS as dependent variables to test our hypothesis. After controlling for individual level differences in moral attitudes as well as the socio economic development of countries, our findings confirmed that attitudes towards dishonest illegal issues were not related to cultural values whereas attitudes towards personal sexual issues were predicted by the Autonomy Embeddedness value dimension. We conclude that our study sheds not only light on the universalism and relativism debate, but also on the discriminant validity of cultural values. 1785 41 5 2011 Communicators §s tuning of a message about a social target to their audience §s evaluation can shape their representation of the target. This audience tuning effect has been demonstrated with ambiguous text passages as input material. We examined whether the effect also occurs when communicators learn about the target §s behaviours from visual (nonverbal) input material. In Experiment 1, participants watched a soundless video depicting ambiguous behaviours of a target, described the video to an audience who liked (vs. disliked) the target, and subsequently recalled the video. Both message and recall were biased towards the audience §s judgement. In Experiment 2, the video depicted a forensically relevant event, specifically ambiguous behaviours of two persons involved in a bar brawl. Participants tuned their event retellings to their audience §s responsibility judgement and remembered the event accordingly. In both experiments, the effect of the audience §s judgement on recall was statistically mediated by the extent to which the message was tuned to the audience. The more participants experienced a shared reality with their audience the stronger was the message recall correlation (Experiment 2). We conclude that the audience tuning effect for visually perceived information depends on the communicators §s creation of a shared reality with their audience. 1786 41 5 2011 This research examined the relative impact of a hoped for, thin body and a feared, overweight body on weight loss dieting (WLD) motivation. We hypothesised that the women most motivated to engage in WLD would report a higher similarity to, and a higher cognitive availability of, a feared, overweight body. In study 1, WLD motivation was operationalized as WLD intention and in study 2 as a food choice (chocolate bar versus low fat snack bar). As expected, those most similar to the feared body and who had a highly available overweight body had the greatest intention to engage in WLD, and were more likely to choose a low fat snack over a chocolate bar. The implications of our findings for future research as well as the development of eating pathology in college women are discussed. 1787 41 6 2011 Current theories suggest that social and physical pain overlap in their neurological and physiological outcomes. We investigated how social and physical pain overlap in their psychological responses by testing the hypothesis that both social and physical pain would thwart satisfaction on four human needs, worsen mood, and increase desire to aggress. In Experiment 1, recalling an experience of social or physical pain produced overlapping effects in the form of thwarted self esteem and control needs and increased negative affect and desire to aggress. In Experiment 2, we induced social (Cyberball ostracism) or physical pain (cold pressor) within the laboratory session, and found that both pain types produced feelings of being ignored and excluded, and thwarted belonging, self esteem, control, and meaningful existence. Our results provide further support to pain overlap theories and indicate that social and physical pain cause common psychological consequences, resulting in new ways to understand and manage pain. 1788 41 6 2011 Facial electromyography (EMG) was used to gauge emotional responding towards images of slim and overweight individuals, and findings were compared with data from a series of alternative measures including two implicit attitudinal procedures, the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) and the Implicit Association Test (IAT), and explicit measures of anti fat prejudice and discriminatory behaviour. Images of slim individuals elicited EMG responses consistent with more positive affect. Data from both the IRAP and IAT indicated higher levels of bias than were revealed on the explicit measures, and the IRAP also corroborated the EMG pattern by indicating responses consistent with pro slim rather than anti fat bias. The IRAP was moderately correlated with both EMG and the IAT and was the only measure to predict behavioural intentions. 1789 41 6 2011 Victims (N = 200) of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and prisoners (N = 184) accused of genocidal acts reported their genocide related emotions and outgroup perceptions before and after their participation to Truth and Reconciliation Gacaca trials. So did control groups of victims (N = 195) and prisoners (N = 176) not yet exposed to Gacaca. The data supported Durkheim §s model of social rituals as cultural tools for transforming emotions, reasserting norms, and enhancing cohesion. Specifically, participation entailed the general reactivation of resignation negative emotions, the enhancement of shame among prisoners, and the decrease of shame among victims, whereas the opposite pattern occurred for antagonist emotions. Participation also enhanced social integration by reducing perceived outgroup homogeneity, decreasing ingroup self categorization, and increasing positive stereotypes among both victim and prisoner participants. Moreover, the increase in genocide related emotions resulting from participation was associated to positive changes outcomes, suggesting that the increase of negative emotions is an important mechanism at work in collective events of this type. Enhancement of the perception of a positive emotional climate (solidarity and trust) was limited to perpetrator participants. Together, these findings show that Durkheim §s model can be extended to restorative justice trials involving both victims and perpetrators. 1790 41 6 2011 In three studies, we tested whether the need to belong would motivate people to perceive consensus for their opinions on important social issues. In Study 1, a nationally representative telephone survey, participants with a high dispositional need to belong perceived greater consensus for their opinions on immigrant naturalization than did those with a low need to belong. However, this relationship was strongest among participants who reported that the issue was personally important to them. In Study 2, participants primed with rejection related (versus acceptance related) words, and who reported high levels of issue importance, demonstrated greater false consensus for their opinions on a proposed alcohol tax increase. In Study 3, participants who received random feedback that they held a common (versus uncommon) opinion had a lower subsequent need to belong when the issue was important to them, suggesting that consensus perceptions can in fact mitigate belongingness needs. 1791 41 6 2011 "The Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al., 2003) shows that people can experience a harmonious or an obsessive passion toward an activity. Mageau and Vallerand (2007; Mageau et al., 2009) have argued that self related processes, such as contingencies of self worth, are central in the distinction between the two types of passion. Specifically, it was proposed that people with an obsessive passion rely more heavily on their passionate activity to derive self esteem than people with a harmonious passion such that they should experience self esteem fluctuations as a function of their performances in their passionate activity. This study tested this hypothesis. Using self reports, results first showed that the more people have an obsessive passion the more they report experiencing self esteem fluctuations that covary with their performances in their passionate activity. In contrast, people with a harmonious passion did not report experiencing more, or less, self esteem fluctuations. Second, hierarchical linear modelling confirmed that, in a real life setting, the more people report an obsessive passion toward a card game, the greater is the impact of performance on their state self esteem. Taken together, these findings suggest that obsessive, but not harmonious, passion triggers contingencies between people §s self esteem and their passionate activity. " 1792 41 6 2011 Researchers suggest that observers of innocent suffering will negatively evaluate the victim as a strategy for maintaining their belief in a just world. We propose an alternative class of strategies and test whether individual differences in repressive coping style predict the type of strategy people will use. In the first two studies, we exposed repressors versus nonrepressors to victims whose suffering should pose a high versus low threat to the need to believe in a just world. Repressors had a greater tendency to positively reappraise the high threat victim §s suffering. Nonrepressors had a greater tendency to negatively evaluate the high threat victim. A third study replicated the results for the high threat conditions and suggested that repressors §s positive reappraisal is not because of a tendency to minimize suffering. Our research (i) demonstrates a class of strategies for preserving the belief in a just world other than negatively evaluating the victim and (ii) is among the first to examine directly an individual difference predictor of alternative just world preservation strategies. 1793 41 6 2011 We investigated when and how life salience boosts adherence to worldviews. It was hypothesized that, similar to thoughts of mortality, thoughts about a meaningful existence increase adherence to worldviews. Study 1a, 1b, and 1c yielded support for the symmetric effects of life and mortality salience on existential thoughts and worldview adherence. Furthermore, study 2 showed that contemplating life §s meaningfulness (versus meaninglessness) increased adherence to worldviews. Study 3 showed increased worldview adherence when contemplating life §s meaningfulness (versus meaninglessness), and provided additional evidence that the effect on worldview adherence was mediated by the appraisals of life §s meaningfulness. Finally, study 4 suggests that both reflecting on life and mortality leads to more worldview adherence under conditions of meaningful life appraisals. The findings are discussed with respect to research in existential psychology. 1794 41 6 2011 Terror management theory argues that mortality induced terror motivates group identification. Uncertainty identity theory argues that uncertainty about what happens after death motivates group identification. Two experiments were conducted to test the latter reasoning. In Experiment 1 (n = 187), mortality salience was manipulated, and uncertainty about the afterlife was measured to predict national identification. As hypothesized, mortality salience strengthened identification only among those who were uncertain about the afterlife. In Experiment 2 (n = 177), mortality salience was manipulated as before, but belief in an afterlife was also manipulated participants were primed to believe that there was an afterlife, there was not an afterlife, or the existence of an afterlife was uncertain. As in Experiment 1, mortality salience strengthened identification only among those who were existentially uncertain. These experiments show that uncertainty plays a significant role in reactions to mortality salience, and support uncertainty identity theory §s analysis of the role of self uncertainty in ideological conviction and group behaviour. 1795 41 6 2011 Three studies examined how a woman §s reaction to a man §s benevolently sexist offer of help affected observers §s perceptions. Results suggest a dilemma for women: A woman who accepted benevolently sexist help was perceived as warm but incompetent and less suited for a competence related job (management consultant), whereas a woman who declined help and asserted her independence as a woman was perceived as competent but cold and less suited for a warmth related job (day care worker). By contrast, observers viewed the male help offerer especially favourably (warmer, more competent, and more qualified as a management consultant) when the female target accepted (versus confronted) his patronizing offer. But only perceivers who endorsed benevolent sexism showed these effects. Implications for challenging benevolent sexism are discussed. 1796 41 6 2011 Focusing on the dehumanization of sexually objectified targets, study 1 tested the extent to which objectified and non objectified male and female publicity photos were associated with human compared to animal concepts. Results confirmed the hypothesis that, among all targets, only objectified women were associated with less human concepts. This pattern of results emerged for both male and female participants but likely for different reasons. Study 2 directly looked at female and male participants §s affinity with sexually objectified women. Results indicated that the more women distanced themselves from sexually objectified women the more they dehumanized them, whereas men §s sexual attraction moderated their tendency to dehumanize female targets. In study 3, this latter motivation was operationalized as the activation of a sex goal and showed to trigger man §s but not woman §s dehumanization of female targets. Overall, the present set of studies show that only sexually objectified women are dehumanized by both men and women but for different reasons. Whereas sexual attraction shifts a men §s focus of a female target away from her personality onto her body triggering a dehumanization process, women are more inclined to dehumanize their sexually objectified counterparts the more they distance themselves from these sexualized representations of their gender category. 1797 41 6 2011 This study examined the roles that identification with the heritage group and identification with the majority group play in the relationship between discrimination (subtle or blatant) and subjective well being among ethnic minority group members. Participants were 320 ethnic Turks and Moroccans in the Netherlands who completed a questionnaire that measured their wellbeing, their perceptions of subtle and blatant discrimination, and their heritage group and majority group identification. The analyses found that relationships between discrimination and well being varied as a joint function of the source and strength of people §s ethnic identification. Individuals who identified more strongly with their heritage group were more likely to report discrimination than low identifiers but were less likely to be negatively affected by it. For those who identified strongly with their heritage group, experiences with subtle and blatant discrimination and well being were unrelated, whereas for those who identified weakly with their heritage group, discrimination and well being were negatively related. In contrast, individuals who identified more strongly with the majority group were less likely to report discrimination than low identifiers but were more likely to be negatively affected by it. For those who identified strongly with the majority group, discrimination and well being were negatively related, whereas for those who identified weakly with the majority group, discrimination and well being were unrelated. These results suggest that although identifying strongly with the heritage group may buffer ethnic minorities from the negative effects of discrimination, identifying strongly with the majority group may exacerbate these effects. 1798 41 6 2011 The belief in the gender invariance of many traits is a view that dominates much of psychology. In social psychology, this position is clearly represented by social dominance theory and the construct of social dominance orientation (SDO) where it is argued that, all else being equal, men will be higher in SDO than women. In other domains, though, these assumptions are being questioned, and researchers are arguing for a gender similarities hypothesis. The argument is that men and women are more similar than different, and where there are effects for gender, these are small. In this investigation, men and women are compared under similar cultural (Study 1), ideological, (Study 2) and status (Study 3) contexts to examine whether, all else being equal, men really are higher in SDO than women. In an additional study (Study 4), a meta analysis is conducted aggregating the effect sizes of the previous studies. Results demonstrated either no effect for gender or an interaction between gender and the relevant social context and only a small effect size of gender findings that disconfirm the ceteris paribus assumption of social dominance theory. In conclusion, the implications of the findings for understanding gender effects in social psychology are discussed. 1799 41 7 2011 Many people believe that drinking alcohol reduces cognitive performance, and prior research has shown such expectancy related impairment even when people merely thought that the (non alcoholic) drink they consumed contained alcohol. This study tested whether subliminal priming with alcohol related cues would similarly result in expectancy consistent cognitive performance decrements. Additionally, the moderating role of alcohol use was examined. After assessing participants §s baseline math performance, participants were primed with alcohol related or neutral words and then completed a post treatment math task. Whereas impairment expectancies had no influence on math performance in control participants, expectancies predicted math performance for participants primed with alcohol related words. As hypothesized, expectancy consistent impairment in performance was only observed among high alcohol users. The current findings suggest that, in the presence of alcohol related cues in the environment, some people may perform less on cognitive tasks even in the absence of actual or assumed alcohol consumption and without being aware of it. 1800 41 7 2011 Can good or bad moods influence people §s tendency to rely on irrelevant information when forming impressions (halo effects)? On the basis of recent work on affect and cognition, this experiment predicted and found that positive affect increased and negative affect eliminated the halo effect. After an autobiographical mood induction (recalling happy or sad past events), participants (N = 246) read a philosophical essay, with an image of the writer attached, showing either an older man or a young woman (halo manipulation). Judgements of the essay and the writer revealed clear mood and halo effects, as well as a significant mood by halo interaction. Positive affect increased halo effects consistent with the more assimilative, constructive processing style it recruits. Negative affect promoting more accommodative and systematic processing style eliminated halo effects. The relevance of these findings for impression formation in everyday situations is considered, and their implications for recent affect cognition theories are discussed. 1801 41 7 2011 An abundance of evidence suggests that the consequences of collective ingroup victimization can traverse generations, even among group members who are not direct descendants of victims. It nevertheless remains unclear why only some group members experience vicarious victimization. To examine the role of collective identification in the transmission of trauma across generations, we surveyed members of a Jewish community including descendants of holocaust survivors and others who were not descendants of the holocaust survivors. Among non descendants, Jewish identification was negatively associated with symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In contrast, among descendants, Jewish identification was positively associated with PTSD symptoms. Further, familial willingness to discuss the holocaust mediated the relationship between identification and PTSD symptoms. Additional analyses confirmed that these effects were specific to holocaust related PTSD symptoms and not general anxiety or depression. These findings suggest that collective identity may both buffer and enhance the effects of collective victimization on mental health. 1802 41 7 2011 In six studies (N = 1045) conducted in three European countries, we demonstrate distinctions between causal responsibility, group based guilt, and moral responsibility. We propose that causal responsibility is an antecedent of group based guilt linking the ingroup to previous transgressions against the victim group. In contrast, moral responsibility is a consequence of group based guilt and is reconceptualised as a sociomoral norm to respond to the consequences of the ingroup §s transgressions and the current needs of the victim group. As such, moral responsibility can be stimulated by group based guilt and directly predicts individual action intentions. Studies 1 and 2 focus on the conceptual distinctions among the three constructs. Study 3 tests the indirect effect of causal responsibility on moral responsibility via group based guilt. The remaining studies explore the mediating role of moral responsibility in associations between group based guilt and compensatory action tendencies, that is, financial compensation (study 4), approach and avoidance tendencies (study 5) and public apology (study 6). Together these studies show that causal and moral responsibility are psychologically distinct concepts from group based guilt and that moral responsibility plays an important role in shaping the effects of group based guilt on behavioural intentions. 1803 41 7 2011 Previous research has sought to establish the existence, or gauge the relative strength, of key self evaluation motives (i.e., self enhancement, self verification, self assessment, self improvement). Here, we attempted, across five samples, to quantify individual differences in self motive strength and explore their empirical ramifications. We devised brief self report indices for each self motive and checked their factor structure, reliability, and validity. We found that self enhancement covaried mainly with self verification, and that self assessment covaried mainly with self improvement, thus validating key hypotheses regarding their functional links. Moreover, self enhancement and self verification covaried with positive personality traits, as well as with preferences for receiving positive feedback and perceptions of its accuracy. In sum, self reported variations in dispositional self motive strength form theoretically meaningful patterns. 1804 41 7 2011 Two experiments examined whether individual differences in prejudice are associated with different reasoning styles when targets and nontargets of prejudice are processed in the same context. High prejudice and low prejudice participants studied pairwise relations between four persons (one a prejudice target, three nontargets). Stereotypes were made salient by using specific ethnic names and stereotypic traits to define relations between the targets. Relations between the persons were always stereotype congruent in Experiment 1, whereas they were sometimes stereotype incongruent in Experiment 2. We examined study time, relational memory, and transitive reasoning in both experiments. The results of both experiments indicated that the high prejudice participants studied sets of relations presented to them faster than did the low prejudice participants. The high prejudice participants were also more likely to show impaired relational memory and reasoning about nontarget persons but no such limitations with respect to target persons. This novel evidence that prejudice might substantially impair memory and transitive reasoning processes about nontarget persons is discussed in the light of alternative theoretical frameworks in the social cognition and emotion domains. 1805 41 7 2011 Two studies explore how salience of the human category influences responses to intergroup harm and how different images of humanity modify these effects. In Study 1, British participants (n = 86) contemplated acts of terrorism against their group. When the human category (versus intergroup distinctions) was salient and when the prevailing image of humanity was malevolent (versus benevolent), participants were not only more understanding of terrorism, blamed this less on religious group memberships, but also more strongly endorsed the use of extreme force by countries to defend their boarders, preserve the peace and prevent future attacks. In Study 2, British participants (n = 83) contemplated the torture of Iraqi prisoners by British soldiers. When the human category was salient and the prevailing image of humanity was malevolent, participants experienced less guilt and justified torture more. We conclude that the effects of human category salience on interpretations of intergroup harm depend on what it means to be human. When human nature is perceived negatively, thinking in terms of the human category can normalise intergroup harm regardless of whether the outgroup or the ingroup is the perpetrator. Implications for re categorisation approaches to conflict reduction are discussed. 1806 41 7 2011 "The Protestant work ethic (PWE), the belief that hard work leads to success, is prevalent in many cultures and has been related to negative attitudes toward disadvantaged groups (prejudice) and social policies targeting them. Given recent theorizing and findings suggesting that PWE is not necessarily associated with prejudice among all people or in all contexts, this meta analysis examined the direction and strength of PWE §s relation to prejudice (37 eligible studies) and policy attitudes (16 studies) among published and unpublished studies across 38?years. Results revealed not only significant positive relationships between PWE and both types of intergroup attitudes but also significant moderators of these relationships. There were significantly larger effect sizes for PWE §s relationship with both prejudice and policy attitudes among samples in Western countries (Canada, England, New Zealand, USA), and marginally significantly larger effect sizes for PWE §s relationship with both types of attitudes the older the mean age of the sample (within Western countries). PWE §s relationship with intergroup attitudes also varied by the target group of the attitudes. Findings support a more nuanced view of PWE §s relationship with intergroup attitudes, suggesting that PWE does not always promote greater prejudice; rather its consequences are culture and context bound. " 1807 41 7 2011 The social identity approach assumes that group members are internally motivated to adhere to group norms. Even though there is plenty of evidence for this assumption, research on how group norms translate into behaviour is scarce. If ingroup norms are internalized, they should elicit the same effect as individual standards. Derived from research on internally motivated individual standards, it was predicted that discrepancies from group norms result in more negative affect, lower levels of well being, and based on self completion theory in compensatory effort in case of an opportunity to reduce the discrepancy. One correlational study and four experiments support these predictions. The results are discussed in relation to self regulation approaches and the social identity approach. 1808 41 7 2011 Authoritarianism is a stable construct in terms of individual differences (social attitudes based on personality and values), but its manifestations and behavioural outcomes may depend on contextual factors. In the present experiment, we investigated whether authoritarianism is sensitive to religious influences in predicting rigid morality. Specifically, we investigated whether authoritarians, after supraliminal religious priming, would show, in hypothetical moral dilemmas, preference for impersonal societal norms even at the detriment of interpersonal, care based prosociality toward proximal persons and acquaintances in need. The results confirmed the expectations, with a small effect size for the religious priming x authoritarianism interaction. In addition, these results were specific to participants §s authoritarianism and not to their individual religiosity. The interaction between authoritarian dispositions and religious ideas may constitute a powerful combination leading to behaviours that are detrimental for the well being and the life of others, even proximal people, in the name of abstract deontology. 1809 41 7 2011 Stereotype threat is an uncomfortable psychological state that has been shown to impair cognitive ability test scores. It is an open question whether and in what ways it affects processes involved in learning and knowledge acquisition. This research examined whether stereotypes also interfere with test preparation among women in the domain of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Study 1 (N = 1058) revealed that people are aware of a stereotype portraying women as less proficient in STEM test preparation than men. Women §s note taking activities were impaired under stereotype threat (Study 2, N = 40), particularly when domain identification was high (Study 3, N = 79). Moreover, stereotype threat impaired women §s performance evaluating the notes of others (Study 4, N = 88). Our work thus shows that stereotype threat not only hinders stereotyped individuals §s capacity to demonstrate their abilities but also impairs behaviours that develop them. 1810 41 7 2011 Cross sectional research has shown that frequency of self disclosure to outgroup members mediates the positive relationship between intergroup friendship and outgroup attitudes. The current research investigated the relationship between self disclosure and attitudes in more depth. New undergraduate students were asked to nominate an ingroup or outgroup friend and then report the intimacy of their disclosures to them, their anxiety and attitudes towards a series of social groups, in the first week of the semester and 6 weeks later. Intimacy of disclosure predicted more positive attitudes towards outgroups over time, but this association was only found among participants who nominated an outgroup friend. In the ingroup friend condition, a negative association was found. These associations were mediated by general intergroup anxiety. These relationships highlight the importance of integrating theories of interpersonal and intergroup relations when investigating intergroup contact. 1811 41 7 2011 Although it is generally accepted that colours carry meaning, experimental research about individual, situational, and cultural differences in the meaning of colours is scarce. The current research examines whether the Dutch national colour functions as a perceptual representation of The Netherlands. A person dressed in orange clothing was judged to identify more with his nation compared with the same person dressed in blue (Study 1). When national identification was salient, such as during (versus before/after) the European soccer championship, or when participants recalled an experience in which they identified (versus not identified) with The Netherlands, and people were more aware of the use of the colour orange as a perceptual representation of The Netherlands, orange was evaluated more positively (Studies 2 and 3). Furthermore, orange evaluations correlated with self reported national identification. These results support the hypothesis that national colours carry psychological meaning, which can influence person perception and colour evaluations. 1812 42 1 2012 "Beyond cognizing persons and social relationships, people also think about combinations of relationships: metarelational models (MeRMs). If relationships are words, then MeRMs are syntax; if relationships are atoms, MeRMs are chemical compounds. MeRMs are the motivated, emotionally experienced, morally directive models for generating, understanding, coordinating, planning, evaluating, modulating, sanctioning, and redressing configurations of social relationships. Previous research and theory on triads and balance, networks, cross cutting ties, and kinship systems has explored the causal connections among social relationships, but MeRM theory posits something more: shared, culturally informed MeRMs that people use to jointly construct meaningful coordinated action. The social interactions of nonhuman animals and pre verbal infants indicate that they use MeRMs, supporting the contention that core innate cognition includes the basic structures of MeRMs. There are six elementary kinds of MeRMs, and recursive linking of relational models (RMs) generates indefinitely more. MeRMs shape individual psychology, relationships, groups, institutions, and cultures. " 1813 42 1 2012 This virtual special issue presents a collection of 23 articles that present theory and research on collective action in the European Journal of Social Psychology. The articles are organized according to four major themes that emerged. In the first section, articles on identification with the disadvantaged group, identification with the superordinate group, and identity content as predictors of collective action are summarized. The second section combines articles examining the role of sociostructural variables (permeability, legitimacy, and stability) for collective action. The third section comprises articles on the psychological implications of sociostructural variables (emotions, efficacy beliefs, threat perceptions) as predictors of collective action. In the final section, articles that highlight the dynamic perspective on collective action are presented. This issue contains articles on collective action conducted by disadvantaged groups, advantaged groups, and opinion based groups. After the conceptual overview, commonalities and distinctions between the articles are highlighted, and some directions for future research are outlined. 1814 42 1 2012 The current research investigates whether implicit explicit attitudinal discrepancy (IED) weakens attitudes as explicit discrepancies do. Across two experiments, we found that IED is an indicator of weak attitudes. In Experiment 1, we found that individuals with greater IED toward exercise were more swayed by a self perceptual manipulation than individuals with lower IED toward exercise. In Experiment 2, we found that the stability and predictive power of attitudes toward alcohol were lessened for participants who had greater IED. These effects occurred independently of the participants §s levels of explicit ambivalence and evaluative cognitive consistency. The present research broadens our understanding of the ways in which evaluations that may not be easily verbalized can affect our thoughts and behaviour. 1815 42 1 2012 The role that shared group membership plays in decisions to trust others is now well established within social psychology. A close reading of this literature, however, shows that this process is often moderated by other variables. Currently, we examined one potential moderator of this process. In particular, we evaluated the role that common knowledge of a shared social group membership between self and a to be trusted stranger provides as a basis for trusting this stranger. This common knowledge emerges when the truster knows the group membership of the to be trusted other, and believes that this other also knows the group membership of the truster. In two experiments, using pre existing and minimal groups, we show that people are more likely to trust an ingroup member over an outgroup member under conditions of common group membership knowledge rather than private group membership knowledge (i.e. other does not know truster §s group), even when they could choose not to trust anyone. The manner in which these data add to current understandings of group based trust in strangers is discussed. 1816 42 1 2012 The present contribution tested the general hypothesis that individual tendencies in the choice of terms at different levels of abstraction are enhanced when the same descriptions are formulated by a group. We compared the level of abstraction of individual and collective written judgements about applicants for a job position and found that the selection linguistic bias collectively expressed by hiring committees became more extreme in the direction established by initial individual judgements. Negative terms used to describe rejected applicants became more abstract, and those used to describe selected applicants became more concrete from individual to collective judgements. Conversely, positive terms employed to describe rejected applicants were more concrete in collective than individual judgements. Implications of these findings for the notion of language as a tool that enables coupling between group shared knowledge and group goals activated by the task at hand are discussed. 1817 42 1 2012 "This research explored the notion that the use and efficacy of influence tactics launched from different social power bases depends on influence agents §s and recipients §s need for cognitive closure. In three separate studies conducted in diverse organizational contexts, it was found that, while overall participants exhibited a preference for soft over hard social influence tactics, this preference becomes less pronounced for supervisors high (versus low) on need for closure and becomes more pronounced for supervisors low on the need for closure. Overall, soft tactics were more beneficial for subordinates §s performance than hard tactics; however, the benefits of soft tactics decreased as a function of subordinates §s need for closure. Finally, organizational outcomes were improved when recipients who were high (versus low) on the need for closure were exposed to hard power tactics and those low (versus high) in the need for closure were exposed to soft tactics. " 1818 42 1 2012 Unlike other forms of positive thinking (e.g., expectations), research finds that positive fantasies (experiencing one §s thoughts and mental images about the future positively) predict low effort and little success in several domains. However, for vocational education students of low socioeconomic status and minority ethnicity, for whom the present environment is especially difficult, perhaps it would be appropriate to indulge in positive fantasies that depict the future as bright and easily attained. Three studies show that this is not the case. Positive future fantasies measured early in the program predicted more days absent (Studies 23) and lower grades at the end of the program (Studies 13), even when adjusting for initial academic competence, expectations of successful achievement, and self discipline. Expectations of successful achievement predicted fewer days absent and higher grades only when measured midway through the school year, once participants had experience with their own academic standing (Study 3). Results indicate that positive fantasies, which allow people to indulge in images of a bright future, predict poor achievement even in vocational students immersed in a particularly difficult environment. 1819 42 1 2012 The detrimental consequences of negative stereotypes on performance have been demonstrated in a variety of social groups with various stereotypes. The present studies investigate the minimal conditions for stereotype threat using newly created groups. Results of three experiments (total N=184) demonstrate that in the negative stereotype condition, the more participants identified with their novel group, the stronger was their decrease in performance. In the control condition, identification was either not related to performance, or it had by trend a positive effect. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed with regard to stereotype threat and social identity theory. 1820 42 1 2012 Self handicapping is an anticipatory self protective strategy in which individuals create or claim obstacles to success prior to an important performance to excuse potential failure. The present research sought in four studies to document the anticipatory nature of self handicapping, examining the role of prefactual (what if....?) thoughts in this strategy. Individuals prone to self handicap were more likely to generate prefactuals, identifying ways to undermine their performance. Moreover, inducing individuals to consider these thoughts increased self handicapping behaviour, whereas focusing individuals on ways to improve their performance actually reduced self handicapping behaviour. Implications of this work for understanding the cognitive processes underlying self handicapping behaviour and for interventions that seek to minimize this self defeating behaviour are discussed. 1821 42 1 2012 We propose morality shifting as a mechanism through which individuals can maintain a moral image of the ingroup. We argue that a shift from the moral principles of harm and fairness to those of loyalty and authority occurs when assessing a potentially threatening event, particularly among high ingroup glorifiers. Three studies confirmed this hypothesis using three different methodologies. Study 1 compared the use of language related to four moral foundations formulated in moral psychology in response to ingroup and outgroup committed wrongdoings. Results showed that loyalty and authority related words were used more, whereas harm and fairness related words were used less in response to ingroup compared with outgroup committed wrongdoings. Study 2 replicated this effect with regards to the cognitive accessibility of these moral principles. Study 3 confirmed that morality shifting is a motivated response to social identity threat, rather than a response to mere activation of social identity. Finally, as predicted, Study 3 demonstrated the effect of morality shifting to be moderated by ingroup glorification but not ingroup attachment. Implications and consequences for intergroup and individual wrongdoings, as well as for intergroup relations, are discussed. 1822 42 1 2012 Research has demonstrated that narratives can be effective in eliciting attitude change, especially when recipients become transported into the narrative. In three studies, we addressed whether some people are predisposed to be influenced by narratives and whether narrative and rhetorical appeals are differentially effective for different people. In Study 1, participants read an experimental or a control narrative, and completed measures of attitudes, need for affect (NFA), need for cognition (NFC), transportation, and transportability. The results revealed that NFA and NFC were positively correlated with transportation and transportability. In Study 2, participants read either a narrative appeal or a rhetorical appeal about cervical cancer and completed a measure of attitudes and the individual difference constructs. Study 3 was a replication of Study 2 using a different topic (organ donation). In both studies, the results revealed a consistent pattern of correlations among the individual difference measures. Further, we found that although the narrative and rhetorical appeals were judged to be of equal efficacy, the persuasiveness of the narrative appeal differed as function of individual differences in NFA and NFC. The implications for narrative persuasion are discussed. 1823 42 1 2012 "A three phase longitudinal study (spread over a month §s time) was carried out to investigate attitude §s persistence and linkage to behaviour as it may be affected by the processing of information about the communication source. The following three independent variables were manipulated: (i) contents of the source of information (implying the communicator to be expert or inexpert on the topic of the communication); (ii) length of the source information (brief versus lengthy); and (iii) message recipients §s involvement in the issue at hand (high versus low). Replicating prior research when the source information was brief, it exerted greater persuasive impact under low versus high involvement, and when it was lengthy, it exerted greater persuasive impact under high versus low involvement. Of greater importance, the newly acquired attitudes were more persistent and were linked more strongly to actual behaviour when the source information was lengthy (versus brief) provided the recipients had high (versus low) involvement in the issue. These findings were interpreted to mean that just like with the message/issue information in prior research, when processed extensively, source information, too, may contribute to the formation of persistent and behaviour driving attitudes. " 1824 42 1 2012 Research has established that targets who express disagreement with prejudicial comments directed toward their social group may be viewed negatively by those they confront or by members of social outgroups. Less research has examined how non target individuals who confront prejudicial remarks are perceived. The current studies were designed to examine how non targets who confronted racist (Study 1) and heterosexist (Study 2) comments would be perceived as a function of the level of offensiveness of the comment and the confrontation style used. The studies also examined whether confronting behaviour would affect perceptions of the individual who made the prejudicial comment. Undergraduate participants read vignettes depicting a situation with a high or low offensive prejudicial comment in which a non target individual confronted assertively, unassertively, or not at all. Participants provided judgments of both individuals. Results indicated that non targets who confronted highly prejudicial comments either assertively or unassertively were liked and respected more than those who failed to confront. Additionally, commenters who were assertively confronted were respected less than commenters who were not. These findings suggest that non targets may be especially effective in confronting prejudicial comments, as they do not suffer the same negative consequences as targets who confront. 1825 42 1 2012 This paper reports a meta analysis of the empirical literature on the effects of speakers §s accents on interpersonal evaluations. Our review of the published literature uncovered 20 studies that have compared the effects of standard accents (i.e., the accepted accent of the majority population) versus non standard accents (i.e., accents that are considered foreign or spoken by minorities) on evaluations about the speakers. These 20 studies yielded 116 independent effect sizes on an array of characteristics that were selected by the original researchers. We classified each of the characteristics as belonging to one of three domains that have been traditionally discussed in this area, namely status (e.g., intelligence, social class), solidarity (trustworthiness, ingroup outgroup member), and dynamism (level of activity and liveliness). The effect was particularly strong when American Network accented speakers were compared with nonstandard accented speakers. These results underscore prior research showing that speakers §s accents have powerful effects on how others perceive them. These and other results are discussed in the context of the literature along with implications for future research in this area. 1826 42 2 2012 When confronted with violations of justice, people may be motivated not only to punish the violator, but also to compensate the victim. Whereas prior research has primarily concentrated on the question of when people are willing to punish, we provide a more comprehensive picture by also studying the willingness to compensate and by assessing the moderating role of empathic concern. Study 1 introduces the altruistic compensation game and shows that especially high empathic (compared to low empathic) people are willing to give up parts of their own resources to financially compensate the victims of distributive injustice. Study 2 completes the picture by directly comparing altruistic compensation with altruistic punishment. The study showed that high empathic people decided to compensate the victim, but low empathic people decided to punish the offender. 1827 42 2 2012 We examined how a group §s claim to moral superiority influences evaluations of rule breaking by ingroup members. Moral superiority was manipulated among researchers (Study 1) and British citizens (Study 2), after which group members were presented with ingroup rule breakers: a researcher violating ethical rules (Study 1) and British soldiers abusing Iraqi prisoners (Study 2). In both studies, higher and lower identifiers in the control condition perceived the rule breaking as equally damaging, evaluated the rule breakers equally negatively and recommended equally harsh punishments. When the group had taken the moral high ground, lower identifiers perceived the rule breaking as more damaging than did higher identifiers. In addition, higher identifiers evaluated the rule breakers less negatively and recommended more lenient punishments. Results of mediation analyses demonstrated that negative evaluations of, and recommended punishment for, the rule breakers were explained by the perceived damage that their behaviour caused to the ingroup. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. 1828 42 2 2012 Intergroup anxiety has become important in understanding the success or failure of intergroup contact. In this paper, we suggest that intergroup anxiety is made up from two constructs: self anxiety (anxiety over thinking or doing something that is prejudiced) and other anxiety (anxiety that the other might do something to you). Over four studies, we show how these two dimensions have different correlates and independently predict psychophysiological reactivity to an intergroup interaction. Other anxiety was associated with negative intergroup attitudes and negative affect. In contrast, self anxiety had no simple relationship with conventional measures of intergroup attitudes but was associated with a flattening of responses that were indicative of freezing (Study 3) and simultaneous approach and avoidance (Study 4). We suggest that whereas other anxiety is associated with negative affect and avoidance, self anxiety is associated with freezing responses to intergroup interaction. Thus, the distinction between these two constructs has important repercussions. 1829 42 2 2012 We investigated the assumption that independent versus interdependent self construals yield different manifestations of psychological reactance in different group contexts. We expected collectivists (interdependent) to value the collective freedom of an ingroup more in face of an outgroup threat than individualists (independent) who should be protective of their individual freedom especially within an ingroup. In Study 1, we showed that collectivists (Taiwanese students) did not show reactance when a threat to their freedom of choice originated in the ingroup, but they did show reactance when it originated in an outgroup. In Study 2, Austrian students showed more reactance the more interdependent their self construal was when confronted with an outgroup restriction. However, the more independent Austrian students §s self construal was, the more reactance they showed when the threat came from the ingroup. Priming an independent (versus interdependent) self construal in Study 3, we again observed more reactance when freedom was restricted by the ingroup. The findings underline the importance of understanding psychological reactance as a socially situated phenomenon. 1830 42 2 2012 Recent stereotype threat research has demonstrated that negative stereotypes about women §s math ability can impair their mathematical learning. This experiment extends this research by examining whether presenting gender fair information can reduce learning decrements (on a focal and transfer task) and if the timing of this information matters. Women (N?=?140) and men (N?=?60) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: control, stereotype threat only, stereotype threat removed before learning, and stereotype threat removed after learning. Compared with women in the control condition and women who had stereotype threat removed before learning, learning and transfer were poorer for women in the stereotype threat only condition and women who had stereotype threat removed after learning but before learning assessment. Men §s learning and transfer were unaffected by condition. These findings suggest that a manipulation that can reduce performance deficits can also reduce learning decrements if it is presented before learning occurs. 1831 42 2 2012 "Threat has been linked to conformity, but little is known about the specific effects of different kinds of threat. We test the hypothesis that perceived threat of infectious disease exerts a unique influence on conformist attitudes and behaviour. Correlational and experimental results support the hypothesis. Individual differences in Perceived Vulnerability to Disease predict conformist attitudes; these effects persist when controlling for individual differences in the Belief in a Dangerous World. Experimentally manipulated salience of disease threat produced stronger conformist attitudes and behaviour, compared with control conditions (including a condition in which disease irrelevant threats were salient). Additional results suggest that these effects may be especially pronounced in specific domains of normative behaviour that are especially pertinent to pathogen transmission. These results have implications for understanding the antecedents of conformity, the psychology of threat, and the social consequences of infectious disease. " 1832 42 2 2012 "Three experiments tested whether the Implicit Association Test (IAT) is sensitive to the perceived accuracy of newly learned associations. In experiment 1, participants learned to associate positive or negative attributes with two novel groups. Participants in one condition were told that the attributes accurately described the groups; in a second condition, prior to learning, they were made aware that the attributes were randomly assigned to the groups. Participants were given an IAT and an explicit measure testing attitudes towards the two groups. When the participants were told that the attributes were accurate, their IAT performance and explicit measure responses indicated a preference for the more positively described group but when the attributes were known to be arbitrary, preferences were reduced according to both measures. Experiment 2 replicated these results and demonstrated that the associations were learned even in the random condition. Experiment 3 included a condition that placed not before each attribute, which demonstrated that people can incorporate a negative modifier into a learned association. Explicit attitudes and the IAT showed reversed preferences in this negation condition. These experiments imply that the IAT is sensitive to the perceived accuracy of learned associations. " 1833 42 2 2012 "Social acceptance and the development of one §s competencies and status are fundamental aspects of the human experience, but the former (communion) should take precedence over the latter (agency) in self judgment. Study 1 results indicated that (i) people across two cultures judged themselves as possessing higher communion than agency characteristics; (ii) communion self judgments were more consistent across temporal perspective; and (iii) level of self enhancement across cultures was similar for communion but different for agency. In Study 2, people across culture reported being more troubled and demonstrated a greater desire to repair their reputation when they imagined others perceived them as lacking in communion compared with agency. These findings support the idea that social life pressures people to view themselves as possessing communion traits and to ensure that others have this perception as well. " 1834 42 2 2012 When unknown groups and equal status groups are compared by contrasting one group (the effect to be explained) against another (the linguistic norm), the group positioned as the norm is sometimes perceived as more powerful, more agentic, and as less communal. Such perceptions may contribute to status linked stereotypes, as group differences are spontaneously described by positioning higher status groups as the linguistic norm. Here, 103 participants considered gender differences in status to be larger and more legitimate and applied gender stereotypes more readily upon reading about gender differences in leadership that were framed around a male rather than a female linguistic norm. These effects did not generalize to 113 participants who read about gender differences in leisure time preferences framed around either norm. Jointly, these results suggest that the effects of linguistic framing on perceived group status and power and on group stereotypes generalize to domains where there are real differences in status, and contexts in which higher status groups are the default standard for comparison. 1835 42 2 2012 Portrayals of women in advertisements have a significant impact on the maintenance of gender stereotypes in society. Therefore, the present research investigates the effectiveness of communal and agentic female characters in advertisements as well as the question how evaluations of such characters are influenced by perceivers §s sexist attitudes toward women. Results show that communal female advertising characters are evaluated more favourably than agentic ones and that these evaluations predict advertising effectiveness. Benevolent sexism predicts more positive evaluations of communal female advertising characters (studies 1 and 2). Moreover, hostile sexism predicts less positive evaluations of agentic female advertising characters when it is assessed under time pressure (Study 2). Implications of these findings for the perpetuation of gender stereotypes in advertisements and in society are discussed. 1836 42 2 2012 The cohesiveness of a society depends, in part, on how its individual members manage their daily activities with respect to the goals of that society. Hence, there should be a degree of social agreement on what constitutes action and what constitutes inaction. The present research investigated the structure of action and inaction definitions, the evaluation of action versus inaction, and individual differences in these evaluations. Action inaction ratings of behaviours and states showed more social agreement at the ends of the inaction action continuum than at the middle, suggesting a socially shared construal of this definition. Action inaction ratings were also shown to correlate with the valence of the rated behaviours, such that the more active the behaviour, the more positive its valence. Lastly, individual differences in locomotion, need for closure, and Christian religious beliefs correlated positively with a preference for action. 1837 42 2 2012 Past research has provided abundant evidence that exposure to violent video games increases aggression and aggression related variables. In contrast, little is known whether and why video game exposure may also decrease aggressive behaviour. In fact, two experiments revealed that playing a prosocial (relative to a neutral) video game reduces aggressive behaviour. Mediational analyses showed that differences in both aggressive cognition and aggressive affect underlie the effect of type of video game on aggressive behaviour. These findings are in line with assumptions of the General Learning Model and point to the importance of the cognitive and affective routes in predicting how aggressive behaviour is affected by exposure to video games. 1838 42 2 2012 This study investigates discriminatory peer aggression among primary school aged children as a function of minority status (based on nationality, ethnicity, religion) of the target and the relative proportions of minority and majority children in the school. Participants were 925 8 to 12 year olds attending schools in Britain. Children of minority status were no more likely than children of majority background to experience peer aggression in general. However, minority children were more likely to experience being the victims of discriminatory aggression. Two contrasting predictions were tested: that discriminatory aggression would be more likely when the minority group was relatively small in number or, alternatively, that as the proportions of children of minority backgrounds increased across schools, discriminatory aggression would be greater. The latter hypothesis was supported. Findings also revealed that in schools with a lower minority presence, discriminatory aggression experienced by majority children was significantly lower than that reported by minority children. When the school minority rate exceeded 81%, discriminatory aggression was more commonly experienced among majority children than among minority children. 1839 42 2 2012 There are ongoing debates both in personality psychology and social psychology on the causes and consequences of personality stability and change. Recent work on social roles suggests that as people change roles (e.g. employee to manager), different experiences and demands are internalised into one §s self concept shaping identity and personality. In this paper, the emphasis moves beyond roles to other group memberships (e.g. ethnicity) in shaping one §s self view and self rated personality (e.g. Neuroticism). The results of two experiments demonstrated that the salience of a particular group membership (as a Non Aboriginal Australian) did significantly impact on Neuroticism. Such findings suggest that social identity processes may offer a hitherto neglected avenue for helping to explain personality (dis)continuity. Implications of these findings for both fields are discussed. 1840 42 2 2012 The acceptance of migrant populations and the definition of an appropriate migrant are controversial issues in many countries. The present research focuses on the ideological determinants of how newcomers are evaluated by a host population in a Western country with a strongly rooted meritocratic ideology. We carried out two studies to examine how the expression of meritocratic beliefs by a male potential migrant affects the way he is evaluated by the host population. We measured the host population §s perception of the potential migrant §s ability to integrate into society, his tendency to adopt the host country §s culture, and the general desirability of his world vision for all newcomers. We also noted the host population §s judgments of the target §s agency and communality. The results showed that a potential newcomer who expresses a strong (vs. weak) belief in a just world (Study 1) or an internal (vs. external) locus of control (Study 2) is evaluated more favourably by the host population. In addition, judgments of the target §s integration capacity were only mediated by his perceived agency. We discuss these results in the light of work on the meritocratic ideology and intercultural relations. 1841 42 3 2012 Humans have the unique capacity to mentally travel through time, that is, to reflect on the past, anticipate the future, and construct alternate realities in their minds. The ability to mentally travel through time affects a variety of social psychological topics. Representations of events can differ considerably, depending on the event §s temporal location and distance from the present. Current emotions may be influenced by thoughts of future and past times (e.g., nostalgia, hope). Judgments about future events and actions are an important aspect of everyday functioning (e.g., predictions). Indeed, hypothetical thought about counterfactual events that might never come to pass may change the perception and evaluation of present reality. Despite this varied and extensive influence of time on affect, judgment, perception, and behaviour, these diverse topics have not been brought together under one common roof. In this overview article and in the special issue on Mental Time Travel, we aim to identify key themes of mental time travel research, point to communalities and differences, and help to integrate various aspects of mental time travel research. Future directions regarding open questions, need for theoretical integration, and further empirical research are discussed. 1842 42 3 2012 The authors investigated the impact of temporal distance on just world maintenance strategy. Across four studies, it was found that participants blamed the victim §s actions more when victimization was temporally near (i.e., occurred within the last year, seemed to have occurred just yesterday, focused on how the abuse occurred). In contrast, perceivers blamed the victim §s character more and expected the victim to find benefits for his or her suffering more when victimization was temporally distant (i.e., occurred five years ago, seemed to have occurred long ago, focused on why the abuse occurred). The effects of temporal distance on just world maintenance strategy were only found when just world threat was high. Implications for the study of just world theory and construal level theory are discussed. 1843 42 3 2012 "Nostalgic memories can be pleasant, albeit bittersweet, and have been found beneficial for well being. This study demonstrated that for individuals who habitually worry, nostalgia may not be such a nourishing experience. Nostalgia was experimentally induced using a visual imagery task and resulted in positive affect. Although this was also the case for participants who habitually worry, these individuals subsequently showed more signs of anxiety and depression than habitual worriers in a control condition. The findings fit within a control theoretical perspective; as habitual worriers §s actual chronic state of anxiety contrasts with nostalgic memories of a carefree past, this may instigate further rumination leading to distress. A more present oriented time perspective, such as mindfulness, is discussed as being beneficial for habitual worriers. " 1844 42 3 2012 This research examined construal differences evoked by mental travel to nostalgic, ordinary, or positive autobiographical events. According to the Construal Level Theory, psychologically distant events are construed with abstract terms, proximal events with concrete terms. We argue that nostalgic recollections are characterized by a unique construal pattern. Nostalgia refers to unusual and meaningful memories that are preserved, if not idealized, across time. As such, nostalgic events involve psychological distance and will be construed with abstract terms. Secondarily, they will also be construed with concrete terms as they reflect relevance to the present or psychological proximity. Two experiments confirmed the hypotheses. The experiments compared narratives of nostalgic, ordinary, and positive recollections, as well as distance of pertinent events in time and location. Recollections of nostalgic (compared with ordinary) events included a greater number of abstract terms and higher level construal while entailing concrete elements linking past to present. The experiments also identified unique consequences of nostalgic recollections in terms of affect, including a sense of authenticity. 1845 42 3 2012 One form that mental time travel takes is fantasies about the future. Research to date has not established when people generate fantasies that depict an imagined future as particularly positive. We identify need state as a variable promoting positive fantasies about relevant stimuli (i.e., those that could address the need). In four studies, people with an aroused need (or with a stronger need) generated more positive fantasies depicting idealized future scenarios that were relevant to addressing the need, compared with people without this need (or with a weaker need). These results held for a variety of needs (meaning in life, drinking, relatedness, and power) and whether needs were manipulated (Studies 13) or measured (Study 4). The findings shed light on when and why people depict imagined futures as particularly positive. 1846 42 3 2012 In the present study we examined the role of four specific forms of reappraisal in people §s overestimation of their future experiences of anger and sadness. Results show that forecasters predicted to experience more intense anger and sadness following social exclusion than experiencers actually felt. This impact bias was shown in both the overall intensity of these emotions and their associated response tendencies. Results also show that forecasters indicated less reappraisal of the situation than experiencers actually employ. Moreover, for experiencers, reappraisal (i.e., relativisation) of social exclusion decreased their experience of anger, whereas forecasters §s predicted reappraisal was not related to their forecasted experience of anger. These findings add importantly to earlier research by indicating how a specific emotion regulatory process (i.e., reappraisal) is related to the impact bias in affective forecasting. 1847 42 3 2012 "Social pain has been shown to be more easily re lived than physical pain. This study further examined whether social pain could be more easily pre lived or pre experienced than physical pain. Participants were instructed to pre live a socially or physically painful event and report their feelings of pain. Consistent with our hypotheses, social pain is easily pre lived, but physical pain is not. In addition, individuals with more vivid mental imageries reported higher levels of pain after pre living a socially painful event than those with less vivid mental imagery; such a difference was not observed after pre living a physically painful event. The discussion was centered on the theoretical and metrological implications of these findings. " 1848 42 3 2012 In everyday life, people are constantly faced with deadlines. The current research investigated whether a self regulatory orientation in terms of promotion and prevention focus impacts on what individuals center on when considering deadlines. Specifically, we assumed promotion focus to enhance thinking about deadline descriptions and prevention focus to enhance thinking about deadline related behaviour, both in terms of their self regulatory concerns (i.e., advancement versus security). Studies 1a and 1b, across a multitude of deadlines, provide evidence for this: Chronic promotion focus was related to growth oriented deadline descriptions whereas chronic prevention focus was related to safety oriented deadline behaviour. Additionally, Study 1c shows that effects stem from experiences with past deadlines rather than deliberations of future deadlines. Finally, Study 2, manipulating regulatory focus and having participants spontaneously generate texts in relation to one specific deadline, replicated the effect for descriptions versus behaviour. In sum, our results show that individuals §s self regulation impacts on deadline conceptualizations. 1849 42 3 2012 Two studies investigated how expectancy violations of exposure duration affected preference for neutral faces. In two experiments, participants evaluated pictures of neutral faces, ostensibly exposed for the duration of 8 (Experiment 1) or 10 (Experiment 2)?seconds each. Exposure duration was manipulated by varying actual exposure time within participants as being either 2 seconds shorter (time flies) or 2 seconds longer (time drags) than expected. Results confirmed the intuitive hypothesis that neutral faces would be evaluated more positively in situations where time seemed to fly compared with situations where time seemed to drag. However, comparing affective judgments in both expectancy violation conditions to an expectancy control (i.e., no expectancy violation) condition (Experiment 2) indicated that violations of expected exposure duration actually attenuated affective judgments, such that affective judgments in the absence of temporal discrepancies were most positive. These results suggest that temporal contrasts derived from a violation of duration expectancies may hinder fluent information processing, leading to attenuated affective judgments compared with situations in which no duration expectancies were violated. 1850 42 3 2012 Four studies examined the effect of primed temporal distance on global versus local perception, using auditory, haptic, gustatory, and olfactory stimuli. The studies show that thinking of the more distant (versus proximal) future facilitated Gestalt perception and impaired perception of details across all four modalities: Participants thinking about the distant future listened more to the Gestalt than to the details of an artificial poem, they grasped more the overall shape than the single parts of a set of boxes, they tasted more the overall flavour than the ingredients of a musli, and they smelled more the general aroma than the ingredients of everyday objects. The participants §s self reported curiosity mediated our results, which is consistent with Novelty Categorization Theory. Moreover, the results are discussed within the framework of Construal Level Theory of psychological distance and GLOMOsys. 1851 42 3 2012 We examined the role of subjective temporal distance in people §s future self predictions. Consistent with temporal self appraisal theory, we hypothesized that people would be motivated to evaluate future selves more favourably when they felt closer in time, because subjectively close future selves have more direct implications for current identity than do subjectively distant future selves. Subjective temporal distance of a future self was manipulated, holding constant actual temporal distance. Participants predicted more favourable personal qualities (Study 1) at a future time that seemed close rather than distant. Supporting a self enhancement account, subjective distance effects were specific to appraisals of future self but not acquaintances (Study 2), and the link between subjective distance and future self appraisals was eliminated when participants satisfied their self image goals via a self affirmation exercise (Study 3). Study 4 provided evidence that subjectively close future selves influence current identity to a greater extent than do distant selves: Participants evaluated their current selves more positively when feeling close to, rather than distant from, a future success. 1852 42 3 2012 The results of four experiments support the hypothesis that mental time travel is more prototypical in the future tense than in the past tense. That is, prospection more than retrospection is grounded in scripts, schemas, stereotypes, and other prototypical mental representations of what people, places, and events are typically like. People reported that events in prospection rather than retrospection were more similar to each other and more similar to a prototypical event (encounters with homeless people in Experiment 1, ordering pizza in Experiment 2). Because prototypes tend to be abstract, people selected higher levels of action identification during prospection than during retrospection (Experiment 3) an effect that was not moderated by distance. Finally, drawings of future vacations that were generated by one sample of people were judged by a different sample of people, who were unaware of the drawings §s tense, as more prototypical compared with drawings of past vacations (Experiment 4). Discussion centers on the underlying explanations of prototypical prospection and on the implications of these temporal asymmetries for theories of psychological distance. 1853 42 3 2012 The present research examines whether people can experience collective guilt for harmful events that have yet to be committed. In two experiments, we show that people not only experience collective guilt for future harm but feel it to a greater extent than for an identical event that occurred in the past. In Experiment 1, Canadians felt more collective guilt for flooding Aboriginal lands in 1month §s time than 1month ago. This time effect was mediated by increased levels of perceived control over the harm inflicted. In Experiment 2, the same pattern was found among Germans for the decision by a German company to use suppliers that subject their Bangladeshi employees to inhumane working conditions. Moreover, they were also willing to compensate future harm more than past harm. Implications for groups seeking reparation are discussed. 1854 42 3 2012 Counterfactual thoughts identifying how a past performance could have been better (e.g., If only I had studied for the exam, I would have gotten an A!) have been shown to increase effort and performance on future tasks. The present work examines whether current self evaluation motives moderate this link between past and future behaviour. In two studies, we demonstrate that the preparatory benefits of counterfactual thoughts are limited to situations in which individuals pursue a self improvement motive. When individuals are instead motivated by self protection concerns, counterfactuals can be used to excuse poor performance, undermining any desire to improve in the future. The behavioural consequences of counterfactual thoughts are therefore dependent upon active self evaluation motives. 1855 42 3 2012 Functional counterfactual thinking involves a unique set of circumstances where one can both reflect on past events and imagine future possibilities. A key aspect of a counterfactual §s functionality is that insight about past mistakes is converted into plans for future action, thereby improving self regulatory success. If counterfactual thinking is a self regulatory tool, then it should be similarly impacted by psychological mechanisms that influence peoples §s ability to improve future outcomes. The current research tested one such mechanism, psychological distance. Using a sequential priming paradigm, Experiment 1 showed that functional counterfactual thinking is sensitive to changes in temporal distance. Negative events in the recent versus distant past facilitated relevant behavioural intention judgments. Additionally, functional counterfactual thinking was sensitive to changes in the relevant behavioural intention §s temporal distance, such that counterfactual judgments facilitated behavioural intentions set to occur in the near but not distant future (Experiment 2). Together, this research creates new connections between functional counterfactual thinking and psychological distance. 1856 42 3 2012 The present article conceptualizes mental time travel as a special case of transcending psychological distance, which rests on the uniquely human ability to consider counterfactual and hypothetical worlds. We discuss the possible challenges that counterfactuality and futurity present before our cognitive system, which include severing the real from imagined worlds and dealing with uncertainty. We suggest, similar to extant approaches to theory of mind, that the use of abstractsymbolic mental representations helps overcome these difficulties. We present empirical evidence to support the claim that counterfactual and hypothetical objects are encoded in a more abstract manner than ascertained objects. Finally, we discuss the possible advantages of linguistic/disembodied representation over the embodied experiential form. 1857 42 4 2012 Recently, social psychology has become central in the study of morality. This turn to morality as a topic builds on social psychologists §s long standing interest in issues closely related to morality, such as cooperation, empathy, fairness, social norms and deviance. The present paper introduces a (virtual) special issue on morality by highlighting some of the 41 articles on moral or morality that have appeared in the European Journal of Social Psychology from 1973 to the present. The nineteen highlighted papers are organized into the main topics covered in research on morality published in EJSP: Emotion, Impression Formation and Trait Inference, Norms and Deviance, Stereotypes, and Reasoning and Judgment. A description of the historical trends that characterized research on morality in EJSP is also provided. 1858 42 4 2012 Adult attachment has been studied as an important predictor of romantic relationship quality in many empirical studies. This meta analysis quantitatively summarized the associations between the two insecure adult attachment dimensions, anxiety and avoidance, and cognitive, emotional, and behavioural indicators of romantic relationship quality based on 73 previous studies with 118 independent samples of 21?602 individuals. More importantly, we examined the different effects of anxiety and avoidance on relationship quality. We also tested the potential moderating effects of gender on the strength of these associations. Meta analytic results confirmed that both anxiety and avoidance were detrimental to the cognitive, emotional, and behavioural aspects of relationship quality. Compared with anxiety, avoidance was more negatively associated with general satisfaction, connectedness, and general support in relationships. In contrast, anxiety was more positively associated with general conflict in relationships. The moderating effect of gender was weak. However, supplementary analyses found that the type of couple interaction measures (self report versus observation) significantly moderated the relations between insecure attachments and the behavioural indicators of relationship quality. Our results integrate and extend previous findings about the dynamics of adult attachment and romantic relationship quality. 1859 42 4 2012 Psychological research has repeatedly shown that victims are more likely to forgive socially close than distant others, but little research has addressed the question whether forgiveness in these two cases actually has the same psychological meaning. As one approach to this issue, the present research investigates how acts of forgiveness aid the restoration of victims §s justice feelings through different processes, depending on the closeness of their relationship to the offender. In two studies (Study 1 using a scenario method, Study 2 an autobiographical recall), the victim §s perceptions of value consensus with the offender mediated justice restoring effects of forgiveness expressed towards a close offender, whereas feelings of status/power mediated justice restoring effects of forgiveness expressed towards a distant offender. 1860 42 4 2012 Emotions influence information processing because they are assumed to carry valuable information. We predict that induced anger will increase ethnic but not gender intergroup bias because anger is related to conflicts for resources, and ethnic groups typically compete for resources, whereas gender groups typically engage in relations of positive interdependence. Furthermore, we also predict that this increased ethnic intergroup bias should only be observed among men because men show more group based reactions to intergroup conflict than women do. Two studies, with 65 and 120 participants, respectively, indeed show that anger induction increases ethnic but not gender intergroup bias and only for men. Intergroup bias was measured with an implicit measure. In Study 2, we additionally predict (and find) that fear induction does not change ethnic or gender intergroup bias because intergroup bias is a psychological preparation for collective action and fear is not associated with taking action against outgroups. We conclude that the effect of anger depends on its specific informational potential in a particular intergroup context. These results highlight that gender groups differ on a crucial point from ethnic groups and call for more attention to the effect of people §s gender in intergroup relations research. 1861 42 4 2012 We propose that the perceived continuity between a group §s past and present can be a psychological resource that provides confidence in the group §s future vitality, thereby reducing the need to preserve identity. In two studies, English participants were told that there was continuity or discontinuity between England §s past and present. Both studies showed that higher identifiers (but not lower identifiers) experienced more collective angst (i.e., concern for the group §s future) and were more opposed to immigration when English history was presented as discontinuous compared with continuous. Importantly, collective angst mediated the effect of the historical continuity manipulation on opposition to immigration. We conclude that, particularly among those higher ingroup identification, perceived discontinuity of the group §s past can undermine the perceived vitality of the future, thereby increasing the need to preserve current collective identity. 1862 42 4 2012 Results of three studies indicate that intrinsic religiosity and mortality salience interact to predict intergroup hostility. Study 1, conducted among 200 American Christians and Jews, reveals that under mortality salience, intrinsic (but not extrinsic or quest) religiosity is related to decreased support for aggressive counterterrorism. Study 2, conducted among 148 Muslims in Iran, demonstrates that intrinsic religiosity predicts decreased outgroup derogation under mortality salience. Study 3, conducted among 131 Polish Christians, shows that under mortality salience, priming of intrinsic religious concepts decreases support for aggressive counterterrorism. 1863 42 4 2012 After making a preliminary decision, a balanced search for information that is consistent and inconsistent with one §s decision is associated with effective decision making. However, whereas searching for information that is inconsistent with one §s preliminary preference arouses the aversive motivational state of cognitive dissonance, evokes negative emotions, and threatens the self, preference consistent information reduces dissonance, evokes positive emotions, and has positive implications for the self. Thus, searching for information in a balanced way requires the willingness to face the negative implications of searching for preference inconsistent (relative to preference consistent) information. Social exclusion has been shown to be associated with impulsive, undercontrolled behaviour. Therefore, we expected socially excluded (relative to included or control) participants to be less willing to confront oneself with the unappealing qualities of preference inconsistent information and more willing to seek for the appealing qualities of preference consistent information. This hypothesis was supported in two studies, with the use of different manipulations of social exclusion. 1864 42 4 2012 The aims of this paper are two fold: (i) to examine the impact of audience individualism and collectivism orientation on the judgment of strategic self presentations and (ii) to test whether audience individualism and collectivism orientation would affect the importance of likeability and competence in determining social outcomes. In two studies, participants evaluated modest and boastful presentations in an achievement context. It was found that the more collectivistic the audience was, the more likely the modest presenter was to be rated as likable, competent, and deserving of a desirable social outcome. In contrast, the more individualistic the audience was, the more likely the boastful presenter was to be rated as likeable, competent, and deserving of a desirable social outcome. The importance of likeability and competence in predicting the final social outcome was moderated by audience individualism and collectivism orientation. Likeability was more important in deciding the social outcome for those who were more collectivistic than for those who were less so (Study 1). Competence was more important in determining the social outcome for those who were more individualistic (Study 2). These studies build a potential theoretical bridge between social influence and social perception/social judgment literature. 1865 42 4 2012 The present research seeks to explain cross cultural differences in two strategies for coping with unsuccessful outcomes (consideration of multiple options and persistence) through regulatory fit, a development of the self regulation theory. We propose that, because of regulatory fit, eager consideration of multiple options is more encouraged in promotion focused cultures, whereas vigilant persistence is more encouraged in prevention focused cultures (a culture strategy regulatory fit). In addition, if an incentive is introduced to motivate the use of these strategies, a gain framed incentive is more effective in promotion focused cultures whereas a loss framed incentive is more effective in prevention focused cultures (a culture incentive regulatory fit). The hypotheses for the culture strategy fit (Study 1) and the culture incentive fit (Study 2) were both supported, with samples of Israeli Jews, Israeli Arabs (in both studies), and Hong Kong Chinese (in Study 1). Taken together, the findings contribute to the understanding of cross cultural differences in coping with unsuccessful outcomes and suggest the existence of cultural regulatory fit. 1866 42 4 2012 Hedonic overconsumption is often considered to be caused by impulsive factors. The current paper investigates whether self licensing, relying on reasons to justify subsequent gratification, can also be included as a significant contributor to hedonic consumption. Two studies were conducted to investigate whether self licensing can account for an increase in hedonic consumption while ruling out impulsive factors such as resource depletion, negative affect, and visceral state as alternative explanations. A pilot study indicated that perceiving oneself as having invested greater effort and thus having a self licensing cue did not lead to a decline in self control capacity compared with not having a self licensing cue. The main study employed the same procedure and established that having a licensing cue did lead to increased snack intake while controlling for impulsive factors. Together, these studies support the notion that self licensing is a separate mechanism leading to hedonic gratification independent of impulsive factors. 1867 42 4 2012 This research examined whether self fulfilling prophecies and perceptual confirmation effects accumulated across people. Trios of same sex participants, each consisting of two interviewers and one target, were randomly assigned to one of three conditions that served to manipulate interviewers §s expectations (i.e., non hostile vs. hostile) and the similarity of their expectations (i.e., similar vs. dissimilar) for targets. Each trio participated in an interaction in which interviewers asked targets questions. Targets §s hostility during the interaction and interviewers §s impressions of targets §s hostility following the interaction served as the primary dependent variables. Results indicated that perceptual confirmation effects accumulated across interviewers. Even though targets §s behaviour during the interaction did not differ across conditions, interviewers nonetheless judged targets as more hostile when both interviewers expected targets to be hostile than when only one did. The authors discuss these findings in terms of the potential implications for those who have multiple inaccurate and unfavourable expectations held about them. 1868 42 4 2012 The present research is based on the notion of confluencethat associated mental elements have a tendency to become more consistent with each other over time, even if some of them are logically irrelevant to the issue at hand. This idea was applied to a voting paradigm where participants were exposed to varying numbers of valenced beliefs about a candidate. Two experiments tested the idea that although valenced beliefs influence attributions and voting intentions, there is an additional process whereby evaluations of irrelevant beliefs also are influenced. Not surprisingly, as more positive or negative beliefs were presented, voting intentions became more positive or more negative, respectively. More dramatically, however, positive or negative evaluations of irrelevant beliefs became more extreme in the direction of the presented items as more of them were presented. An additional experiment tested alternative mechanisms. 1869 42 4 2012 The typical mortality salience manipulation asks participants to reflect on two questions, one about the emotions associated with the thought of death and the other about what happens after one dies. In five experiments, we separated these two questions and gave participants either one or a control question. In Experiment 1, participants §s responses to the afterlife question were coded as being informed more by cultural knowledge and values compared with responses to the emotion question. Experiments 2 and 3 demonstrated that participants responding to the afterlife question showed greater stereotype usage compared with those responding to the emotion or a control question. In Experiment 4, results illustrate that the afterlife and emotion question differ on various coding dimensions related to self focus, emotion, and culturally related death words, but not death related words. In addition, participants who responded to the afterlife question demonstrated greater cultural worldview defence by setting a higher bail for an alleged prostitute compared with those who answered the emotion or a control question. In Experiment 5, participants responding to the emotion question demonstrated a greater preference for personally endorsed values compared with those who responded to the emotion or a control question. These results suggest that the two questions used in the common mortality salience manipulation produce different results when separated. 1870 42 5 2012 The motivating effects of group work as compared with individual work are not restricted to the research laboratory but have recently been documented in existing groups performing meaningful tasks. Freestyle swimmers at the 2008 Olympics were shown to swim faster in relay groups than in the individual competitions when their contribution was highly instrumental for the relay group (i.e., indispensable) because of their serial position in the group. The present study replicated and extended this work, aggregating a larger sample from major sports events (N?=?199 freestyle swimmers) that also allowed for a competitive test between the instrumentality approach and explanations based on differences in the starting procedures of relay and individual competitions. Consistent with expectancy value models of effort expenditure ingroups, swimmers were faster in the relay groups as compared with individual competitions only when (i) a swimmer §s performance was highly instrumental for the group §s performance (i.e., later serial position in the relay) and (ii) the group §s performance was highly instrumental for a positive group outcome (i.e., the relay group had a good chance of winning a medal). The data were not consistent with an explanation of performance differences merely as a result of different starting procedures. 1871 42 5 2012 Public engagement in pro environmental behaviour and support for pro environmental policy are essential for achieving sustainable living. We propose that the moral circle is a common motivational source for engagement in environmentally beneficial activities across situations and may be thus drawn upon to efficiently promote these activities. Study 1 established an association between chronic moral circle size and nine pro environmental activities from different domains. Via experimental manipulation of the moral circle size, Studies 2ad demonstrated its causal effect on intentions to engage in pro environmental activities. Together, these studies offer an important initial demonstration of the beneficial consequences of more expansive moral circle in the domain of pro environmentalism. Routes for expanding the moral circle and thus promoting pro environmental activities are discussed. 1872 42 5 2012 It was hypothesized that, in natural group contexts, low status ingroup membership would be highly accessible, whereas membership to high status groups would not. Therefore, gender group membership was predicted to be more accessible for women than for men. It was further hypothesized that the high accessibility of gender group membership would lead to stronger self stereotyping for women than for men. To measure the accessibility of gender group membership, participants performed a Gender Self Categorization Implicit Association Test (Studies 1 and 2), measuring the strength of automatic associations between the self and the gender ingroup. Participants also performed a Self Stereotyping Implicit Association Test (Study 2), assessing the strength of automatic associations between the self and the stereotypical traits of the ingroup. As expected, implicit gender self categorization and implicit gender self stereotyping were stronger for women than for men. Importantly, implicit gender self categorization mediated the relation between gender and self stereotyping. Therefore, implicit gender self categorization was the mechanism underlying stronger implicit self stereotyping by women. 1873 42 5 2012 Is the same person perceived as more dangerous if the perceiver is induced to think about Arab and Muslim categories versus no category? Using the shooter paradigm, this study investigated the effects of the accessibility of ethnic (Arab) versus religious (Muslim) categories versus no category on spontaneous aggressive responses toward a target with an ambiguous appearance. Results demonstrated that shooting reactions toward armed targets were faster than non shooting reactions toward unarmed targets, especially if the target was a man. Despite these main effects, participants made faster decisions to shoot an ambiguous armed target if primed with the category Arab or Muslim (versus no category priming). The findings indicate that the mere priming of these social categories is sufficient to facilitate aggressive responses, even if the targets themselves are ambiguous. 1874 42 5 2012 "Recent research suggests that stereotype activation is context dependent. In the current research, we tested whether this context dependence also generalizes to behavioural effects of stereotypes. Extending previous findings, we could show that activation of the category Italians in a work context (but not in an interaction context) resulted in slow behaviour (Experiment 1), whereas it increased the loudness of speech in an interaction context (but not in a work context; Experiment 2). Our results further strengthen the notion of context specific mental representations of stereotypes. Stereotypic attributes become activated and exert their influence on behaviour in close correspondence with the current situation. " 1875 42 5 2012 The election of the first African American President of the United States, Barack Obama, has been widely recognised as an extraordinary milestone in the history of the United States and indeed the world. With the use of a discursive psychological approach combined with central theoretical principles derived from social identity and self categorisation theories, this paper analyses a corpus of speeches Obama delivered during his candidacy for president to examine how he attended to and managed his social identity in his political discourse. Building on a social identity model of leadership, we examine specifically how Obama mobilises political support and social identification by building an identity for himself as a prototypical representative of the American people, notwithstanding the protracted public debate within both the White and Black American communities that had questioned and contested Obama §s identity. Moreover, we demonstrate how Obama managed the dilemmas around his identity by actively crafting an ingroup identity that was oriented to an increasingly socially diverse Americaa diversity that he himself exemplified and embodied as a leader. As an entrepreneur of identity, Obama §s rhetorical project was to position himself as an exceptional leader, whose very difference was represented as living proof of the widely shared collective values that constitute the American Dream. Drawing on social identity complexity theory, we suggest that by providing more inclusive and complex categories of civic and national identity, Obama §s presidency has the potential to radically transform what it means to be a prototypical ingroup member in America. 1876 42 5 2012 This study examines the role of social representations of gender and knowledge as sources of asymmetry on the features of children §s interactions as well as on their cognitive development. The research was carried through an innovative pre test, first interaction, second interaction, post test design. One hundred fifty nine children of the same age (6.57.5 years old) but of different levels of knowledge of a spatial transformation task collaborated in same sex and opposite sex dyads to find a joint solution. In the first interaction, a child less developmentally advanced (NC) had to work with a child more developmentally advanced (TC), whereas in the second interaction of the same gender composition, the same NC had to work with a fresh NC. Cognitive progress was assessed using pre test to post test gains. The results revealed that the gender composition of the pairs and knowledge asymmetry influence not only the behavioural patterns and strategies that each partner employs in the interaction but also the cognitive outcomes of the children. These findings shed more light to the process through which socio cognitive conflict gets resolved, which was considered until now a black box. 1877 42 5 2012 This study examined the proportion of people who held ambivalent versus univalent sexist attitudes, that is, those who simultaneously endorsed benevolent sexism (BS) and hostile sexism (HS). We examined this by capitalizing on recent innovations in latent class analysis to model latent types of sexists, or response profiles to BS and HS, in a nationally representative New Zealand sample (n?=?6450). Our results show, for the first time, that by far, the most common pattern was for people to hold similar levels of BS and HS. Strongly ambivalent sexists, however, constituted only 8%9% of the population. Most were classified as mild or moderate ambivalent sexists (28% and 44%, respectively). Univalent sexism was exceedingly rare, with between 2% and 5% of people solely endorsing HS but not BS, or BS but not HS. We validated the model by showing theoretically predicted differences across sexist types in demographics (gender, age), ideology (social dominance orientation, right wing authoritarianism), and relationship satisfaction. Strongly ambivalent sexists also held the highest levels of gender specific system justification, invariant of gender. This provides novel evidence for the premise that strong sexist ambivalence promotes support for and faith in the patriarchical system. 1878 42 5 2012 Terror management theory posits that cultural worldviews buffer people from thoughts and concerns about death. In support of this claim, numerous studies have shown that mortality salience (MS) increases an individual §s motivation to uphold and defend important cultural worldviews. We hypothesized that the motivation to defend cultural worldviews following MS would also enhance people §s ability to comprehend worldview affirming (vs. disconfirming) information. Three studies investigated this possibility. Study 1 showed that MS (vs. control) increased reading comprehension of a pro evolution essay among participants with a strongly evolutionist worldview, but decreased reading comprehension among participants with a strongly creationist worldview. With the use of a pro creation essay, Study 2 conceptually replicated these effects and demonstrated that the interactive effect of worldview and death anxiety on reading comprehension was mediated by defensive motivation. Study 3 replicated the results of Studies 1 and 2 among participants with a strongly evolutionist worldview, but only when the information in the essay was perceived as veridical. Discussion focused on the specific process through which MS affects reading comprehension of worldview relevant ideas. 1879 42 5 2012 Measures of self forgiveness that merely focus on the outcome of positive self regard risk neglecting the process through which offenders restore it. They may thus tap pseudo self forgiveness where offenders downplay their responsibility for the wrongdoing. For genuine self forgiveness, the process should instead involve an attenuation of the negative link between responsibility acceptance and positive self regard. In this paper, we examine how acts of value reaffirmation facilitate genuine self forgiveness. In Study 1, a role play experiment (N?=?90), participants either confessed their wrongdoing to the victim or not. Although responsibility acceptance was strongly negatively related to reported self forgiveness (i.e., self regard), this relationship was tempered when participants confessed their wrongdoing to the victim and, through this, reaffirmed the violated values. In Study 2, a longitudinal study referring to self reported transgressions (N?=?74), responsibility acceptance was negatively related to self forgiveness measures as well as self esteem when offenders showed little value reaffirmation, but not when they more strongly reaffirmed the violated values. 1880 42 5 2012 Three studies examined the relationship between individuals §s perceived prototypicality in a group, their subsequent self presentation goals, and individual effort in that group. Consistent with the finding that feelings of marginal ingroup membership status elicit a desire to seek stronger social connections within ingroups, we predicted that non prototypical group members will have more salient self presentation goals than prototypical members, and as such will exert more individual effort to exhibit the value of their membership to the group. Correlational Study 1 confirmed that non prototypical group members may be more likely than prototypical members to volunteer for activities that would benefit their group. Two experimental studies were then conducted to test the causal influence of feelings of prototypicality while also identifying theoretically relevant moderating conditions of perceived task efficacy (Study 2) and public versus private task performance (Study 3). These findings suggest that effortful performance ingroups is partly motivated by the desire to foster social ties. 1881 42 5 2012 In the current paper, we examine the role of vertical individualism in determining revenge behaviour following an injustice. Drawing on existing theory and research, we hypothesized that victims who are more vertically individualistic will be more likely than those who are less vertically individualistic to engage in revenge following the experience of injustice as a means of restoring self esteem. The results from three studies employing different methodologies and operationalizations of revengesupport our reasoning. Moreover, two of the studies provide support for the proposed self esteem maintenance mechanism underlying the relation between vertical individualism and revenge. Although much research in psychology and organizational justice has demonstrated that the experience of injustice can threaten one §s identity, our data are the first to demonstrate that responding to injustice can restore people §s self esteem to homeostasis. The present studies thus demonstrate that in some instances revenge may have an intrapsychic benefit for the victim, which helps to explain why some people engage in revenge despite possible negative interpersonal consequences. We discuss implications of our findings for social and organizational justice theory and for potentially mitigating revenge reactions to injustice. 1882 42 5 2012 Causal uncertainty (CU) refers to persistent doubts people have about their ability to understand causes of social events. Although such confusion about social dynamics should affect social exchanges, previous research has been limited to the realm of social cognition (i.e., computer based studies exploring perceptions of hypothetical others). In three studies, we explored CU effects during real time social interactions with unacquainted conversational partners. We found that high CU participants perceived their conversations and conversational partners more negatively than did low CU participants and that these negative social perceptions stemmed from an inability to sufficiently reduce their cognitive uncertainty. 1883 42 6 2012 Attachment related anxiety has repeatedly been associated with poorer adjustment in various social, emotional, and behavioural domains. Building on social defence theory, we examined a possible advantage of having some group members who score high in attachment anxiety a heightened tendency to deliver a warning message without delay. We led participants to believe that they accidently activated a computer virus that erased an experimenter §s computer. We then asked them to alert the department §s computer technicians to the incident. On their way, they were presented with four decision points where they could choose either to delay their warning or to continue directly to the technicians §s office. We found that anxious individuals were less willing to be delayed on their way to deliver a warning message. This result remained significant when attachment avoidance, extroversion, and neuroticism were statistically controlled. Results are discussed in relation to the possible adaptive functions of certain personality characteristics often viewed as undesirable. 1884 42 6 2012 "When individuals experience an emotion, they talk about it afterwards. A popular emotional venting belief claims that doing so dissolves the emotional impact. This study tested a model of when and how sharing emotions is beneficial. It predicts that benefits vary according to the listener §s response mode. A socio affective (empathic) mode was expected to buffer emotional distress temporarily. A cognitive (reframing) mode was anticipated to grant emotional recovery. Participants viewed an aversive film and then talked about it with an intimate. The latter was instructed to adopt either cognitive or socio affective response modes in a 2?X?2 design (cognitive/non cognitive; socio affective/neutral). Emotional, cognitive and social benefits were assessed immediately afterwards and again 2?days later following re exposure to the film. As predicted, emotional recovery occurred exclusively when the listener stimulated the participant §s cognitive work. Cognitive variables (basic assumptions) were also positively modified by these conditions. Listeners §s socio affective responses entailed enhanced social integration (i.e. greater proximity to the listener; less loneliness) and an impression of feeling better. These results demonstrated that sharing emotions can lead to multiple benefits depending upon the listeners §s response modes: emotional recovery, consolidation of shattered assumptions, social integration and temporary distress reduction. " 1885 42 6 2012 Group members tend to perceive their ingroup relative to an outgroup as more prototypical for a common superordinate group because they project features of their ingroup onto the superordinate group. As a consequence, the ingroup is perceived as more positive than the outgroup (Mummendey & Wenzel, 1999). We extend the ingroup projection model by examining different types of ingroup goals: minimal and maximal goals as well as actual and ideal goals. Minimal goals should engender either or thinking and lead to more ingroup projection compared with maximal goals that should involve more nuanced thinking. Ingroup prototypicality in terms of ideal goals (e.g., what we ideally should strive for) was expected to show a stronger relation to outgroup attitudes than ingroup prototypicality in terms of actual goals (e.g., what we are actually striving for). We manipulated minimal and maximal goal orientation and assessed actual and ideal goals. Across two studies, relative ingroup prototypicality was higher in the minimal compared with the maximal goal condition. Moreover, ingroup prototypicality referring to ideal goals showed a stronger relation to outgroup evaluation than ingroup prototypicality referring to actual goals. 1886 42 6 2012 Three experiments integrate research from political science and social psychology to examine the consequences of two competing visions of American national identity. American identity has been defined not only in terms of shared ethnocultural heritage originating in Europe (the ethnocultural prototype) but also in terms of shared commitment to civic service (the civic responsibility prototype). Three experiments tested the consequence of highlighting each of these national prototypes on perceivers §s inclusion of ethnic minorities as legitimately American. Experiments 13 showed that highlighting ethnic minorities §s allegiance to their ethnic subgroup (versus downplaying it) challenges the ethnocultural prototype and makes ethnic minorities appear less American. Process data showed that this effect was mediated by increased threats to American distinctiveness. By contrast, emphasizing ethnic minorities §s national service (versus local community service) highlights ethnic minorities §s fit with the civic responsibility prototype and makes ethnic minorities appear more American (Experiments 23). Process data showed that this effect was mediated by enhanced American distinctiveness. Collectively, these experiments highlight how inclusion of ethnic minorities in the nation can wax and wane depending on which definition of national character is salient in the social context. 1887 42 6 2012 In this paper, we examined how identification with urban districts as a common ingroup identity and perceived ingroup prototypicality influence the attitudes of residents toward other ethnic groups in their neighborhood. The overall conclusion of two field studies (N?=?214 and N?=?98) is that for majority group members, there may be a positive relation between identification with an overarching identity and outgroup attitudes but only when they perceive their ingroup as low in prototypicality for the overarching group (Study 1 and 2). Conversely, for minority group members, there may be a positive relation between identification and outgroup attitudes but only when they perceive their ingroup as high in prototypicality for the overarching group (Study 2). Outgroup prototypicality did not moderate the relation between identification and outgroup attitudes. 1888 42 6 2012 Intergroup contact, particularly close personal contact, has been shown to improve intergroup relations, mainly by reducing negative attitudes and emotions toward outgroups. We argue that contact can also increase intergroup prosocial behaviour. More specifically, we predict that different forms of contact will differentially impact on prosocial behaviour directed at individual outgroup members and outgroups as a whole. Data of two studies (N1?=?264, N2?=?185), conducted with workgroups in two organizations, show that personal contact is a better predictor of prosocial behaviour directed at individual outgroup members, whereas task oriented contact is a better predictor of prosocial behaviour directed at an outgroup as a whole. Additionally, Study 2 provides evidence that empathy mediates the path from personal contact to individual directed prosocial behaviour, whereas reward (but not cost) considerations mediate the path from task oriented contact to outgroup directed prosocial behaviour. Implications for research on intergroup contact and prosocial behaviour are discussed. 1889 42 6 2012 A distinction between guilt and regret in reactions to ingroup atrocities is proposed. Four studies (total N?=?1249) support the notion that guilt and regret are distinct emotional reactions. Whereas guilt is a self focused, aversive emotional reaction following from appraisals of responsibility and associated with the intention to make amends, regret follows from an empathic victim perspective, is less aversive, and is more strongly associated with positive attitudes towards the victim groups and the intention to engage in intergroup contact. These findings suggest that less aversive emotions like regret are more likely to improve intergroup attitudes after a common history of conflict, but the aversive experience of guilt might be more potent in motivating reparations. 1890 42 6 2012 Objectification theory suggests that the bodies of women are sometimes reduced to their sexual body parts. As well, an extensive literature in cognitive psychology suggests that global processing underlies person recognition, whereas local processing underlies object recognition. Integrating these literatures, we introduced and tested the sexual body part recognition bias hypothesis that women §s (versus men s) bodies would be reduced to their sexual body parts in the minds of perceivers. Specifically, we adopted the parts versus whole body recognition paradigm, which is a robust indicator of local versus global processing. The findings across two experiments showed that women §s bodies were reduced to their sexual body parts in perceivers §s minds. We also found that local processing contributed to the sexual body part recognition bias, whereas global processing tempered it. Implications for sexual objectification and its underlying processes and motives are discussed. 1891 42 6 2012 Although the use of gender fair language is strongly promoted in German speaking countries, the impact of its use on the way speakers are perceived by others is still unknown. Results of two experimental studies showed that irrespective of their sex, speakers using pair forms rather than generic masculines were perceived more competent by both men and women. Also, they were seen as less sexist by male and female listeners with positive attitudes towards linguistic equality. Findings with respect to the attribution of warmth were more complex: they were not only impacted by language use, but also dependent on speaker §s sex and listener §s attitude towards linguistic equality. Results are discussed in the context of language and stereotypes. 1892 42 6 2012 Previous research has suggested that self regulation results in low level construals but has inferred construal levels after self regulation only indirectly, through construal dependent judgments and choices. In the present paper, we demonstrate a direct link between engaging in self regulation and low level construals, by manipulating self regulation and subsequently assessing construal levels using well established and straightforward measures of construal level in three studies. Participants who engaged in self regulation subsequently provided lower egocentric spatial distance estimates (Studies 1A and 1B), formed more groups when categorizing objects (Study 2), and used more concrete language when describing cartoon main characters §s behaviour (Study 3) than participants who did not engage in self regulation. These findings provide direct evidence that low level construals result from engaging in self regulation. 1893 42 6 2012 Drawing on decades of research suggesting an attentional advantage for self related information, researchers generally assume that self related stimuli automatically capture attention. However, a literature review reveals that this claim has not been systematically examined. We aimed to fill in this dearth of evidence. Following a feature based account of automaticity, we set up four experiments in which participants were asked to respond to a target preceded by a cue, which was self related or not. In Experiment 1, larger cuing effects (faster reaction times to valid versus invalid trials) were found with a participant §s own name compared with someone else §s name. In Experiment 2, we replicated these results with unconscious cues. Experiment 3 suggested that these effects are not likely driven by familiarity. In Experiment 4, participants experienced greater difficulties from having their attention being captured by their own compared with someone else §s name. We conclude that attentional capture by self related stimuli is automatic in the sense that it is unintentional, unconscious, and uncontrolled. Implications for self regulation and intergroup relations are discussed. 1894 42 6 2012 Goal priming typically leads to goal consistent behaviour. This uniform pattern is surprising given other types of priming effects, which have been found to be more variable. On the basis of previous research on judgment priming effects, we predicted that a comparative mindset to focus on similarities versus differences also affects the direction of goal priming. Two studies show that assimilation to a primed goal results if participants focus on similarities, whereas a focus on differences leads to contrast. In Study 1, participants induced to focus on similarities behaved more neatly after being primed with neatness rather than the goal to be carefree. For participants induced to focus on differences, the opposite pattern emerged. In Study 2, a similarity focus led to assimilation to an achievement prime, whereas a difference focus resulted in contrast. These findings highlight the importance of comparative processes in goal striving and demonstrate that assimilative goal priming effects are less invariable than existing research suggests. 1895 42 6 2012 During political races, candidates have to decide how to deal with the negative remarks from opposing candidates: just ignore or counterattack? In two studies, we investigated some of the consequences of this choice. In Study 1, participants were presented with a political candidate who systematically attacked his opponent and with the reactions of the attacked candidate: across conditions, the attacked candidate only focused on his political program or counterattacked. Results showed an overt condemnation of the choice to counterattack but a higher spontaneous conformity toward the candidate who counterattacked. Study 2 replicated and extended these results indicating that the gender of the attacked candidate did not affect the results. Moreover, Study 2 showed that conformity toward the attacked candidate was positively related to the predicted chances of winning the election. Results are discussed in relation to their theoretical and applied implications. 1896 42 7 2012 There is surmounting evidence in the literature demonstrating that social pain (e.g. rejection, humiliation, and isolation) and physical pain (e.g. injury or assault) overlap in personal experiences. The present investigation focuses on second hand perceptions of social and physical pain. We argue that judgments of others §s pain may vary as a function of group membership. By integrating research on intergroup bias in pain judgment with intergroup attributions of humanity, we predicted that observers tend to underestimate social pain more than physical pain in outgroups compared with ingroups. Across two studies that considered different scenarios, we found that Italian participants attributed less severe social pain when considering an outgroup (Chinese and Ecuadorian) than an ingroup member. No such effect was found for physical pain. Overall, the current work suggests an additional way through which people preserve a privileged human status to ingroup members while denying outgroup members §s humanness. 1897 42 7 2012 Past work has shown that ingroup role models buffer stereotyped targets from stereotype threat. What is less clear is what makes an effective ingroup role model. Accordingly, we conducted a study to examine whether increasing the similarity of ingroup role models will enhance their effectiveness in stereotype threat situations. Female participants in this study were either exposed to a more or less similar (on the basis of school affiliation, life experiences, and interests) female job candidate who was either high or low in math competence. Afterwards, participants took a math exam under stereotype threat conditions. Results revealed that similarity moderated the effect of job candidate math competence: Female participants §s math performance improved more after exposure to a more similar compared with a less similar, high math competent candidate. No effects of similarity occurred for the low math competent candidates. We further found that feelings of intimidation partially mediated the performance effects. 1898 42 7 2012 Most cultures have metaphors for time that involve movement, for example, time passes. Although time is objectively measured, it is subjectively understood, as we can perceive time as stationary, whereby we move towards future events, or we can perceive ourselves as stationary, with time moving past us and events moving towards us. This paper reports a series of studies that first examines whether people think about time in a metaphor consistent manner (Study 1) and then explores the relationship between time perspective, level of perceived personal agency, and time representations (Study 2), the relationship between emotional experiences and time representation (Study 3), and whether this relationship is bidirectional by manipulating either emotional experiences (Study 4) or time representation (Study 5). Results provide bidirectional evidence for an ego moving representation of time, with happiness eliciting more agentic control, and evidence for a time moving passivity associated with emotional experiences of anxiety and depression. This bidirectional relationship suggests that our representation of time is malleable, and therefore, current emotional experiences may change through modification of time representations. 1899 42 7 2012 What happens when people experience a reduced sense of personal control? Among the various strategies to defend against a perception of randomness, people may show an increased acceptance of external sources of control. Indeed, in one of the most classic studies in social psychology, Stanley Milgram referred to an agentic shiftthe tendency to relinquish personal control to an external agentto explain his dramatic obedience effects. We propose that his account is a specific manifestation of a more general phenomenon: the tendency for increased susceptibility to various forms of external social influence when perceived personal control is reduced. In a series of (lab and field) studies using a variety of perceived control manipulations, we demonstrate that a reduction in the sense of personal control increases people §s vulnerability to the bystander effect, promotes obedience to authority and fosters compliance with behavioural requests. 1900 42 7 2012 Across two studies, we examined the extent to which adults §s caregiving responses reflect the quality of care received from their attachment figures. Study 1 showed that romantic caregiving reflected the quality of perceived parental and partner care. Moreover, perceived partner care mediated the link between parental care and romantic caregiving, suggesting that one §s parental care affects the type of care one seeks or receives from partners, which in turn affects one §s romantic caregiving. This describes a possible process for the intergenerational transmission of caregiving styles. Romantic attachment anxiety was associated with compulsive caregiving to partners. Study 2 examined causal mechanisms by priming a representation of perceived peer care and examining its effect on caregiving responses. As hypothesized, caregiving responses reflected the quality of primed peer care and were associated with attachment orientation. Findings provide evidence that individuals mentally represent the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of the care seeker and the caregiver during interactions and both influence one §s caregiving to partners and friends. 1901 42 7 2012 We propose that perceived partner concealment, self concealment from one §s partner (i.e., keeping secrets from one §s partner), and trust in one §s partner form a reciprocal cycle in romantic relationships. In Study 1, participants in a romantic relationship (N?=?94) completed a two time point survey within a span of 8 to 10?weeks. Results revealed that perceived partner concealment was associated with a loss of trust in partner, and low trust in partner was associated with an increase in self concealment from one §s partner. Furthermore, the association between perceived partner concealment and self concealment from one §s partner was mediated by trust. In Study 2, couples (N?=?50) completed daily records for 14 consecutive days. Multilevel analyses indicated that on the days the individuals reported more self concealment, their partners reported lower trust in them. Moreover, on the days the partners reported lower trust, the partners also reported higher self concealment. These findings suggest that self concealment in romantic relationships can create a reciprocal cycle that involves loss of trust and more self concealment between partners, which would slowly deteriorate the relationship well being. 1902 42 7 2012 This study investigated the automatic activation of ageism by using a go/no go version of the masked evaluative priming task. Pictures of younger persons, of older persons in everyday contexts, and of older persons depicting age related conditions of decline were used as masked primes that preceded positive and negative target adjectives conveying either other relevant valence (e.g., just and mean) or possessor relevant valence (e.g., serene and lonely). The evaluative priming effect (denoting relative negativity of old everyday primes in comparison with younger primes) was significant, as hypothesized, only for possessor relevant targets. It was not moderated by explicit ageism. A second priming index (denoting relative negativity of old decline primes in comparison with old everyday primes) predicted, however, explicit ageism. Again, this result was, as expected, constrained to the index based on possessor relevant targets. This study provides further evidence that prejudice in terms of automatic evaluations of social stimuli can be more fine grained beyond a mere one dimensional positive negative differentiation. 1903 42 7 2012 Three experiments examined how self consciousness has an impact on the visual exploration of a social field. The main hypothesis was that merely a photograph of people can trigger a dynamic process of social visual interaction such that minority images are avoided when people are in a state of self reflective consciousness. In all three experiments, pairs of pictures one with characters of social minorities and one with characters of social majorities were shown to the participants. By means of eye tracking technology, the results of Experiment 1 (n?=?20) confirmed the hypothesis that in the reflective consciousness condition, people look more at the majority than minority characters. The results of Experiment 2 (n?=?89) confirmed the hypothesis that reflective consciousness also induces avoiding reciprocal visual interaction with minorities. Finally, by manipulating the visual interaction (direct vs. non direct) with the photos of minority and majority characters, the results of Experiment 3 (n?=?56) confirmed the hypothesis that direct visual interaction with minority characters is perceived as being longer and more aversive. The overall conclusion is that self reflective consciousness leads people to avoid visual interaction with social minorities, consigning them to social invisibility. 1904 42 7 2012 This contribution addresses the issue of reduction of dehumanisation towards Blacks, an outgroup that has been historically targeted by heinous prejudice. The study tested, for the first time, whether the combination of multiple categorisation and human identity represents the most optimal condition for reducing dehumanisation towards Blacks. The main dependent variables were attribution of secondary emotions and inalienability of human rights. Results highlighted the combination of multiple categorisation and human identity as the most effective strategy in reducing dehumanisation towards Blacks. Evidence of this study sheds light on the possible ways through which conceiving others in terms of complex categorical criteria, that is, as members of the human group in conjunction with other communal or different social categories, can lead to more harmonious intergroup relations. 1905 42 7 2012 The present research investigates leniency for outgroup offenders and differentiates it from the black sheep effect. The authors assume that leniency for outgroup offenders can be used by ingroup members to protect their group §s image by displaying that they are not prejudiced. Thus, leniency should disappear when ingroup members have otherwise shown that they are not prejudiced (i.e., moral credentials). In two experiments, offenders §s group membership and participants §s opportunity to establish moral credentials were manipulated. Results showed that outgroup offenders received the lowest punishment severity ratings (Studies 1 and 2). However, this leniency effect vanished when participants had established moral credentials by either endorsing the participation of outgroup members in lobby groups (Study 1) or writing about a positive experience with an outgroup member (Study 2). These findings suggest that lenient punishments for outgroup offenders may sometimes reflect a relatively easy strategy to display the ingroup as being unprejudiced. 1906 42 7 2012 Using a sample of 602 Turkish Muslims from Germany and the Netherlands, we examined the influence of ingroup norms and perceived discrimination on religious group identification and host national identification. Participants experiencing pressures from their ingroup to maintain an ethnoreligious lifestyle as well as those who perceived discrimination by natives identified more strongly with their religious group and, in turn, identified less with the host country. Further, the positive relationship between discrimination and religious group identification and the negative relationship between religious and national identification were especially strong for participants who perceived incompatibility between Western and Islamic ways of life. It is concluded that Muslim and host national identities are not always mutually exclusive and that it is important to study the conditions that reconcile and contrast them. 1907 42 7 2012 This longitudinal study among ethnic migrants from Russia to Finland (N?=?127) examined the relationships between anticipated and perceived discrimination, ethnic and national identities, and outgroup attitudes towards the national majority group. The study included one pre migration and two post migration assessments. First, associations between the variables studied were tested using a conventional autoregressive sample level modelling approach. Second, individual trajectories and the associations between the individual level changes in the variables included in the models were tested. Although there were no sample level effects over time, there were significant relationships between changes in discrimination and changes in identification and outgroup attitudes at the individual level. The results indicated that changes in perceived discrimination were not reflected in increased ethnic identification. However, participants who perceived higher levels of discrimination after migration than they anticipated before migration were, in the post migration stage, more likely to disidentify from and to increasingly show negative attitudes towards the national majority group. The study complements previous research by examining the identity and attitudinal reactions to perceived ethnic discrimination starting from the pre migration stage and highlights the value of incorporating both group and individual perspectives to the research on perceived discrimination. 1908 42 7 2012 Research on the effects of deviance during group decision making has shown that although it can lead to increased innovation and creativity within the group, group members often dislike the deviant member and rate group morale as lower because of dissent during the decision making process. The current study (N?=?101) uses an information processing approach to examine the effect of deviance on decision outcomes as well as investigate how the perceived position of group members can influence whether they are given leeway to voice dissent. Results found that deviance can improve group decision making without incurring social costs when a deviant group member occupies a central position within the group. These findings are novel within the field of deviance research yet are consistent with research on group criticism and idiosyncrasy credit and therefore have significant implications for literature on the effect of group deviance and the application of deviance techniques within organisational and educational settings. 1909 42 7 2012 The attempt to regenerate city centres has led to the creation of a night time economy (NTE) based around alcohol led entertainment. This has been accompanied by an increase of violence. Using insights from social identity research on collective action, we argue that NTE violence can be viewed as a group level phenomenon. Twenty focus groups were conducted with participants who socialise together (total number of participants?=?53). Participants discussed their experiences of the NTE, including violence. A thematic analysis of the transcripts drew out four ways in which NTE violence is discussed ingroup terms: intergroup violence, intragroup violence, intragroup intervention (escalation) and intragroup intervention (regulation). The analysis reveals that groups can have both negative and positive roles in NTE violence, including regulating fellow group members away from violence. In demonstrating the importance of intragroup regulation of violence in the NTE, we extend social identity research beyond the focus on intergroup crowd violence and reveal the practical potential of harnessing such processes in anti violence interventions. 1910 43 1 2013 During the past 20 years, practices in social psychology have drifted toward the publication of brief research reports as the main outlet for empirical findings, resulting in an exponential increase of the number of publications in our field. Recent developments questioning the reliability of these findings have increased the focus on (methodological) details and have prompted efforts to establish the robustness of isolated phenomena. Both types of developments carry the danger of impeding rather than promoting progress in the field. We can only build a cumulative knowledge base when we succeed in connecting these dots. Developing and examining broader theories about psychological processes and their implications can help connect different insights and elucidate their further implications in a way that can be used and understood within and beyond the boundaries of our discipline. 1911 43 1 2013 In this review, we highlight the importance of understanding diversity ideologies, or people §s beliefs and practices regarding diversity, for social psychological research on intergroup relations. This review focuses on two diversity ideologies, colourblindness and multiculturalism, and their impact on core issues related to intergroup conflict, such as stereotypes, prejudice, attitudes toward inequality, interracial interactions, and disparate outcomes between minority and majority group members. We close by highlighting some of the areas in which future research has the potential to be especially illuminating. 1912 43 1 2013 Despite an understanding of the perception and consequences of apologies for their recipients, little is known about the consequences of interpersonal apologies, or their denial, for the offending actor. In two empirical studies, we examined the unexplored psychological consequences that follow from a harm doer §s explicit refusal to apologize. Results showed that the act of refusing to apologize resulted in greater self esteem than not refusing to apologize. Moreover, apology refusal also resulted in increased feelings of power/control and value integrity, both of which mediated the effect of refusal on self esteem. These findings point to potential barriers to victim offender reconciliation after an interpersonal harm, highlighting the need to better understand the psychology of harm doers and their defensive behaviour for self focused motives. 1913 43 1 2013 In two experiments, we analysed the use of intra group differentiation between normative and deviant members as an identity mobilization strategy in intergroup negotiations. Because ingroup members sometimes try to obtain the support of outgroup audiences to attain their goals, we propose that in intergroup negotiations, people attempt to minimize the distinction between the parties involved by changing the appraisal of deviance and including deviant members in the ingroup §s prototype. In line with this hypothesis, differences in the assessment of typicality between normative and deviant targets were reduced in instrumental intergroup negotiation contexts. Furthermore, we explored a boundary condition for this effect and found that such outgroup approach is disrupted when threats taint the intergroup negotiation context. 1914 43 1 2013 Research on the interindividual intergroup discontinuity effect has demonstrated that intergroup relations are often less cooperative than interindividual relations. The aim of the present paper is to test whether mere social categorization suffices to create a group motivated discontinuity effect. In two experiments, we manipulated actors §s personal versus social identity salience, whereas controlling for actors §s outcome independence (1?:?1) versus interdependence (3?:?3). Making actors §s social identity salient using a minimal group treatment was sufficient to increase defection in a Prisoner §s Dilemma Game, irrespective of whether this was in an interindividual or intergroup interaction (Experiment 1). Using a Mutual Fate Control matrix in Experiment 2, results indicate that this effect can be attributed to actors §s increased motivation to maximize relative differences to outgroup opponents under social identity salience. 1915 43 1 2013 Reactions to members of other groups are important in multicultural societies. In four studies (N?=?725), we investigate the reactions of majority group members to minority group members who stress either their distinct identity or their shared identity when they express threatening critical messages. In Study 1, we investigate reactions to a person who stresses the importance of either his Moroccan and Muslim identity or his Dutch and non Islamic identity. In Studies 2 and 3, we disentangle national and religious identity. Across all studies, we find that minority group members who stress their shared identity rather than their distinct identity are evaluated more positively, are perceived as more similar to the self, and tend to evoke less anger. In Study 4, we replicate this finding and show that perceived similarity mediates the impact of identity on these evaluations, but constructiveness only partially mediates these relations. Results are discussed in terms of recategorization models and the intergroup sensitivity effect. 1916 43 1 2013 In many languages, feminization has been used as a strategy to make language more gender fair, because masculine terms, even in a generic function, exhibit a male bias. Up to date, little is known about possible side effects of this language use, for example, in personnel selection. In three studies, conducted in Polish, we analysed how a female applicant was evaluated in a recruitment process, depending on whether she was introduced with a feminine or masculine job title. To avoid influences from existing occupations and terms, we used fictitious job titles in Studies 1 and 2: diarolozka (feminine) and diarolog (masculine). In Study 3, we referred to existing occupations that varied in gender stereotypicality. In all studies, female applicants with a feminine job title were evaluated less favourably than both a male applicant (Study 1) and a female applicant with a masculine job title (Studies 1, 2, and 3). This effect was independent of the gender stereotypicality of the occupation (Study 3). Participants §s political attitudes, however, moderated the effect: Conservatives devaluated female applicants with a feminine title more than liberals (Studies 2 and 3). 1917 43 1 2013 Four studies investigated the conditions under which minority group members respond to group based discrimination with increased identification with their group. We propose that minorities §s interaction goals should serve as a moderator: seeking distance from the majority might keep minority identification alive in the face of perceived discrimination. These predictions were tested correlationally in Study 1 among Chinese immigrants in Australia (sample 1a) and children of rural migrant workers in a Chinese city (sample 1b). In Studies 2 and 3, perceived discrimination was manipulated among Romanian immigrants in France and Polish immigrants in Scotland. In Study 4, both minority goals and perceived discrimination were manipulated among a sample of international students in Australia. Results showed that only for those who were inclined to seek distance from the majority, minority group identification increased when discrimination was high compared with low. Discussion focuses on the way that seeking distance might be an important strategy for coping with discrimination. 1918 43 1 2013 This article introduces the actorpartner interdependence investment model (API IM) that was developed to add a dyadic perspective to Rusbult §s investment model. The API IM is based on interdependence theoretical assumptions and the actorpartner interdependence model. Two studies were conducted to investigate the reliability of the API IM. Relationship satisfaction, investment size, quality of alternatives, and relationship commitment were assessed at both partners of 77 (Study 1) and 162 (Study 2) married and unmarried heterosexual couples. Path analyses that applied a structural equation modelling framework revealed a dyadic model that significantly predicts women §s and men §s commitment by actor effects of satisfaction, investments, and alternatives, and partner effects of satisfaction. Actor and partner effects of satisfaction were significantly moderated by relationship duration and marital status. Marital status also significantly moderated the actor effect of alternatives. The API IM supports the concept of social interdependence in close relationships, and it is discussed as a sound dyadic extension of the investment model. 1919 43 1 2013 Previous research into the relationship between knowledge level and anchoring effects has led to mixed conclusions. This paper presents four studies that used a diverse set of stimuli and paradigms to further investigate this relationship. In Study 1, greater knowledge was associated with smaller anchoring effects both when knowledge was measured using subjective self assessments and when using an objective knowledge measure. In Study 2, participants from the USA and India tended to exhibit smaller anchoring effects when answering questions about their own country as compared with questions about the other country. In Study 3, higher knowledge was associated with smaller anchoring effects when examined at an idiographic level. Finally, in Study 4, providing participants with information designed to increase their knowledge led to a decrease in anchoring effects. The consistency of the results across our four studies provides evidence that anchoring effects are moderated by knowledge level in many situations. 1920 43 1 2013 In the present research, we examined people §s tendency to endorse or question belief in conspiracy theories. In two studies, we tested the hypothesis that the perceived morality of authorities influences conspiracy beliefs, particularly when people experience uncertainty. Study 1 revealed that information about the morality of oil companies influenced beliefs that these companies were involved in planning the war in Iraq, but only when uncertainty was made salient. Similar findings were obtained in Study 2, which focused on a bogus newspaper article about a fatal car accident of a political leader in an African country. It is concluded that uncertainty leads people to make inferences about the plausibility or implausibility of conspiracy theories by attending to morality information. 1921 43 1 2013 The present study tests the hypothesis that behavioural information diagnostic of an outgroup §s traits biases the expected facial appearance of outgroup members toward having facial features corresponding with the inferred traits. Participants formed a stereotype about a novel group based on random exemplar faces, presented alongside descriptions of their behaviour. The behavioural information was manipulated to reflect either trustworthy or criminal traits, whereas the stimulus faces did not reflect any traits. Afterwards, participants §s expected facial appearance of group members was assessed using a reverse correlation task. Independent judges rated the resulting visualized expectations as more criminal in the criminal behavioural information condition than in the trustworthy behavioural information condition. The current work establishes a causal link between behavioural information and expected outgroup faces where previously only correlations had been observed. 1922 43 2 2013 World change orientation refers to the extent to which one individual attributes his or her prosocial action to the function of making the world a better place. In Study 1, we developed a scale to measure this world change orientation [world change scale (WCS)] and to analyse its theoretical structure as a distinctive motivational orientation. In Study 2, participants were presented with a situation of need and subsequently given an unexpected opportunity to get involved in prosocial behaviour. We then tested the hypothesis that degree of involvement is predicted by WCS when the situation is framed in terms of improving the welfare of the world, but by empathic concern when the situation is framed in terms of improving the welfare of a concrete victim. The results of both studies suggest that WCS refers to a distinct motivational orientation, which affects prosocial behaviour above and beyond other motives. 1923 43 2 2013 The present paper extends the needs based model of reconciliation to contexts marked by status inequalities rather than by overt intergroup aggression. Specifically, we investigated whether and when members of high status versus low status groups experience divergent socio emotional needs vis a vis members of the respective other status group. Building on research informed by social identity theory, we hypothesized that the groups §s different positions in the social hierarchy only translate into divergent needs when the status differences are perceived as illegitimate. In Study 1 (N=130), we tested this prediction by manipulating status and perceived legitimacy of status differences in a setting with artificially created groups. Results confirmed that the need to be socially accepted by members of the other status group was stronger in high status compared with low status group members but, as expected, only when the status differences were perceived to be illegitimate. Also as predicted, the need to be empowered by the other status group was stronger in low status compared with high status group members, again only under conditions of illegitimate status differences. Study 2 (N=169) further corroborated our perspective by replicating these findings in a naturalistic intergroup context. Implications for the role of legitimacy perceptions in determining differential socio emotional needs and for the promotion of sustainable social change are discussed. 1924 43 2 2013 Threats to group status can elicit different responses, ranging from those that motivate striving for improvement to those that motivate defending the threatened social identity. We examine why moral threats to group status may inhibit individuals §s striving to improve. Specifically, we predicted that a threat to the group §s moral status evokes a defensive emotional focus on the outgroup that impedes individuals §s striving to improve. Two studies (N=76 and N=90) showed that moral (as opposed to nonmoral) threats elicited more outrage directed at the outgroup and, by trend, less outrage directed at the ingroup. The follow up study further demonstrated that moral threat impeded striving for improvement because of the relative focus of outrage on ingroup versus outgroup. Moreover, and consistent with our group based analysis, this pattern was most pronounced among strongly identified group members. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of framing groups §s shortcomings in moral versus nonmoral terms. 1925 43 2 2013 "We apply latent class analysis (LCA) to build typologies of response profiles underlying variation in attitudes. LCA is directly suited for identifying categories of people who have distinct representational profiles, that is, discretely measureable patterns of attitudes that are bound together by a common system of interpretation used by the group to make sense of and communicate about a social object within a social context. This novel application extends social representations theory and provides a way to simultaneously examine the relevant content of important representations and their prevalence across a priori social categories and demographics within a given society. We identify four distinct representational profiles underlying bicultural policy attitudes in a nationally representative New Zealand sample (N=6150). We map the prevalence of these four profiles across the population, show how they vary demographically across indicators of social class, immigration status, and ethnicity, and predict distinct patterns of voting behaviour, political party support, social identification, and ingroup and outgroup attitudes. Guidelines for the use of LCA in the study of social representations are discussed, including a three step model of the following: (i) profile prediction and derivation; (ii) profile validation; and (iii) prevalence mapping of profile distributions across strata within the population. " 1926 43 3 2013 Performing consecutive self control tasks typically leads to deterioration in self control performance. This effect can be explained within the strength model of self control or within a cognitive control perspective. Both theoretical frameworks differ in their predictions with regard to the impact of affect and task characteristics on self control deterioration within a two task paradigm. Whereas the strength model predicts decrements in self control performance whenever both tasks require a limited resource, under a cognitive control perspective, decrements should only occur when people switch to a different response conflict in the second task. Moreover, only the cognitive control model predicts an interaction between task switching and positive affect. In the present research, we investigated this interaction within a two task paradigm and found evidence that favoured a cognitive control interpretation of the results. Positive affect only benefitted consecutive self control performance if response conflicts in the two tasks were different (resisting sweets followed by a Stroop task). If they were the same (two consecutive Stroop tasks), positive affect impaired self control performance. These effects were partially replicated in the second study that also examined negative affect, which did not affect self control performance. We conclude that drawing on cognitive control models could add substantially to research on self control. 1927 43 3 2013 Three experimental studies investigated whether death thoughts avoidance as a consequence of mortality salience and need for certainty as a consequence of uncertainty are two different motivational states. The results suggest that although death thought avoidance and need for certainty are different constructs, they share a great deal of variance (anxiety plays a pivotal mediational role in both). However, whereas the impact of uncertainty on negative attitudes towards an outgroup with different worldviews (Arabs) was mediated only by anxiety (measured retrospectively), the effect of mortality salience was mediated by both retrospective anxiety and death thought accessibility. These findings imply that similar effects that have been obtained by these two manipulations are, at least partly, the result of different processes. 1928 43 3 2013 Scientific discoveries about the dangers of smoking and antismoking actions carried out in Western countries over recent decades have progressively helped create an antismoking social norm. Nevertheless, many smokers still refuse to quit. We conducted two studies to investigate smokers §s resistance to this norm as a function of their personal self esteem (PSE) and group based self esteem (GBSE). An initial correlational study assessed smokers §s perception of the antismoking social norm, their PSE, and their antismoking attitudes. Smokers with low PSE had lower antismoking attitudes than those with high PSE when the antismoking norm was strong. The second study assessed GBSE (i.e., smokers §s satisfaction as smokers) and manipulated both the strength of the antismoking norm and PSE (i.e., focus on personal weaknesses or strengths). Smokers with low PSE displayed the lowest antismoking attitudes when the antismoking norm was strong and their GBSE was high. These results show that the antismoking norm can produce paradoxical effects and suggest that the way individuals cope with stigmatization is affected by the interplay between PSE and GBSE. 1929 43 3 2013 We tested whether power reduces responses related to social stress and thus increases performance evaluation in social evaluation situations. We hypothesized and found that thinking about having power reduced fear of negative evaluation and physiological arousal during a self presentation task (Studies 1 and 2). In Study 2, we also showed that simply thinking about having power made individuals perform better in a social evaluation situation. Our results confirmed our hypotheses that the mechanism explaining this power performance link was that high power participants felt less fear of negative evaluation. The reduced fear of negative evaluation generated fewer signs of behavioural nervousness, which caused their performance to be evaluated more positively (serial mediation). Simply thinking of having power can therefore have important positive consequences for a person in an evaluation situation in terms of how he or she feels and how he or she is evaluated. 1930 43 3 2013 "Benevolent sexism promises women a revered place within intimate relationships, which should lead to greater dissatisfaction when they face relationship difficulties. We collected self reports of relationship problems and relationship satisfaction (Study 1; N=91 heterosexual couples), relationship problems and relationship evaluations daily over 3weeks (Study 1), and hurtful partner behaviour and relationship evaluations over 10days (Study 2; N=86 women). Women §s endorsement of benevolent sexism predicted sharper declines in relationship satisfaction when they faced greater relationship problems (Study 1) and hurtful partner behaviour (Study 2). These effects were magnified in longer relationships (Studies 1 and 2), indicating that the sensitivity to relationship problems associated with women §s endorsement of benevolent sexism is particularly pronounced when women have more invested in their relationship role being revered and cherished. The results suggest that women who endorse benevolent sexism are vulnerable within their relationships because their satisfaction is contingent upon the fulfilment of the promises of benevolent sexism. " 1931 43 3 2013 The present research tests the idea that playing a team player video game in which players work together as teammates and assist each other in achieving a common goal increases cooperative behaviour toward a new partner. In fact, relative to a single player mode, cooperatively playing a video game increased cooperation in a mixed motive decision dilemma task. Because the players were exposed to the same video game content in both experimental conditions, the effect on cooperative behaviour can only be accounted for by the different way the game was played. Mediation analyses revealed that cooperative team play promoted feelings of cohesion, which activated trust (i.e., the expectation of reciprocal cooperation), which in turn increased cooperative behaviour. 1932 43 4 2013 This introductory article for the special issue entitled Social Psychological Perspectives on the Legitimation of Social Inequality reviews various theoretical frameworks applied to the study of this topic. Legitimation of social inequality occurs through individual level, group level, and system level processes. In societies in which egalitarianism and fairness are core cultural values, legitimation permits differential treatment of people on the basis of their social group memberships while allowing people to maintain positive self images, to reinforce group based hierarchies and to justify a status quo that systematically benefits some individuals and groups more than others. In this article, we focus on three major theoretical perspectives in social psychology that have inspired most of the research featured in this special issue, and we offer a general overview of the articles to follow, expanding upon their connections to one another and to the theme of the issue. We highlight the promise of research on legitimation of social inequality not only for developing a deeper and more integrative theoretical understanding of intergroup relations but also for guiding interventions to achieve social equality in practice. 1933 43 4 2013 In two studies, we test the prediction that perceived longevity increases system justification and the legitimacy of inequality. In Study 1, the foundations of the capitalist system were portrayed as younger or older on a timeline. Participants scored higher on economic system justification and perceived capitalism as more legitimate when they were led to believe that this economic system was older. In Study 2, we manipulated the longevity of the Indian caste system and recruited both Indians and Americans. Both groups judged the caste system as more justifiable and legitimate when it was described as more longstanding. In addition, Indians reported more system dependence and judged the caste system as more justifiable and legitimate than Americans. Feelings of system dependence explained the effects of nationality, but not the effects of longevity, on the justification and legitimacy of the caste system. Perceived longevity is a novel contributor to system justification. 1934 43 4 2013 Modern society is rife with inequality. People §s interpretations of these inequalities, however, vary considerably: Different people can interpret, for example, the existing gender gap in wages as being the result of systemic discrimination, or as being the fair and natural result of genuine differences between men and women. Here, we examine one factor that may help explain differing interpretations of existing social inequalities: perceptions of system stability. System justification theory proposes that people are often motivated to rationalize and justify the systems within which they operate, legitimizing whatever social inequalities are present within them. We draw on theories and evidence of rationalization more broadly to predict that people should be most likely to legitimize inequalities in their systems when they perceive those systems as stable and unchanging. In one study, participants who witnessed stability, rather than change, in the domain of gender equality in business subsequently reported less willingness to support programs designed to redress inequalities in completely unrelated domains. In a second study, exposure to the mere concept of stability, via a standard priming procedure, led participants to spontaneously produce legitimizing, rather than blaming, explanations for existing gender inequality in their country. This effect, however, emerged only among politically liberal participants. These findings contribute to an emerging body of research that aims to identify the conditions that promote, and those which prevent, system justifying tendencies. 1935 43 4 2013 Previous research on superordinate identification demonstrated the positive effects of such identification on intergroup relations. Our study investigated the hypothesis that superordinate identity increases acceptance of intergroup inequalities among members of low status groups. The results obtained from two studies supported our predictions. Superordinate identification increased the justification of unequal funding by members of the disadvantaged group (Study 1) and the acceptance of displaying religious symbols in public places among non believers (Study 2). In contrast, identification with the low status subgroup decreased perceived legitimacy of unequal intergroup arrangements. The results demonstrate that superordinate identification can have a negative influence on willingness to act in line with subgroup interest among members of disadvantaged groups. 1936 43 4 2013 In Study 1, 82 White children aged 5 10years allocated rewards to White and Black target children in justified/unjustified normative contexts according to their performance on a previous task. In Study 2, 71 White children aged 5 10years allocated resources to White and Black target children in conditions of high (interviewer was present) or low (interviewer was absent) salience of the anti racism norm. In both studies, younger children displayed intergroup biased racial behaviours in most conditions, whereas older children, as expected, only displayed similar egalitarian behaviours in contexts where an anti racism normative pressure was not salient. Results of both experimental studies highlighted the interplay between child development, the anti prejudice norm and context factors. Furthermore, they support the assumptions of the theory of aversive racism regarding the use of legitimizing justifications to account for racial biased behaviours and extend its scope to a better understanding of the development of racial prejudice in childhood. 1937 43 4 2013 Prejudice is more prevalent among members of the working class than among members of the middle or upper class. It is still a matter of discussion whether education works to suppress prejudice among upper class members or, on the contrary, to enhance genuinely tolerant attitudes. We propose that (i) two indicators of social class income and education independently predict prejudice toward multiple targets as follows: lower levels of income and education are associated with higher levels of prejudice. (ii) The connection between social class and prejudice is explained by the endorsement of system legitimating ideological attitudes, namely right wing authoritarianism (RWA) and social dominance orientation (SDO). We tested these hypotheses in four studies using cross sectional surveys in Europe (Studies 1 and 2, Ns=11330 and 2640) and longitudinal data from Germany and Chile (Studies 3 and 4, Ns=343 and 388). Results show that education and income exert independent negative effects on prejudice. The effect of education is stronger than the effect of income, which is not stable across countries. The relationships between income and prejudice and education and prejudice are mediated by RWA and SDO. We conclude that people of the working class generally endorse an ideological configuration that is well suited for legitimating the social system. 1938 43 4 2013 "We tested how perceived threat to group position affects the relationship between beliefs about the acceptability of social inequality as measured by social dominance orientation (SDO)and discrimination. We hypothesized that high SDO heterosexuals would respond with increased discrimination when they perceived status gains for gays. In a pilot study, we found that SDO correlated with gay prejudice and with perceiving gays to be gaining status. In an experiment, we manipulated the perceived status of gays and measured SDO, traditional values, and money donated to anti gay causes. SDO was correlated with more anti gay donations, except when gays were perceived to be low in status; then people high in SDO discriminated less, making fewer anti gay donations in the Low compared to the Gain and Control status conditions. By contrast, traditional values were correlated with more anti gay donations in all conditions, and the correlation was especially strong in the Low status condition. " 1939 43 4 2013 In this research, we investigated the psychological sense of feeling wronged as an advantaged group member. By feeling wronged, we refer to advantaged group members who experience themselves being unfairly accused for harboring racial or ethnic biases. Drawing on research on moral threat to the ingroup, we predicted that feeling wronged would lead advantaged group members to legitimize the social hierarchy they are benefiting from, which in turn can undermine their intentions to redress group based inequality. Study 1 demonstrated that to the extent advantaged group members (both in Italy and the USA) felt wronged predicted their perceptions of group based disparities as more legitimate, which in turn weakened their intentions to act for promoting social change. Study 2 replicated the effect using an experimental manipulation of unfair blame among a sample of Israeli Jews. Results are discussed in light of relevant work on competitive victimhood and inverted relative deprivation. 1940 43 4 2013 Despite women §s increasing representation in elected offices across a range of countries, women remain a minority of elected officials. Although greater gender equality in political leadership may be assumed to promote gender equality in other domains, the presence of female candidates might ironically facilitate attitudes associated with legitimizing gender inequality. Using experimental methods, we demonstrate that the presence of a female political candidate, relative to a male political candidate, leads to greater beliefs that the sociopolitical system is just (Experiment 1), greater legitimacy of the gender status hierarchy (Experiment 2), and greater implicit preference for stability (Experiment 3). Ironically, within a context in which women are generally underrepresented as political leaders, the increasing presence of women as political candidates might lead to stronger legitimization of the current sociopolitical system, potentially inhibiting social change. 1941 43 4 2013 Consensually held ideologies may serve as the cultural glue that justifies hierarchical status differences in society . Yet to be effective, these beliefs need to be embraced by low status groups. Why would members of low status groups endorse beliefs that justify their relative disadvantage? We propose that members of low status groups in the USA may benefit from some system justifying beliefs (such as the belief in meritocracy) to the extent that these beliefs emphasize the perception of control over future outcomes. In two studies, among women, lower socioeconomic status women, and women of colour, we found a positive relationship between the belief in meritocracy and well being (self esteem and physical health) that was mediated by perceived control. Members of low status groups may benefit from some system justifying beliefs to the extent that these beliefs, such as the belief in meritocracy, emphasize the perception of control over future outcomes. 1942 43 5 2013 Although implicitly measured bias was once assumed to be highly stable, subsequent research has shown that it is, in fact, malleable. One technique for altering implicit bias is through counter prejudicial training. At least two broad mechanisms may drive this effect. First, training people to respond in counter prejudicial ways may diminish the extent to which biased associations are activated in memory. Second, training may strengthen processes that reduce the influence of biased associations on responses. Participants received either counter prejudicial, pro prejudicial, or no training and then completed an implicit measure of bias. Application of the quadruple process model revealed support for both mechanisms: Counter prejudicial training produced less activation of biased associations as well as enhanced detection of appropriate responses compared with pro prejudicial or no training. Implications for the development of bias reduction training are discussed. 1943 43 5 2013 Can temporary mood influence people §s communication strategies? According to Grice §s cooperative principle, conversational utterances should ideally conform to the maxims of quantity, relevance, quality, and manner. Three experiments predicted and found that participants in a negative mood complied significantly better with Grice §s maxims than did participants in a positive mood when using natural language to describe a previously observed social event. Experiments 2 and 3 further confirmed that mood influenced communication strategies, and not merely the encoding (Exp. 2) and retrieval (Exp. 3) of the relevant information. These findings are consistent with affect cognition theories predicting that positive affect promotes a more internally focused and assimilative thinking and communication style, and negative mood promotes more externally focused and accommodative thinking, resulting in the closer observance of communication norms. The relevance of these findings for recent affect/cognition theories is considered, and the practical implications of the results for everyday conversational strategies are discussed. 1944 43 5 2013 The present research investigates whether and how learned symbols for failure reduce task performance. We tested the effect of number priming in two countries with different learning histories for numbers. Priming numbers associated with failure (6 in Germany and 1 in Switzerland) were hypothesized to reduce performance. As expected, in Switzerland, priming with the failure number 1 reduced performance (Study 1), whereas in Germany, priming with the failure number 6 impaired performance in analogy tasks (Study 2). Study 2 additionally analysed the mechanism and showed that the relationship between failure number priming and performance was mediated by evoked avoidance motivation and that dispositional fear of failure moderated this mediation. 1945 43 5 2013 Implementation intentions have been shown to effectively change counter intentional habits. Research has, however, almost solely been concerned with the effectiveness of a single plan. In the present research, we investigated the behavioural and cognitive implications of making multiple implementation intentions targeting unhealthy snacking habits and its underlying processes, linking multiple habitual snacking cues to healthy alternatives. Study 1 revealed that formulating multiple implementation intentions was not effective in decreasing unhealthy snacking, whereas formulating a single plan successfully induced behaviour change. By using a lexical decision task in Study 2, it was found that when making a single plan, but not multiple plans, the healthy alternative became cognitively more accessible in response to a critical cue prime than the habitual response. However, when making additional plans in an unrelated domain, the negative effects of making multiple plans were absent. In sum, the current findings suggest that formulating multiple implementation intentions is ineffective when changing unwanted behaviour. These reduced effects of multiple implementation intentions do not occur when making the plan but are rather due to interference in the enacting phase of the planning process. 1946 43 5 2013 Adopting a powerful posture leads individuals to feel more confident and dominant. Social exclusion can strongly impact individuals §s mood and basic social needs. The current research combines these bodies of research, investigating the effects of dominant and submissive poses on responses to social exclusion and inclusion. In two experiments, participants held a slouching or upright pose and were either socially included or excluded using the Cyberball social exclusion manipulation. Social exclusion only affected participants §s mood when individuals took a powerful posture: Excluded participants in powerful postures had more negative mood after exclusion than included power posing participants, but effects of exclusion and inclusion did not differ among submissive posing participants (Experiments 1 and 2). Similarly, it was also found that social exclusion affected basic needs only when participants §s adopted powerful poses (Experiment 2). 1947 43 5 2013 In the current study, disgust was induced using a carefully controlled odor manipulation to observe its effect on participants §s implicit and explicit responses to homosexuals. Participants were presented with a vial containing an odor that was described as body odor (n=47) that induced a high level of disgust, or parmesan cheese (n=43) that induced a moderate level of disgust, or an odor free vial (n=53). Subsequently, participants viewed images of homosexual and heterosexual couples, and their viewing times and ratings of the images §s pleasantness were recorded. Additionally, they completed a feelings thermometer task, the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men scale that assessed feelings toward homosexuals, and the Three Domain Disgust Scale to measure sensitivity along three dimensions of disgust (pathogen, moral, and sexual). Results indicated that those in the body odor condition viewed images of gay (but not lesbian) couples for less time relative to images of heterosexual couples compared with participants in the other two conditions. With respect to explicit ratings, participants in the body odor condition reported colder feelings for gay relative to heterosexual men on the feelings thermometer compared with those in the no odor control condition. For pleasantness ratings, the odor manipulation served as a moderator, such that for those in the body odor condition only, higher sensitivity to sexual disgust predicted lower ratings for images of lesbian couples relative to straight couples. Thus, although induction of disgust biases implicit and explicit responses to gay couples, the degree to which this occurs for explicit ratings of lesbian couples depends on levels of sexual disgust. 1948 43 5 2013 Narcissistic leaders present us with an interesting paradox, because they have positive as well as negative characteristics. As such, we argue that the nature of the context determines how suitable narcissists are perceived to be as leaders. Here we propose that a specific contextual factor, that is, uncertainty, increases the preference for narcissists as leaders. As an initial test of this prediction, the first study showed that narcissistic characteristics were evaluated as more desirable in a leader in an uncertain context rather than a certain context. In Studies 2 and 3, we further hypothesized and found that high narcissists are chosen as leaders more often than low narcissists, especially in uncertain (rather than certain) contexts. In all of the studies, individuals were shown to be aware of the negative features of narcissistic leaders, such as arrogance and exploitativeness, but chose them as leaders in times of uncertainty, regardless. Thus, a narcissistic leader is perceived as someone who can help reduce individual uncertainty. These results reveal the importance of contextual uncertainty in understanding the allure of narcissistic leaders. 1949 43 5 2013 Research suggests that women are more likely than men to be selected for leadership positions when organizations are in a performance crisis, a phenomenon labelled the glass cliff. Two scenario studies demonstrate that the glass cliff effect is attenuated when organizational stakeholders support the decision to appoint a new leader (i.e., indicating that the new leader can rely on social resources). The glass cliff effect remains when this decision is not fully supported (i.e., indicating that the new leader is unable to rely on social resources). This moderation seems driven by beliefs that men are more likely to possess agentic leadership traits and women more communal leadership traits. When there is no performance crisis, these gendered beliefs are less influential, and thus, social resources do not inform people §s leader evaluations. 1950 43 5 2013 Social identities enhance members §s well being through the provision of social support and feelings of collective efficacy as well as by acting as a basis for collective action. However, the precise mechanisms through which identification acts to enhance well being can be complicated by stigmatisation, which potentially undermines solidarity and collective action. The present research examines a real world stigmatised community group in order to investigate the following: (1) the community identity processes that act to enhance well being and collective action and (2) the consequences of stigmatisation for these processes. Study 1 consisted of a household survey conducted in disadvantaged areas of Limerick city in Ireland. Participants (n=322) completed measures of community identification, social support, collective efficacy, community action and psychological well being. Mediation analysis indicated that perceptions of collective efficacy are an important mediator of the effect of identification upon well being. However, levels of self reported community action were low and unrelated to community identification. In Study 2, 14 follow up multiple participant interviews with residents and community group workers were thematically analysed, revealing high levels of stigmatisation, which was reported to lead to disengagement from identity related collective action. These findings indicate the potential for stigma to reduce collective action through undermining solidarity and social support. 1951 43 5 2013 "According to a dual process model perspective, intergroup contact should be particularly effective for people high in right wing authoritarianism (RWA), but not for those high in social dominance orientation (SDO), because of different underlying motivational goals. In the present studies, we tested the hypothesis that imagined contact, that is, the mental representation of a positive intergroup encounter, improves intergroup relations for high RWAs. In two experimental studies, we showed that high RWAs, compared with low RWAs, show less negative emotions toward Turks (Study 1; N=120) and more willingness to engage in future contact with Romani people (Study 2; N=85) after imagined contact. As expected, people high in SDO did not benefit from imagined contact. Instead, people low in SDO showed less negative emotions after imagined contact in Study 1, but this effect was not replicated in the second study. Theoretical implications and the role of imagined contact as a possible intervention for highly biased individuals will be discussed. " 1952 43 5 2013 We report research implicating nostalgia as an intrapersonal means of warding off the stigmatization of persons with mental illness. We hypothesized and found that nostalgia about an encounter with a person with mental illness improves attitudes toward the mentally ill. In Experiment 1, undergraduates who recalled an encounter with a mentally ill person while focusing on central (vs. peripheral) features of the nostalgia prototype reported a more positive outgroup attitude. This beneficial effect of nostalgia was mediated by greater inclusion of the outgroup in the self (IOGS). In Experiment 2, undergraduates who recalled a nostalgic (vs. ordinary) interaction with a mentally ill person subsequently showed a more positive outgroup attitude. Results supported a serial mediation model whereby nostalgia increased social connectedness, which predicted greater IOGS and outgroup trust. IOGS and outgroup trust, in turn, predicted more positive outgroup attitudes. We ruled out alternative explanations for the results (i.e., mood, perceived positivity, and typicality of the recalled outgroup member). The findings speak to the intricate psychological processes underlying the prejudice reduction function of nostalgia and their interventional potential. 1953 43 5 2013 Societal changes involving power reversal may pose challenges to system justification by a subordinate minority group that had previously held a more privileged position. Derived from originally exploratory qualitative investigation, this paper presents an account of endorsement of justifying the status quo versus the voicing relative deprivation in the context of post Soviet Estonia. Experiences of alternative societal arrangements in history were actively deployed by (minority ethnic) Estonian Russians to generate temporal comparisons with the past as a cognitive alternative to the present status quo and give voice to experiences of relative deprivation. A struggle for positive social identity was interpreted to motivate Estonian Russians to mobilize the past as a cognitive alternative to delegitimize the status quo. By contrast, Russians were portrayed as invaders, and the Soviet past was represented as unjust by (the majority ethnic) Estonians, whereas the present system was depicted as fair and equitable. Mutually, polemical representations of history and narratives of identity provide the lenses through which the legitimacy of new societal arrangements following the major social change is interpreted. 1954 43 5 2013 Theories concerning the relationship between social identification and behaviour are increasingly attentive to how group members emphasise or de emphasise identity related attributes before particular audiences. Most research on this issue is experimental and explores the expression of identity related attitudes as a function of participants §s beliefs concerning their visibility to different audiences. We extend and complement such research with an analysis of group members §s accounts of their identity performances. Specifically, we consider British Muslim women §s (n=22) accounts of wearing hijab (a scarf covering the hair) and how this visible declaration of religious identity is implicated in the performance of their religious, national and gender identities. Our analysis extends social psychological thinking on identity performance in three ways. First, it extends our understandings of the motivations for making an identity visible to others. Second, it sheds light on the complex relationship between the performance of one (e.g. Muslim) identity and the performance of other (e.g. gender/national) identities. Third, it suggests the experience of making an identity visible can facilitate the subsequent performance of that identity. The implications of these points for social identity research on identity performance are discussed. 1955 43 6 2013 Encountering stimuli that violate expectations can elicit compensatory behaviour. One notable result of such compensatory responses is the derogation of outgroups. The present research investigated for the first time if music that defies expectations fosters the derogation of outgroups. In Study 1, exposure to unconventional relative to conventional music increased wagers placed in favour of an ingroup winning a hypothetical rugby match against an outgroup. In extension of this finding, Study 2 revealed that unconventional music led to lower allocated budgets for support of a minority. Study 3 confirmed that music led to harsher punishments of a hypothetical outgroup offender after being exposed to an unconventional edit of a music piece relative to its regular version. The consequences of these findings are discussed in relation to intergroup relations and theories of meaning maintenance. 1956 43 6 2013 Belonging is a fundamental human need, deemed essential for optimal psychological functioning. There is, however, little consensus about how people gain feelings of belonging from social groups, with theories suggesting different antecedents depending upon how groups are conceptualised. The social identity perspective conceptualises groups as social categories and proposes that feelings of group belonging arise from perceived intragroup similarity. However, if groups are construed as interpersonal networks, feelings of belonging would be expected to arise from the quality of relationships and interactions among members. We tested these predictions using multilevel structural equation modelling of longitudinal data from 113 participants. We found that perceived intragroup similarity prospectively predicted feelings of belonging withingroups perceived as social categories but not within those perceived as networks, whereas the quality of interpersonal bonds predicted feelings of belonging to both kinds of groups. We discuss the importance of distinguishing types of groups and suggest implications for research into group membership and well being. 1957 43 6 2013 We examine the validity and reliability of a single item measure of social identification (SISI). Convergent validity is shown with significant positive correlations with previously published unidimensional and multidimensional measures of ingroup identification and other group relevant measures (e.g., entitativity and collective self esteem). Divergent validity is shown via nonsignificant correlations with social desirability measures. Predictive validity is shown with positive correlations with group relevant behaviour (e.g., volunteerism and voting). External validity is shown with correlations with other ingroup identification measures in a community sample. The reliability of the scale is shown by examining scores of the SISI for six different identities at three points in time. 1958 43 6 2013 Do people align their self concepts to the environment? It was predicted that low status (homosexuals), but not high status group members (heterosexuals), respond to environmental cues by shifting the type of self categorization and self stereotyping. In the presence (vs. absence) of environmental cues to sexual orientation, homosexual individuals felt more talented for typically homosexual jobs and showed greater self stereotyping on typically homosexual traits (Experiment 1). Using implicit measures of self categorization and self stereotyping, we observed parallel findings for homosexuals, but not for heterosexuals (Experiment 2). Results are discussed in relation to research on stigma, with particular attention to the potential benefits for low status group members of changing their implicit self concept flexibly across situations. 1959 43 6 2013 "Applying the Needs Based Model of Reconciliation to contexts of group disparity, two studies examined how messages from outgroup representatives that affirmed the warmth or competence of advantaged or disadvantaged groups influenced their members §s intergroup attitudes. Study 1 involved natural groups differing in status; Study 2 experimentally manipulated status. In both studies, advantaged group members responded more favourably, reporting more positive outgroup attitudes and willingness to change the status quo toward equality, to messages reassuring their group §s warmth. Disadvantaged group members responded more favourably to messages affirming their group §s competence. Study 2 further demonstrated that the effectiveness of reassuring a disadvantaged group §s competence stemmed from restoring its threatened dimension of identity, irrespective of a change of the status quo. In line with Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), these results indicate that beyond the competition over tangible resources, groups are concerned with restoring threatened dimensions of their identities. Exchanging messages that remove identity related threats may promote not only positive intergroup attitudes but also greater willingness to act collectively for intergroup equality. " 1960 43 6 2013 "In three studies, we examined whether the anticipation of group based guilt and shame inhibits ingroup favouritism. In Studies 1 and 2, anticipated group based shame negatively predicted ingroup favouritism; in neither study did anticipated group based guilt uniquely predict ingroup favouritism. In Study 3, we orthogonally manipulated anticipated group based shame and guilt. Here, we found that the shame (but not the guilt) manipulation had a significant inhibitory effect on ingroup favouritism. Anticipated group based shame (but not guilt) promotes egalitarian intergroup behaviour. " 1961 43 6 2013 The media coverage sometimes given to crying women points to the importance of understanding whether gender affects interpretations of crying. This article reports two studies that examined whether observers infer different emotions or dispositions from crying men and women. Study 1 showed that, in the absence of information about the social context of crying, participants inferred gender stereotypical traits and emotions. Study 2 §s manipulation of the social context of crying (relationship versus employment) affected participants §s interpretations of crying by men and women. In employment contexts, participants perceived crying men as more emotional and sad than crying women as well as less competent. The emotionality inferences mediated the judgments of differing male and female competence. In relationship contexts, interpretations of crying women and men did not differ. 1962 43 6 2013 Measures of gender identity have almost exclusively relied on positive aspects of masculinity and femininity, although conceptually the self concept is not limited to positive attributes. A theoretical argument is made for considering negative attributes of gender identity, followed by five studies developing the Positive Negative Sex Role Inventory (PN SRI) as a new measure of gender identity. Study 1 demonstrated that many of the attributes of a German version of the Bem Sex Role Inventory are no longer considered to differ in desirability for men and women. For the PN SRI, Study 2 elicited attributes characterizing men and women in today §s society, for which ratings of typicality and desirability as well as self ratings by men and women were obtained in Study 3. Study 4 examined the reliability and factorial structure of the four subscales of positive and negative masculinity and femininity and demonstrated the construct and discriminant validity of the PN SRI by showing that the negative masculinity and femininity scales were unique predictors of select validation constructs. Study 5 showed that the new instrument explained variance in the validation constructs beyond earlier measures of gender identity. Key message: Even in the construction of negative aspects of gender identity, individuals prefer gender congruent attributes. Negative masculinity and femininity make a unique contribution to understanding gender related differences in psychological outcome variables. 1963 43 6 2013 "Humour is a common interpersonal phenomenon that may positively influence the trajectories of social interactions. In two social interaction experiments, we examined the association between humour and liking. The first study was a secondary analysis of data from a prior experiment (originally conducted for another purpose) in which unacquainted participants engaged in a self disclosure task and rated each other on various dimensions, including humour. In Experiment 2, unacquainted mixed sex dyads participated in a series of either humorous or similar but nonhumorous tasks. In both studies, humour was positively associated with liking and closeness; perceived reciprocal liking and enjoyment of the interaction mediated the association between humour and liking. Likewise, we found a positive association between liking and humour. Men and women did not differ in self reported humour use. The findings suggest that humour is a mechanism used to establish connections with others across all relationships and for both sexes. " 1964 43 6 2013 Although punishment and forgiveness frequently are considered to be opposites, in the present paper we propose that victims who punish their offender are subsequently more likely to forgive. Notably, punishment means that victims get justice (i.e. just deserts), which facilitates forgiveness. Study 1 reveals that participants were more likely to forgive a friend §s negligence after being primed with punishment than after being primed with inability to punish. In Study 2, participants were more forgiving towards a criminal offender if the offender was punished by a judge than if the offender escaped punishment, a finding that was mediated by the just deserts motive. Study 3 was in the context of actual recalled ongoing interpersonal relations and revealed that punishment predicted forgiveness indirectly via just deserts, not via victims §s vengeful motivations. It is concluded that punishment facilitates forgiveness because of its capacity to restore a sense of justice. 1965 43 6 2013 "Relying on the framework provided by Schwartz §s theory of personal values, we investigated whether values can help explain prosocial behaviour. We first distinguished value expressive behaviours from value ambivalent behaviours. The former are compatible with primarily one value or with congruent values, the latter with mutually conflicting values. In Study 1, an analysis over all 41 (39 unpublished) samples in which we measured personal values and prosocial behaviour in monetarily incentivized strategic interactions (N = 1289; data collected between 2007 and 2010 in China, Finland, Germany, Israel, and the West Bank) supported our idea that personal values, universalism in particular, predict value expressive (prisoner §s dilemma cooperation and trust game back transfers) but not value ambivalent behaviours (trust game transfers and ultimatum game proposals and responses). Study 2 (N=56) focused on dictator game behaviours, which we expected and found to be strongly value expressive. The findings contribute to the ongoing discussion on whether and under which circumstances values shape behaviour. " 1966 43 6 2013 This research explores when and how tailoring messages to attitudinal bases backfires. Study 1 demonstrated that for attitudes (toward education subsidies) that were based more on beliefs than emotions, recipients whose initial attitudes were incongruent with the message position (i.e., message opponents) showed mismatching effects, such that the affective message was more persuasive than the cognitive message. Study 2 replicated these mismatching effects among message opponents for attitudes (toward a rival university) that were primarily affective. Study 3 controlled for effects of initial attitude certainty and replicated the mismatching effects of Study 2 for affective attitudes toward an increase in tuition. Finally, Study 4 suggested a potential mechanism for mismatching effects, revealing that for attitudes (toward an online course management system) that were based more on beliefs than emotions, message opponents counter argued with the cognitive appeal more intensely than the affective appeal. Contrary to the notion in the extant literature that mismatching effects are relatively rare compared with matching effects, the current research suggests that mismatching effects occur for both primarily affective and cognitive attitudes when the recipient is highly opposed to the message position. The present findings also demonstrate the utility of examining attitudinal bases at the object level in the context of message tailoring. Implications for message tailoring and for affective versus cognitive attitudes are discussed. 1967 43 6 2013 Using a multilevel, longitudinal model, we tested the mugging thesis, which states that a conservative is a liberal who has been mugged , in a national sample of Italians (N=457, nested in 54 counties) surveyed four times between October 2002 and January 2007. We predicted participants §s increase in conservatism as a function of the cross level interactions between criminal victimisation on the one hand and the unemployment and the crime rates for their areas of residence on the other. Conservatism increased among victimised participants living in areas characterised by high unemployment rates, but not among those living in areas with low unemployment rates. The cross level interaction between victimisation and crime rate did not influence our dependent variable. The strengths, implications and limitations of this research are discussed. 1968 43 7 2013 According to interdependence theory, interpersonal situations that vary in their surface characteristics can be united by similarities in their underlying structure. Likewise, factor analytic approaches to personality combine many traits into a small number of factors. In the current research, we use interdependence theory and existing factor analyses of personality traits to measure people §s lay theories about the ways traits and situations interact. We predict that traits representative of honesty humility/virtue will be rated as more relevant to situations with non correspondent outcomes (a gain in one person §s outcomes is associated with a loss in the other person §s outcomes) than to situations with correspondent outcomes (a gain in one person §s outcomes is associated with a gain in the other person §s outcomes). Conversely, we predict that traits representative of agreeableness will be rated as more relevant to situations with correspondent outcomes than to situations with non correspondent outcomes. An experiment found the expected trait X situation interaction revealing that subjects expect certain types of traits to be most relevant to specific types of situations. 1969 43 7 2013 Legal archives concerning a new type of offence first introduced onto the French statute books in 2005 reveal a normalization effect over the following 2years in judges §s sentence decisions but not in prosecutors §s sentence demands. We examine the hypothesis that the formation of a normally accepted range of sentences will influence how judges respond to the extremity of the prosecutor §s initial sentence demand. In line with a normalization perspective, results reveal that judges were less influenced by extreme (out of range) sentence demands but more influenced by moderate (in range) sentences in 2007 than in 2005. Over time, it seems that a shared standard of reference is established, which appears to lead judges to adjust moderate prosecutor demands less and extreme prosecutor demands more. 1970 43 7 2013 Research has demonstrated that leader performance and leader prototypicality are both predictors of leader endorsement. While performance and prototypicality have generally been considered to be independent, this paper suggests that performance and prototypicality are interdependent and have a bi directional impact both on each other and on leaders §s capacity to engage in identity entrepreneurship (i.e., to define shared group norms and ideals). Two experimental studies indicate that followers infer leaders §s prototypicality from their performance and that a leader §s prototypicality determines perceptions of performance (indicating reversed causality). Moreover, there is evidence that both performance and prototypicality enhance leaders §s capacity to act as identity entrepreneurs. These findings extend our understanding of the mutually dependent causal relationship between followers §s perceptions that a leader is one of us and that he or she is doing it well . They also provide the first experimental evidence that these factors are joint determinants of leaders §s identity entrepreneurship. 1971 43 7 2013 Despite recognizing the need for social change in areas such as social equality and environmental protection, individuals often avoid supporting such change. Researchers have previously attempted to understand this resistance to social change by examining individuals §s perceptions of social issues and social change. We instead examined the possibility that individuals resist social change because they have negative stereotypes of activists, the agents of social change. Participants had negative stereotypes of activists (feminists and environmentalists), regardless of the domain of activism, viewing them as eccentric and militant. Furthermore, these stereotypes reduced participants §s willingness to affiliate with typical activists and, ultimately, to adopt the behaviours that these activists promoted. These results indicate that stereotypes and person perception processes more generally play a key role in creating resistance to social change. 1972 43 7 2013 In this research, we have analysed the role played by the scope of justice and belief in a just world (BJW) in discrimination against immigrants. In Study 1 (n=185), we found that the relationship between prejudice and discrimination is mediated by a restricted view of the scope of justice. In addition, the results also showed that this mediation is moderated by BJW insofar as the mediation occurred in participants with a high level of BJW but not in participants with a low level of BJW. Studies 2 and 3 experimentally tested our prediction that the legitimising role played by the scope of justice is guided by a justice motive such as BJW. In both studies, the results showed a greater degree of discrimination against immigrants when a restricted scope of justice was considered but only when the BJW was made salient. In sum, these results introduced an innovation into the literature on the legitimation of social inequalities by demonstrating the relevant role played by the justice perceptions in discrimination against immigrants. 1973 43 7 2013 This paper identifies autochthony the belief that a place belongs to its original inhabitants and that they are therefore more entitled as a relevant new determinant of outgroup prejudice. We hypothesized that autochthony uniquely predicts prejudice towards migrant groups and that it mediates the relationship between national identification and prejudice. The mediation process was anticipated to be especially strong for people who perceive outgroup encroachment, that is, those who feel that immigrants are getting out of place . These hypotheses were tested in two studies using nationally representative samples of native Dutch participants. In Study 1 (N=793), we showed that autochthony is an empirically distinct construct and that it is a unique predictor of prejudice. Furthermore, higher national identifiers expressed stronger claims of autochthony, and these claims were in turn associated with more negative feelings towards migrant groups. Study 2 (N=466) showed support for a moderated mediation model: Beliefs in autochthony were only related to prejudice for participants who perceived outgroup encroachment. 1974 43 7 2013 The current work examines a novel and specific way in which competition can hurt the performance of negatively stereotyped individuals: by evoking stereotype threat. In four experiments, we demonstrate that women §s underperformance in math when primed with competition was due to feeling worried about confirming negative stereotypes about women §s math ability (i.e., stereotype threat), that the activation of negative performance stereotypes for women primed with competition was due to increased group level social comparisons (i.e., comparing the self with men and women), and that priming competition led men to perform more poorly than women in a domain where they are negatively stereotyped (i.e., verbal ability). This research suggests that priming people with competition in contexts where they are negatively stereotyped leads to greater social comparison, activation of negative stereotypes, and concern about confirming these stereotypes, thereby decreasing stereotyped individuals §s performance in the stereotyped domain. 1975 43 7 2013 We examined whether the extent to which individuals accord importance to components of the investment model varies by attachment. In Study 1, rewards and costs in a hypothetical relationship were experimentally manipulated, and participants (single and dating undergraduates) reported perceptions of rewards, costs, and satisfaction. In Study 2, investments and alternative quality were manipulated, and participants reported perceptions of investments, alternatives, satisfaction, and commitment. Study 1 revealed that relative to others, individuals high in both anxiety and avoidance (i.e., fearful) accord less weight to rewards when determining satisfaction. Study 2 revealed that relative to others, individuals low in anxiety and high in avoidance (i.e., dismissing) accord more weight to investments and alternatives, and less weight to satisfaction when determining commitment. 1976 43 7 2013 We integrate two prominent models of social perception dimensionality. In three studies, we demonstrate how the well established semantic differential dimensions of evaluation and potency relate to the stereotype content model dimensions of warmth and competence. Specifically, using a correlational design (Study 1) and experimental designs (Studies 2 and 3), we found that semantic differential dimensions run diagonally across stereotype content model quadrants. Implications of integrating classic and modern approaches of social perception are discussed. 1977 44 1 2014 This research examines the implications of locomotion regulatory mode (orientation toward making progress on goals) and assessment regulatory mode (orientation toward critically evaluating alternatives) for employees §s performance. Regulatory mode theory suggests that, although these are both integral to self regulation, they may also function independently of one another and affect distinct, but equally important, performance aspects. We propose and find that performance of locomotion oriented employees is complemented by their leader §s expert power (ability to provide superior knowledge and information), whereas performance of assessment oriented employees is complemented by their leader §s coercive power (ability to administer negative consequences). These findings support the regulatory mode interpersonal complementarity hypothesis and show that complementarity plays a role in self regulation of objective performance. 1978 44 1 2014 Mood states affect judgments in general and intergroup judgments in particular. The aim of the present research was to show that ingroup projection is influenced by affective states in a similar way as ingroup bias. Varying mood states and relevance of the intergroup situation orthogonally, the results supported the hypotheses that positive mood in conjunction with low relevance and negative mood in conjunction with high relevance elicit higher levels of biased prototypicality perceptions compared to the other conditions of the design. Given substantial evidence from previous research that mood in conjunction with perceived relevance moderates motivated versus heuristic processing, we propose that the present results correspond with motivation versus cognition based ingroup projection and suggest different processes underlying the phenomenon of relative ingroup prototypicality. 1979 44 1 2014 Although psychology has recently witnessed a burgeoning interest in the predictors of social and political action generally, little research has considered the psychological mechanisms by which people come to choose extreme or radical forms of action. How and why do groups come to favour radical or extreme solutions (radicalization) over conventional political pathways (politicization)? Theory in both political science and psychology suggests that social interaction plays an important role, but this has never been demonstrated experimentally. Results (N=114) show that social interaction can lead to both politicized and radicalized solutions but that radicalization rests on the perception that extreme action is legitimate. The findings provide the first experimental analog of the group based dynamics that underpin political engagement and political extremism. 1980 44 1 2014 Inferences about moral character may often drive outrage over symbolic acts of racial bigotry. Study 1 demonstrates a theoretically predicted dissociation between moral evaluations of an act and the person who carries out the act. Although Americans regarded the private use of a racial slur as a less blameworthy act than physical assault, use of a slur was perceived as a clearer indicator of poor moral character. Study 2 highlights the dynamic interplay between moral judgments of acts and persons, demonstrating that first making person judgments can bias subsequent act judgments. Privately defacing a picture of Martin Luther King, Jr. led to greater moral condemnation of the agent than of the act itself only when the behaviour was evaluated first. When Americans first made character judgments, symbolically defacing a picture of the civil rights leader was significantly more likely to be perceived as an immoral act. These studies support a person centered account of outrage over bigotry and demonstrate that moral evaluations of acts and persons converge and diverge under theoretically meaningful circumstances. 1981 44 1 2014 In the legal literature, privity refers to the link between a minority §s current social, psychological, and economic problems and its previous mistreatment by the government. Scholars speculate that judgments of privity underlie support for redress for historical injustices. There is no gold standard for evaluating privity, however, and its assessment is susceptible to personal and situational influences. We conducted three studies to examine how liberal conservative ideology interacts with group membership to predict judgments of privity and support for redress. This research is the first to examine the combined effects of liberal conservative ideology and group membership among respondents who belong to previously victimized minorities. Across both actual and hypothetical injustices, increasing conservatism was inversely related to judgments of privity, except when respondents were members of the victimized group. Victimized group members claimed privity regardless of ideology. The effects on support for reparations paralleled those for privity with one exception involving African Americans (Study 2). We discuss the implications of the findings for understanding the nature of liberalism conservatism. 1982 44 1 2014 In the aftermath of the Liberian civil wars, we investigated whether it is possible to systematically influence how people construe their group §s role during the conflict and how this affects intergroup emotions and behavioural intentions. In a field experiment, 146 participants were randomly assigned to think about incidents of violence during the war that were either committed by fellow ingroup members (perpetrator focus) or against fellow ingroup members (victim focus). Adopting a perpetrator focus led to greater willingness to engage in cross group contact, greater need for acceptance, and greater intergroup empathy. The focus manipulation did not affect participants §s need for empowerment. Key message: Appraising the ingroup as victim or perpetrator after conflicts with reciprocal harm doing is largely a matter of psychological construction. A promising avenue for promoting positive cross group contact consists in widening the ingroup §s victim role by also remembering the harm that the ingroup inflicted upon others. This amplifies the need of acceptance, which leads to greater intergroup empathy and greater willingness to engage in cross group contact. 1983 44 1 2014 "Although individuals generally value health and sustainability, they do not always behave in a manner that is consistent with their standards. The current study examines whether attitudes and social norms (i.e., descriptive and injunctive norms) can evoke anticipated pride and guilt, which, in turn, guide behavioural intentions. This self regulatory function of anticipated pride and guilt is examined in the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) extended with descriptive norms. Study 1 (N=944) was a cross sectional study in a sustainable (organic) behaviour context, and Study 2 (N=990) was a study with a delayed outcome measure in a sustainable (fair trade) and a healthy (fruit consumption) behaviour context. We demonstrate that both negative and positive self conscious emotions guide behaviour because they mediate the effects of both attitudes and social norms on intentions. Furthermore, the results show that the mediating effects of anticipated pride and guilt significantly improve the explanatory power of the extended TPB in all contexts; however, there are differences in the size of the effects, such that the mediating effect of emotions is larger in a sustainable compared to a healthy context. Theoretical implications of our findings are discussed. " 1984 44 1 2014 Attribute conditioning (AC) refers to people §s changed assessment of stimuli §s (conditioned stimuli, CSs) attributes due to pairings with stimuli possessing these attributes (unconditioned stimuli, USs). Up to now, research only showed conditioning of only one attribute within a conditioning session (e.g., athleticism) and measured assessment changes in only this single attribute. The current study shows attribute specific AC effects in multi attribute environments and shows that attribute accessibility determines which of a US §s multiple attributes are conditioned. Experiment 1 shows AC effects for artificial logos with attributes varying across USs (e.g., athletic, intelligent, or funny). Experiment 2 shows that these AC effects persist over time. Experiment 3 directly manipulated accessibility for attributes varying between and within USs (e.g., a US being sexy and familial) with a priming procedure. Priming specific attributes prior to conditioning determined which attribute of a US was conditioned to paired CSs. We discuss theoretical implications for AC, as well as practical implications for brand image formation and advertising. 1985 44 1 2014 Research on counterfactuals (If only... ) has seldom considered the effects of counterfactual communication, especially in a defensive context. In three studies, we investigated the effects of counterfactual defences employed by politicians. We assumed that self focused upward counterfactuals (If only I..., the outcome would have been better ) are a form of concession, other focused upward counterfactuals (If only they..., the outcome would have been better ) are a form of excuse, and self focused downward counterfactuals (If only I..., the outcome would have been worse ) are a form of justification. In Study 1, a counterfactual defence led to a more positive evaluation of the politician than a corresponding factual defence. Of the two types of defence, the counterfactual defence reduced the extent to which the politician was held responsible for the past event and was perceived as more convincing. In Study 2, counterfactual excuse and counterfactual justification were equally effective and led to a more positive evaluation of the politician than counterfactual concession. In Study 3, the higher effectiveness of counterfactual justification was independent from perceived ideological similarity with the politician, supporting the strength of this defence. These results show that counterfactual defences provide subtle communication strategies that effectively influence social judgements. 1986 44 2 2014 "We examined the impact of eccentricity on the evaluation of artistic skills and the quality of artworks. Based on the notion that artists are typically perceived as eccentric, creative and skilled, we tested the hypothesis that eccentricity increases perceptions of artistic quality. In Study 1, Van Gogh §s Sunflowers painting was evaluated more positively when he was said to have cut off his left ear lobe than when this information was not presented. In Study 2, participants liked art more when the artist was eccentric. In Study 3, the evaluation of fictitious art increased because of the artist §s eccentric appearance. Study 4 established that the eccentricity effect was specific to unconventional as opposed to conventional art. In Study 5, Lady Gaga §s music was more appreciated when she was displayed as highly eccentric; however, the eccentricity effect emerged only when the display seemed authentic. These novel findings indicate that art evaluations are partly rooted in perceptions of artists §s eccentricity and evidence the importance of perceived authenticity and skills for these attributions. " 1987 44 2 2014 "This article explores the notion that scientific research programs and empirical findings are fundamentally devalued when they threaten a perceiver §s social identity. Findings from three studies show the following: (1) identification with the group of gamers (i.e., people who play video games on a regular basis) influences the extent to which perceivers devalue research suggesting that playing violent video games has negative consequences; (2) this effect is mediated by the feeling that the group of gamers is being stigmatized by such research (Studies 1 and 2) as well as by anger about this research (Study 2); (3) the effect of ingroup identification on negative research evaluations cannot be explained by attitude or behavioural preference inconsistency (Studies 1 and 3); and (4) strongly identified gamers not only devalue a specific scientific study but also generalize their negative evaluations to the entire field of violent video games research (Study 3). The findings suggest that the influence of social identity processes on the evaluation of research is larger than it has previously been recognized. Implications of these findings for science communication are discussed. " 1988 44 2 2014 Do people §s policy preferences toward outgroups in intractable conflict consistently correspond with political ideology? To what extent are policy related cleavages between the political right and left in such contexts fueled by moral conviction and emotions? Analyses of a survey of Jewish Israelis (N = 119) conducted immediately after a war between Israelis and Palestinians revealed little to no ideological differences in acceptance of collateral damage, support for retribution, or support for compromise when positions about the Israeli Palestinian conflict were devoid of moral fervor. Those on the left and right endorsed polarized policy preferences only when their positions about the conflict were held with moral conviction. Presence or absence of guilt about harm to Palestinians mediated the effects of moral conviction on policy preferences in this context. 1989 44 2 2014 According to the Needs Based Model, reconciliation requires the restoration of victims §s sense of power and perpetrators §s moral image, which can be achieved through the exchange of empowering and accepting messages. In two role playing experiments, we extended the model by examining the role of message source, the other conflict party versus a neutral third party, in facilitating reconciliation. Focusing on transgressions between apartment roommates, Study 1 found that regardless of message source, empowering messages restored victims §s sense of power, and accepting messages restored perpetrators §s moral image. Yet, messages from the other conflict party restored victims §s and perpetrators §s trust in each other more effectively than messages from third parties. Multiple mediation analyses revealed that both need satisfaction (restoring victims §s sense of power and perpetrators §s moral image) and trust building were critical for reconciliation. Replicating these findings in a context of transgressions between workplace colleagues, Study 2 further revealed that messages from third parties restored perpetrators §s moral image only in the eyes of the third party (but not in the eyes of the victim), leading to a negative indirect effect on perpetrators §s reconciliation tendencies. Theoretical implications for the modification of the Needs Based Model and practical implications for the limits of third parties §s interventions to promote interpersonal reconciliation are discussed. 1990 44 2 2014 Various causal attribution theories, starting with the covariation model, argue that people use consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency information to causally explain events and behaviours. Yet, the visual presentation of the covariation model in the form of a cube is based on the assumptions that these dimensions generally affect attributions independently, symmetrically, and equally. A Gricean analysis suggests that these assumptions may not generally hold in the case of causal judgments for verbally communicated interpersonal events. We had participants judge the causal role of an actor and a patient in interpersonal events that were described through actor verb patient sentences under high versus low consensus and distinctiveness (Studies 1, 2, and 3) or without such information (Studies 2 and 3). As predicted by Gricean logic, consensus and distinctiveness effects on causality ratings depended on the target whose causal role participants assessed, on the information about the alternative dimension, and, most consistently, on consensus and distinctiveness being high versus low. 1991 44 2 2014 We examine theoretical and methodological issues associated with the roles of individual and group normative importance in self esteem determination. Critical issues include multicollinearity among the physical self subdomains, which may have affected previous results, and the need for a multidimensional perspective on importance models. We apply state of the art methodologies, including exploratory structural equation modelling and the product of indicators approach to latent interactions. Positive interactions would be required to support the individually importance weighted average model, but none were observed in the multidimensional model estimated on the full sample. Nonetheless, some interaction effects were found in the country specific version of the model. Rather, we found support for the alternative group importance weighted average model. We conclude that domain specific self concepts are weighted differently and thus differentially affect self esteem, but these weights do not seem to depend on individual differences in importance. Although awaiting confirmation from further studies, our results suggest the idea that individuals use mainly normative importance processes based on cultural factors in weighting each domain specific component of self concept. 1992 44 2 2014 This study employs a dyadic approach and examines how two partners §s interpersonal coping styles may independently and jointly predict their relationship quality. Hypotheses were derived on the basis of dyadic coping theory focusing on how similar versus complementary styles of interpersonal coping may be useful in explaining couples §s relationship quality. On the basis of attachment theory and self determination theory, three interpersonal coping styles were included: dismissive, adaptive, and anxious/expressive. Data were collected from 123 romantic couples. Actor partner interdependence models revealed that interpersonal coping styles were related to self perceived (actor effect) and partner perceived (partner effect) relationship quality. Furthermore, results also showed that relationship quality was predicted by the interactions between self §s and partner §s interpersonal coping styles. Findings suggest that future research should focus on understanding interpersonal coping behaviours of both partners in a relationship, especially the complex interactions between two partners §s characteristics and their effects on relationship outcomes. 1993 44 3 2014 In evolutionary perspective, what is most remarkable about human sociality is its many and diverse forms of cooperation. Here, I provide an overview of some recent research, mostly from our laboratory, comparing human children with their nearest living relatives, the great apes, in various tests of collaboration, prosocial behaviour, conformity, and group mindedness (e.g., following and enforcing social norms). This is done in the context of a hypothetical evolutionary scenario comprising two ordered steps: a first step in which early humans began collaborating with others in unique ways in their everyday foraging and a second step in which modern humans began forming cultural groups. Humans §s unique forms of sociality help to explain their unique forms of cognition and morality. 1994 44 3 2014 This article examines the role of social recognition in the relationship between gay men §s victimization and their life satisfaction. Using a comprehensive catalog of victimization, we obtained empirical evidence that strongly suggests that victimization negatively affects gay men §s life satisfaction and that this relationship is mainly mediated by a perceived lack of social recognition in society. In addition, although active involvement in the gay community served as a coping mechanism, concealment of one §s sexual identity played no role in the victimization life satisfaction relationship, neither as a coping mechanism nor as a competing mediator. The mediational role of societal recognition underlines the importance of the symbolic meaning of victimization. 1995 44 3 2014 Negotiation research usually distinguishes between integrative and distributive outcomes. Integrative outcomes satisfy the negotiation parties §s most important interests (by trading off less important for more important issues). In contrast, distributive outcomes require negotiators to give up their most important interests (as they make concessions on both less and more important issues). Integrative outcomes are more beneficial, but do they offer greater satisfaction? In this research, we hypothesized that satisfaction with integrative versus distributive outcomes depends on whether people negotiate interest based or value based issues. Three experiments consistently revealed that people in interest based negotiations were more satisfied with integrative outcomes, whereas those in value based negotiations tended to be more satisfied with distributive outcomes. 1996 44 3 2014 Dual identities are defined as immigrants §s identification with their ethnic ingroup as well as the national community in their country of residence. Dual identities have been argued to increase protest, because they make immigrants feel entitled to advocate for their disadvantaged ethnic group as part of a larger national community. In a study of Latino immigrants to the United States, however, we found that dual identities no longer predict protest when immigrants learn that other members of the national community have passed laws or enacted policies that would exclude immigrants or restrict their rights, through deportation and detention. Further, we found that immigrants who identify with those fighting to change such anti immigrant policies support protest regardless of the level of their dual identity and regardless of policy salience. We argue that these results point to the importance of dual identity recognition for research on immigrant protest. 1997 44 3 2014 Bringing together self determination theory, intergroup theories based on the social identity approach, and normative approaches, three studies conducted among hockey fans tested if social norms and social identity predict greater self determined motivation to engage in derogatory behaviours against an outgroup team and higher frequency of these behaviours. Higher self determination was conceptualised as an indicator of internalisation. In Study 1, hockey fans who identified more strongly as fans of the Montreal Canadiens (N = 181) displayed a stronger positive association between the perceived norm in favour of outgroup derogation and self determined motivation to engage in derogatory behaviours against fans of an outgroup team. This interaction also emerged on the frequency with which the derogatory behaviours were enacted. In Studies 2 and 3 (Ns = 105 and 116), this norm by social identity interaction was replicated on both the self determination and the frequency outcomes for fans of a diversity of teams in the National Hockey League. In Study 3, these findings were observed over and above a manipulation that framed derogatory behaviours as being either harmful or beneficial. Results are discussed in light of motivational theories, normative approaches, and intergroup theories based on the social identity approach. 1998 44 3 2014 "In four experiments, we assessed when the salience of ingroup historical victimization will encourage a sense of moral obligation to reduce the suffering of others. Historically victimized groups (Jews and women; Experiments 1 and 3) who considered the lessons of the past for their ingroup felt heightened moral obligation to help other non adversary victimized groups. However, when the suffering outgroup was an adversary, Jews (Experiment 2) and women (Experiment 4) who focused on the lesson of historical victimization for their ingroup reported lower moral obligation to reduce others §s suffering. The lesson focus effect on moral obligation was mediated by benefit finding as well as perceived similarity to the outgroup. Means to facilitate moral obligation, as well as limiting factors, among victimized group members are discussed. " 1999 44 3 2014 Significant terror management research has examined the impact of mortality salience on evaluations toward ingroup versus outgroup and attitudinally similar versus dissimilar others. However, relatively little research has examined evaluations when group membership is disentangled from attitude similarity. The current research examined the impact of mortality salience on evaluations toward ingroup and outgroup critics when people are less likely to rely on group membership as a heuristic. In Experiment 1, the results showed that in the control condition, participants rated an ingroup member who provided unjustified criticism more positively than an outgroup member who provided the same criticism. Under mortality salience, the reverse occurred: An ingroup member who provided unjustified criticism was rated more negatively than an outgroup member. Experiment 2 showed that under mortality salience, the derogation of an ingroup critic who provided unjustified criticism was mediated by perceptions of threat. Implications for reactions to group directed criticism as well as mortality salience effects are discussed. 2000 44 3 2014 Numerous studies have been conducted to demonstrate that behaviours are frequently activated unconsciously. The present studies investigate the downstream psychological consequences of such unconscious behaviour activation, building on work on the explanatory vacuum and post priming misattribution. It was hypothesized that unconsciously activated behaviours trigger a negative affective response if the behaviour violates a personal standard and that this negative affect subsequently motivates people to confabulate a reason for the behaviour. Results provided evidence for this mediated moderation model. Study 1 showed that participants who were primed to act less prosocially indeed reported increased levels of negative affect and, as a result, were inclined to confabulate a reason for their behaviour. Study 2 replicated these findings in the domain of eating and provided evidence for the moderating role of personal standards as well as the entire mediated moderation model. These findings have relevant theoretical implications as they add to the modest number of studies that demonstrate that the effect of unconscious priming may extend well beyond performing the primed behaviour itself to influence subsequent affect and attribution processes. 2001 44 4 2014 In this essay, I describe some of the benefits of cognitive diversity in a complex world as well as the origins of that diversity. The essay has two main parts sandwiched between a brief description of what I mean by diversity and complexity, as well as a brief discussion of whether social systems produce sufficient diversity. In the first part, I describe models that provide insight into why we see the levels of diversity that we do. These models rest on social psychological foundations but borrow ideas from economics as well as population genetics. In the second part, I describe the functional benefits of diversity. I show how diverse predictive models can make a collection of people better able to make accurate predictions, how diverse perspectives and heuristics can enable groups of problem solvers to find innovative new solutions to problems, and how diverse behaviours and representations of the world can make a society more robust. 2002 44 4 2014 Forgiveness research has predominately focused on individual/relational outcomes such as well being and closeness. Less research has examined group outcomes such as cohesiveness or collective action. Forgiveness studies have also emphasized the victim §s or transgressor §s perspective, neglecting the effects of forgiveness on ingroup members who have neither given nor received forgiveness. We theorize that forgiveness promotes collective action among ingroup members through group cohesiveness and that transgressors §s apologetic reactions impact this process. In a laboratory experiment, 229 students (175 females) were led to believe they were in a social dilemma with three others. Some participants witnessed group members forgive an apologetic, obstinate, or neutral defector, whereas others witnessed an unforgiving response. Forgiveness of apologetic and neutral defectors increased later cooperation among ingroup members. This effect was generally mediated by group cohesiveness. Our findings suggest that forgiveness can impact cooperation on a group level, providing a path to successful resolutions to collective action problems. 2003 44 4 2014 This research demonstrates social support from fellow group members as unique trigger of additional effort and performance ingroups. Support induced effort gains are shown both compared with groups without social support and individual work. Study 1 examined existing beliefs about motivating group work among employees with professional group work experience (n=130). The results revealed social support as one of the most frequently reported sources of group induced effort gains. Study 2 explored self reported effort intentions ingroup training scenarios among athletes (n=94). Finally, Study 3 examined performance as a manifest indicator of effort in an experimental persistence task among students (n=88). The results of Study 2 and Study 3 showed significant gains due to social support in both self reported effort and manifest performance, respectively. Together, the results demonstrate that receiving social support from fellow group members leads to higher effort ingroups at the level of existing beliefs about motivating group work, at the level of effort intentions, and at the level of manifest performance behaviour. The observed findings cannot be explained by established sources of motivation gains ingroups such as social comparison or social indispensability. 2004 44 4 2014 When people are faced with the decision of whether or not to help an outgroup member, they often experience conflicting motivational tendencies due to the concurrent presence of factors prompting help and factors prompting non help. We argue that one way of how people deal with this conflict is by taking a closer look at the target §s individual attributes, especially at those indicating the target §s benevolence. Findings of Experiment 1 (N=96), in which we manipulated intercultural dissimilarity between participants and a (fictitious) recipient of help and normative pressure to help as two factors affecting motivational conflict, support this basic assumption. Specifically, response latencies analyses confirmed that participants assigned a culturally highly dissimilar target spent more time on inspecting target related information when normative pressure, and thus motivational conflict, was high than when it was low. Experiment 2 (N=141) extended these findings by demonstrating that providing potential helpers with explicit information about an outgroup member §s benevolence increased helping intentions through reducing their negative interaction expectancies (and thus motivational conflict). As expected, this mediational relationship could only be observed for participants assigned a culturally highly dissimilar target. Experiment 3 (N=46) replicated these mediation findings in a within subjects design. 2005 44 4 2014 This study examined the relation between ethnically based rejection sensitivity and academic achievement in a sample of 936 immigrant students in Germany and Switzerland. The theory of race based rejection sensitivity that originated in North America was extended to immigrant students in Europe. The rough political climate against immigrants in Europe makes it probable that immigrant youth face particular difficulties and are affected by ethnically based rejection sensitivity, at least as much as or even more than minority youth in the United States. Using a standardized literacy performance test and multilevel analyses, we found that ethnically based rejection sensitivity was negatively related to academic achievement for immigrant students. This relation was partially mediated by a strong contingency of the students §s self worth on the heritage culture, as well as by a low number of native German or Swiss majority group friends. We interpret these processes as immigrant students §s efforts to cope with ethnically based rejection sensitivity by retracting into their heritage culture and avoiding majority group contact, which unfortunately, however, at the same time also results in lower academic achievement. 2006 44 4 2014 The study of humanness as a dimension of social judgment has received extensive attention over the past decade. Although the common reported finding is that people attribute more human characteristics to their ingroup than to the outgroup, similar tendencies are expected to be tempered for minority groups when judging the host society. In Study 1, carried out with Gypsy minority members, we tested the hypothesis that those group members who adopt an assimilative strategy identifying more with the host compared with the heritage culture will display the lowest levels of dehumanisation. In Studies 2 and 3, conducted with immigrants in Italy and in Portugal, respectively, the hypothesis was extended from an identification conceptualisation to an acculturation one. Despite significant variability in intergroup settings and measures, results confirmed our hypothesis that immigrants who choose to assimilate with the host culture dehumanise the outgroup less compared with those who adopt any of the other acculturation strategies. Implications for the ethnocentric nature of dehumanisation biases and for intergroup relations in general are discussed. 2007 44 4 2014 Although extensive research has documented the effectiveness of common or dual ingroups on improving intergroup relations, little is known about how individual difference variables affect people §s willingness to make such re categorizations in the first place. Here, we demonstrate that individual differences in religious fundamentalism predict willingness to categorize in terms of the common Abrahamic religious origins of Christianity and Islam among Christians and Muslims. Study 1 (n=243 Christians, 291 Muslims) uses multigroup structural equation modelling and Study 2 (n=80 Christians) an experimental manipulation to show that religious fundamentalism causes lower dual Abrahamic categorization, which, in turn, predicts more positive attitudes toward the respective outgroup, mediating the negative effects of religious fundamentalism on religious intergroup bias. While making the general case that individual differences may play important roles for dual categorizations, these results also highlight the specific positive potential of dual ecumenical categorizations for improving interreligious relations. Research and societal implications are discussed. 2008 44 4 2014 Internalising the consumer culture ideals of materialism and appearance has been shown to be negatively related to adults §s well being. Similarly, adults who strive towards these ideals for extrinsic reasons, such as to improve their image or status, have been shown to have lower levels of well being than those who strive towards them for intrinsic reasons, such as to help others or support healthy relationships. However, to date, there is little evidence that these links exist in children. In the present research, we use new, age appropriate scales to test our predictions derived from self determination theory that being extrinsically motivated to achieve materialistic and appearance ideals will predict their internalisation, which, in turn, will negatively predict children §s well being. An initial pilot study found that extrinsic motives were negatively related to well being in a sample of 150 children aged 8 11years but that intrinsic motives were not. In our main study, we modelled materialism and appearance as indicators of a single underlying consumer culture construct, and, in a sample of 160 youths aged 8 15years, found support for our hypothesis that being extrinsically motivated to achieve these consumer culture ideals predicts their internalisation, which negatively predicts well being. We discuss the possible mechanisms involved in these processes and the implications of these findings for future research. 2009 44 4 2014 The Conceptual Metaphor Theory (e.g., Lakoff & Johnson, ) suggests that people represent abstract concepts in terms of concrete concepts via metaphoric association. Participants in the United States (US) showed that cardinal direction (north/south) is metaphorically associated with valence (positive/negative), as reflected by their estimate for where a person with high or low socioeconomic status (SES) lives in a fictional city or their own living preference (Meier, Moller, Chen, & Riemer Peltz, ). The present study tested whether the cardinal direction valence metaphoric association could be moderated by cultural differences. Although US participants believed that high SES and low SES individuals were more likely to live in the northern and southern part of the city, respectively, the reverse was so for Hong Kong (HK) participants (Study 1). When asked where they themselves would like to live, HK participants preferred to live in a southern area, whereas US participants showed no preference (Studies 2 and 3). These findings demonstrate cultural differences in metaphoric associations between cardinal direction and valence for HK and US participants. 2010 44 4 2014 In the present research, we introduced a conceptual framework of inclusion and subsequently used this as a starting point to develop and validate a scale to measure perceptions of inclusion. Departing from existing work on inclusion and complementing this with theoretical insights from optimal distinctiveness theory and self determination theory, we proposed that inclusion is a hierarchical two dimensional concept consisting of perceptions of belonging and authenticity. In addition, we posed that in the process of inclusion, it is the group rather than the individual that has primary agency. From this conceptualization, we developed and validated the 16 item perceived group inclusion scale (PGIS). Data from two samples supported our proposed configuration of inclusion. In addition, the PGIS appeared to be a reliable measure of inclusion and was demonstrated to possess both nomological and predictive validity. Taken together, this research contributes to the conceptual refinement of the inclusion construct and offers researchers a reliable and valid tool to conduct future inclusion research. 2011 44 4 2014 Although creativity is often seen as requiring spontaneity and flexibility, recent work suggests that there is creative potential in a structured and systematic approach as well. In a series of four experiments, we show that when Personal Need for Structure (PNS) is high, either chronic (Study 1) or situationally induced (Study 2), creative performance benefits from high task structure. Further, in line with earlier work on cognitive fixation effects, we show that when high task structure contains an example of noncreative task execution, creative performance is impaired, regardless of individuals §s PNS. Nevertheless, participants high in PNS react relatively favourably to high task structure (Study 3) and are more likely to adopt a structured task approach when given the choice (Study 4). In sum, our results show that task structure can both stimulate and inhibit creative performance, particularly for people high in need for structure. 2012 44 4 2014 Middle name initials often appear in formal contexts, especially when people refer to intellectual achievements. On the basis of this common link, the display of middle initials increases positive evaluations of people §s intellectual capacities and achievements. We document this effect in seven studies: Middle initials in authors §s names increased the evaluation of their writing performance (Study 1), and middle initials increased perceptions of status (Studies 2 and 4). Moreover, the middle initials effect was specific to intellectual performance (Studies 3 and 6), and it was mediated by perceived status (Studies 5 7). Besides supporting our hypotheses, the results of these studies yield important implication for everyday life. 2013 44 5 2014 The divergence of public opinion and climate science in the English speaking world, particularly the United States and Australia, has attracted a variety of explanations. One of the more interesting accounts, from a psychological perspective, is the influence of ideology on climate change beliefs. Previous work suggests that ideology trumps knowledge in shaping climate change beliefs. However, these studies have typically examined the influence of proxy measures of knowledge rather than specific climate change knowledge. The goal of the present research was to provide some clarification on the different influences of knowledge and ideology on beliefs about climate change. Specifically, we investigated the relationship between specific climate change knowledge, hierarchical and individualistic ideology, and climate change belief in a national sample (N = 335) of the Australian public. Contrary to research involving proxy knowledge measures, we found that people who had greater knowledge of climate change causes were more willing to accept that climate change is occurring. Furthermore, knowledge of causes attenuated the negative relationship between individualistic ideology and belief that climate change exists. Our findings suggest that climate change knowledge has the potential to positively influence public discourse on the issue. 2014 44 5 2014 Examining the conceptual relationship between personal experience, affect, and risk perception is crucial in improving our understanding of how emotional and cognitive process mechanisms shape public perceptions of climate change. This study is the first to investigate the interrelated nature of these variables by contrasting three prominent social psychological theories. In the first model, affect is viewed as a fast and associative information processing heuristic that guides perceptions of risk. In the second model, affect is seen as flowing from cognitive appraisals (i.e., affect is thought of as a post cognitive process). Lastly, a third, dual process model is advanced that integrates aspects from both theoretical perspectives. Four structural equation models were tested on a national sample (N = 808) of British respondents. Results initially provide support for the cognitive model, where personal experience with extreme weather is best reconceptualised as a predictor of climate change risk perception and, in turn, risk perception a predictor of affect. Yet, closer examination strongly indicates that at the same time, risk perception and affect reciprocally influence each other in a stable feedback system. It is therefore concluded that both theoretical claims are valid and that a dual process perspective provides a superior fit to the data. Implications for theory and risk communication are discussed. 2015 44 5 2014 "Negative climate change imagery is often criticised on the grounds that it provokes and promotes disempowering responses and psychological distancing. We investigated people §s associations with climate change, and their affective content on multiple dimensions, through two studies. In Study 1, we administered an image elicitation task to 2502 people across Australia to examine the mental images most commonly associated with climate change. We used these common responses from the image elicitation task to compile 82 actual images. In Study 2, these images were presented to participants at a series of four workshops (N = 52). Participants selected the images they most closely associated with climate change, rated them for affective content on an emotion circumplex, and later discussed evocative images in small groups. The findings suggest (i) a significant proportion of people struggle to form concrete associations; (ii) common associations are typically psychologically distant and iconographic, but some national level impacts are also salient; and (iii) associations with climate change impacts differ in their affective content: Specifically, associations related to drought and denuded landscapes provoke lower arousal, whereas associations related to disasters and extremes provoke higher arousal. The importance of considering motivated reasoning and multi dimensional affect in the psychological distancing of climate change is discussed. " 2016 44 5 2014 Recent research provides evidence that group norms influence intentions to engage in pro climate behaviour and that identification with the group moderates the norm effects. However, past studies have neglected to examine if the effects on norm adherence vary among different identification aspects. The present studies close this gap by investigating group level self investment (i.e. the importance of and satisfaction with the group) and self definition (i.e. perceived similarities among group members) as possible moderators of group norm effects. We used two experimental studies to test our assumption that self investment but not self definition would moderate the norm intention relation. The results support our assumption and show that group members who were highly self invested in the group (but did not necessarily perceive themselves as similar to other group members) adhered more strongly to climate related ingroup norms than less self invested group members. However, perceived similarity among group members (i.e. self definition) did not positively contribute to respondents §s decision to conform to a group norm. 2017 44 5 2014 The aims of the current paper are to contribute to theorizing in the field of collective action and also to bring this body of research closer with the literature on climate change. We suggest integrating the concept of social norms into the social identity model of collective action, to investigate the determinants of individuals §s collective climate action intention. We argue that perceived social norms will be helpful in understanding the social identity collective action link. Consistent with the proposed model, participants §s (N = 538) intention to take part in a neighborhood based climate protection initiative was predicted via all of the model constructs (social identity, perceived collective efficacy, and group based emotions) but most strongly so by the perceived participation norm, which also fully mediated the effect of social identity on participation intention. Further analyses suggested that the emotional motivation to engage in collective climate action was based on group based guilty conscience rather than anger. Discussion focuses on the importance of social context in understanding and combating climatic change, the emotionally flexible motivations behind different forms of collective action, and the role of group identification in interventions aimed at promoting pro environmental behaviour. 2018 44 5 2014 In two studies, we investigated the framing effects of policy messages regarding climate change. In Study 1, we asked participants to read policy messages that envisioned positive consequences. Messages varied as to their outcome sensitivity (achievement of positive outcomes versus avoidance of negative outcomes), regulatory concern (growth versus safety) and goal pursuit strategy (investment in renewable energy versus intervention on greenhouse gas emissions). Participants showed the highest agreement with a policy message on renewable energy when it was formulated in terms of the achievement of positive, growth related outcomes and with a greenhouse gas emissions message when it was formulated in terms of the avoidance of negative, safety related outcomes. The same held for the intention to vote for candidates proposing those policies. In Study 2, participants §s regulatory focus moderated these effects, with promotion focused participants preferring messages focused on the achievement of positive outcomes and prevention focused participants preferring messages focused on the avoidance of negative outcomes. Results show that the fit among the various levels of framing of a policy message regarding climate change, moderated by individual regulatory focus, increases the probability that recipients agree with the policy. 2019 44 5 2014 Many people are reluctant to behave in environmentally friendly ways. One possible explanation might be that the motivation to behave in environmentally friendly ways is undermined by the way scientific progress is overstated in the popular media. Four experiments show that portraying science as rapidly progressing and thus enabling society to control problems related to the natural environment and human health in the not too distant future is detrimental to environmentally friendly behaviour because such a frame affirms perceptions of an orderly (vs chaotic) world. This in turn negatively affects the likelihood of engaging in environmentally friendly behaviour. Simultaneously, communication that questions (vs affirms) scientific progress leads to lower perceptions of order and consequential increases in environmentally friendly behaviour. These findings show that when the aim is to promote environmentally friendly attitudes and behaviour, it helps to not overstate scientific progress. 2020 44 5 2014 In climate change communications, do attitudes towards humans influence pro environmental action? If so, does it depend on endorsement of self transcendence values? Two experiments examined these questions by assessing the effects of activating positive (vs. negative) humanity esteem on environmental motives, personal moral norms, and behavioural intentions to protect the environment. The experiments tested whether the effects of humanity esteem depend on individuals §s self transcendence values. Results indicated that among people who endorse self transcendence values less strongly, those in the positive (vs. negative) humanity esteem condition had lower ecocentrism (Experiment 1) and weaker personal norms, which led to weaker behavioural intentions to protect the environment (Experiment 2). In contrast, across the two humanity esteem conditions, people who more strongly endorsed self transcendence values showed stronger ecocentrism, personal moral norms, and behavioural intentions to protect the environment. Thus, for people with weaker self transcendence values, portrayals of humanity play a role in people §s engagement with environmental causes. 2021 44 5 2014 Two experiments demonstrate that participants §s willingness to endorse adopting pro environmental behaviours is influenced substantially by a decision framing effect: the inclusion exclusion discrepancy. Participants were presented with a list of 26 pro environmental behaviours (e. g., take a shorter shower, buy local produce). In both experiments, participants asked to cross out the behaviours they would not be willing to engage in (exclusion mindset) generated 30% larger consideration sets than those asked to circle behaviours that they would be willing to do (inclusion mindset). Experiment 2 identified qualities of the behaviours that accounted for the differences in the size of consideration sets, namely effort and opportunity. The results suggest the counter intuitive notion that encouraging people to think about what they would not do for the environment might lead them to do more. 2022 44 6 2014 Exerting self control leads to a diminished capacity to carry out successive acts of self control, a process termed ego depletion. The present study investigated whether dispositional optimism, priming of an optimistic orientation, or their interaction can counteract the ego depletion effect. A total of 160 participants performed a self control demanding weight lifting task on two occasions. Half of the participants were depleted between the two weight lifting tasks. Because depletion of self regulatory resources can undermine optimism half of the participants in the depletion, and no depletion condition were primed for an optimistic orientation before performing the second self control task. Results demonstrated an interaction between dispositional optimism and optimism priming. Only in participants high in dispositional optimism did the optimism prime lead to undiminished persistence on the weight lifting task. These results demonstrate that dispositional optimism may lead to improved goal persistence in the face of adversity only under conditions in which optimistic schemas are activated. 2023 44 6 2014 Culturally diverse work groups do not always reach their full potential compared with less diverse groups. As shared values facilitate group functioning, we examined whether constructing shared values among group members is constrained by high degrees of cultural diversity. Following 33 real life work groups, we investigated how members influenced each other §s achievement and relational values over time. Although low and high diversity groups did not differ in initial value similarity between members, they differed in the process of value convergence. In low diversity groups, members developed shared values by influencing each other §s values towards consensus. In high diversity groups, however, members did not influence each other §s values towards consensus. Low diversity groups also performed better than high diversity groups. These findings extend earlier findings establishing value convergence in culturally homogenous groups and reveal the distinctive processes in highly diverse groups as a focus for interventions to promote diverse group functioning. 2024 44 6 2014 Although people form impressions of others with ease, sometimes one §s initial perceptions of individuals conflict with what one knows about them. Here, we aimed to investigate the process by which explicit knowledge about people interacts with initial perceptions on the basis of cues from facial appearance. Participants memorized the sexual orientations of men §s faces wherein half of the targets were encoded with a sexual orientation opposite to their actual orientation. Subsequent categorization showed that perceivers favoured appearance based information when temporally constrained but favoured explicit knowledge aboutgroup membership with increased viewing time. Additionally, real time measures of participants §s categorizations showed greater vacillation between appearance based cues and explicit knowledge as viewing time increased. These findings suggest that explicit knowledge does not simply overrule appearance based cues past a particular threshold but that the two may interact recurrently with top down knowledge directing attention and perception at later processing. 2025 44 6 2014 "The present research tested the idea that the ecological impact of intergroup contact on outgroup attitudes can be fully understood only when relative frequency and relative influence of positive and negative contact are considered simultaneously. Participants from five European countries (Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Poland and Slovakia; N=1276) freely described their contact experiences with people of neighbouring nationalities and then reported on their outgroup attitudes. Contact descriptions were coded for positive versus negative valence and for person versus situation framing. Consistently across the five participant groups, positive intergroup contact was reported to occur three times more frequently than negative intergroup contact; however, positive contact was found to be only weakly related to outgroup attitudes. On the contrary, the less frequent negative (vs. positive) contact was comparatively more influential in shaping outgroup attitudes, especially when negativity was reported around the contact person, rather than the contact situation. This research §s findings reconcile contrasting lines of past research on intergroup contact and suggest that the greater prevalence of positive contact may compensate for the greater prominence of negative contact, thus leading to modest net improvements in outgroup attitudes after intergroup contact. " 2026 44 6 2014 "Negative (vs positive) intergroup contact may have a disproportionately large impact on intergroup relations because of valence salience effects, whereby negative contact causes higher category salience (Paolini, Harwood, & Rubin, 2010). One correlational and three experimental studies in three conflict areas (Northern Ireland, Arizona §s border area, and Cyprus; Ns=405, 83, 76, and 91) tested the moderation of these valence salience effects by individuals §s histories of outgroup contact. Consistent with a perceived fit principle valence salience effects of face to face, television mediated, and imagined contact held among individuals with negative or limited histories of outgroup contact; these effects were significantly reduced or nonsignificant among individuals with positive or extensive past outgroup contact. These moderation effects suggest that positive and diverse intergroup contact in the past buffers against the harmful effects of negative contact experiences in the present, thus limiting the potential for negative spiralling of intergroup relations. " 2027 44 6 2014 Members of groups with low societal status can pursue individual upward mobility to improve their status. We examine the conditions under which ingroup and outgroup members are most inclined to support such upward mobility attempts. Whereas both ingroup and outgroup supports are important, there may be tension: dissociation from the low status group may lower ingroup support, whereas association with the low status group may lower outgroup support. Ingroup association can be expressed by communicating one §s affective involvement or by behaving in line with typical ingroup practices. As predicted, studies 1 and 2 show that support from the low status ingroup depends more on affective involvement than on behavioural identity expression (BIE). In contrast, studies 3 5 show that support from the high status group is more driven by the upwardly mobile individual §s BIE. Mediational analyses show that these opposite patterns are driven by differential processes, prompted by the group §s respective positions in the social hierarchy. The findings provide insight into how members of low status groups negotiate the competing demands of the high and low status groups as they pursue upward mobility. Moreover, they show how affective involvement and BIE differentially affect ingroup support and outgroup opposition. 2028 44 6 2014 A longitudinal field survey tested the reciprocal effects of acculturation preferences and prejudice among ethnic minorities and majorities. Data were collected at two points in time from 512 members of ethnic minorities and 1143 majority members in Germany, Belgium and England. Path analyses yielded not only the lagged effects of prejudice on acculturation preferences but also the reverse for both majority and minority members. The mutual longitudinal effects between prejudice and desire for culture maintenance were negative, and the mutual effects between prejudice and desire for culture adoption were positive for majority members. The reverse was the case for minority participants. Moreover, the two acculturation dimensions interacted in their effect on prejudice for majority participants but not for minority participants. The effect of desire for culture adoption on prejudice was moderated by perceived intergroup similarity. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. 2029 44 6 2014 Although bystanders can play an integral role in the process of social change, relatively few studies have examined the factors that influence bystander collective action. The present research explores the effect of perpetrator power on bystander efficacy and collective action, as well as the moderating role of impact of the injustice event. Across two experiments, bystanders perceived that collective action would be less effective and were less willing to engage in collective action when a high power perpetrator engaged in injustice, compared with a low power perpetrator. These effects were moderated by impact of the injustice event, such that the effects of power were especially present under conditions of large impact (many victims), compared with small impact (fewer victims). Whereas the effect of the interaction of perpetrator power and impact on bystander efficacy was explained by perceptions of normativity of the injustice event, the effect of the interaction on bystander collective action was explained by bystander efficacy. Implications for bystander collective action and social change are discussed. 2030 44 6 2014 Because of their shared neurobiological underpinnings, factors increasing physical pain can also increase feelings of social disconnection (social pain). Feelings of connection with a social group are reflected in the term social identification, and social identity is commonly associated with intergroup discrimination. In two experiments, we examined the notion that physical pain would reduce social identification and subsequently inhibit intergroup discrimination in helping. By using a pain memory manipulation and a support measure of helping in Study 1 (N=173), and an actual pain manipulation combined with a behavioural measure of helping in Study 2 (N=72), results from both studies confirmed the predictions. As expected, physical pain eliminated ingroup favouritism in helping, and identification mediated this effect in the ingroup condition but not in the outgroup condition. We discuss these findings in light of the apparently paradoxical relationship between social support and pain. 2031 44 6 2014 Social connections are essential to health and well being. However, when pursing social acceptance, people may sometimes engage in behaviour that is detrimental to their health. Using a multi time point design, we examined whether the structure of an emerging network of students in an academic summer school program correlated with their physical health and mental well being. Participants who were more central in the network typically experienced greater symptoms of illness (e.g., cold/flu symptoms), engaged in riskier health behaviours (e.g., binge drinking), and had higher physiological reactivity to a stressor. At the same time, they were happier, felt more efficacious, and perceived less stress in response to a strenuous math task. These outcomes suggest that social ties in an emerging network are associated with better mental well being, but also with poorer physical health and health behaviours. 2032 44 6 2014 Three experiments were designed to demonstrate that job performance inferences from personality inventories rely more on the agentic or communal value conveyed by the items compared with the Big Five traits they are supposed to describe. In the first two experiments, the participants had to predict the job performances of fictitious job applicants based on their responses to a personality inventory. In Experiment 1, the information on personality was held constant, such that the applicants §s responses varied solely on their agentic, communal, or purely descriptive orientation. In Experiment 2, the social value of the responses again varied as well as the information about the applicants §s personality (agreeable vs. conscientious). The results showed that the agentic profiles were the most predictive of the performance, regardless of the personality factors. In Experiment 3, we reversed the procedure. The participants filled out a personality inventory in the place of a more or less successful employee. The results here showed that the information about the performance had the greatest impact on the agentic items, independent of the personality factors measured. These results confirm the relevance of social judgment models in personality research. 2033 44 6 2014 People often talk to themselves using the first person pronoun (I), but they also talk to themselves as if they are speaking to someone else, using the second person pronoun (You). Yet, the relative behavioural control achieved by I and You self talk remains unknown. The current research was designed to examine the potential behavioural advantage of using You in self talk and the role of attitudes in this process. Three experiments compared the effects of I and You self talk on problem solving performance and behavioural intentions. Experiment 1 revealed that giving self advice about a hypothetical social situation using You yielded better anagram task performance than using I. Experiment 2 showed that using You self talk in preparation for an anagram task enhanced anagram performance and intentions to work on anagrams more than I self talk, and that these effects were mediated by participants §s attitudes toward the task. Experiment 3 extended these findings to exercise intentions and highlighted the role of attitudes in this effect. Altogether, the current research showed that second person self talk strengthens both actual behaviour performance and prospective behavioural intentions more than first person self talk. 2034 44 6 2014 The present research sought to examine when and why transformational and transactional leadership are perceived by followers to be effective. A series of five studies revealed that perceived effectiveness of transformational and transactional leadership is influenced by the fit between leadership style driven encouraged strategies and followers §s preferred strategies. Specifically, we found that transformational leadership primarily encourages promotion focused strategies and, accordingly, creates a regulatory fit for promotion focused followers. In contrast, transactional leadership primarily encourages prevention focused strategies, creating a regulatory fit for prevention focused followers. As a consequence of this regulatory fit, leadership is perceived as more effective and predictive of enhanced effort. By integrating literature on self regulation with insights from leadership research, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the leadership process and of interpersonal influences on self regulatory experiences. 2035 44 7 2014 "Social psychology is facing a major developmental task, which is not primarily one of achieving larger data samples and stricter significance testing. What is needed, rather, is an improvement in logic of science and powerful theorizing. The starting point of this article is a critical appraisal that the intrapsychic concepts (motives, attitudes, and explicit and implicit goals) that are the major focus of social psychological theories lack in explanatory power because they are too close to the effects (actions, judgments, and decisions) they are intended to explain. To overcome this apparent weakness (compared with neuroscience or genetics), it is proposed that more powerful theories should relate social cognition and behaviour to more distant variables in the environment. A functional analysis reveals that intrapsychic processes are multiply predetermined by extrapsychic, environmental constraints. The theoretical value and fertility of the proposed ecological functionalism are illustrated with reference to three areas of empirical research: sampling approaches to understanding biases in judgment and decision making; strategic influences on priming effects within a functional analysis of adaptive behaviour; and the impact of verbal and symbolic communication constraints on the construction of attributions, stereotypes, and culture. " 2036 44 7 2014 Much social psychological research is concerned with the question whether and how behaviour changes because of a treatment (e.g., a situation that triggers a psychological reaction). One easy way to investigate such changes would be to analyse intraindividual differences before (Time 1) and after the treatment (Time 2). Interestingly, many scholars refrain from using difference scores because they think they are inherently unreliable. However, the bad reputation of difference scores is, in many cases, unwarranted: difference scores can be sufficiently reliable when standard deviations differ between measurement occasions, and standard deviations are likely to differ between measurement occasions because of differential treatment effects (i.e., interindividual differences in responsiveness to a treatment) and/or strong situation treatments. In the present article, we will (1) summarize classic and current arguments regarding the reliability of difference scores, (2) discuss the use of residual change scores as an alternative to difference scores, and (3) argue that latent difference score models are a particularly useful tool that social psychologists should consider using more frequently. 2037 44 7 2014 In social psychology, some research questions address a comparison of individuals belonging to different social or relational contexts. As measurement invariance literature has indicated, before comparing two or more groups (gender, cultures, and relationship types), the question of whether a measurement of the construct used for the comparison is invariant must be verified. Measurement invariance helps to assure the validity of the measurement and the construct equivalence across groups. However, when non independent data are used for comparison (the same individual provides data for his or her different relationship types), the standard multigroup analyses for testing measurement invariance are not accurate. The current study presents a modified correlated uniqueness model that may be applied in these specific cases. As an example, we analysed the invariance of the Intimate Disclosure scale and the Conflict scale in mother child, father child, and romantic relationships of young adults. Results indicate a partial invariance: only configural invariance, factor loading invariance, and factor covariance invariance were found. The consequences for validity of the measurement are then discussed. 2038 44 7 2014 Researchers are sometimes interested in the variability of data rather than in their absolute or relative values. An important example of such a situation in social psychology is consensus: the fact that people are more similar to each other in certain conditions. Currently, methods to assess differences in consensus (or variability in general) are not very well developed or widely known. We describe an existing tool that allows testing the extent to which variability depends on one or several predictor variables. We explain how multilevel modelling §s capacity to model heterogeneity in residual variance can be used to test substantive hypotheses about differences in variance. We illustrate the procedure and warn against potential misuses of multilevel modelling to analyse differences in variability. We also provide MLwiN and SAS PROC MIXED syntax necessary to run this kind of analyses. In some specific, simple cases, SPSS MIXED can also be used. 2039 44 7 2014 Running studies with high statistical power, while effect size estimates in psychology are often inaccurate, leads to a practical challenge when designing an experiment. This challenge can be addressed by performing sequential analyses while the data collection is still in progress. At an interim analysis, data collection can be stopped whenever the results are convincing enough to conclude that an effect is present, more data can be collected, or the study can be terminated whenever it is extremely unlikely that the predicted effect will be observed if data collection would be continued. Such interim analyses can be performed while controlling the Type 1 error rate. Sequential analyses can greatly improve the efficiency with which data are collected. Additional flexibility is provided by adaptive designs where sample sizes are increased on the basis of the observed effect size. The need for pre registration, ways to prevent experimenter bias, and a comparison between Bayesian approaches and null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) are discussed. Sequential analyses, which are widely used in large scale medical trials, provide an efficient way to perform high powered informative experiments. I hope this introduction will provide a practical primer that allows researchers to incorporate sequential analyses in their research. 2040 44 7 2014 Improved research practice is based on estimation of effect sizes rather than statistical significance. We discuss the challenging task of interpreting effect sizes in the research context, with particular attention to social psychological research. We emphasize the need to acknowledge the uncertainty in an effect size estimate, as signaled by the confidence interval. Interpretation must consider the independent variables, participants, measures, and other aspects of the research. Comparison with other results in the research field, and consideration of theoretical and practical implications are useful strategies. Researchers should consider the possible value of agreeing on benchmarks to help guide effect size interpretation, at least within focused research fields. More broadly, researchers should wherever possible think of experimental manipulations as well as results in quantitative terms. Doing so is fundamental for designing ingenious, informative experiments, understanding research results and their implications, developing theory, and building a quantitative cumulative social psychology. 2041 44 7 2014 "The current study examined the impact of observing successful women being attacked on gender lines through reactions to gender based criticism directed towards Australia §s first female Prime Minister, Julia Gillard. Australian undergraduate students completed a measure of conformity to gender norms and then read statements about either: (a) generic difficulties for leaders; or (b) statements about gender based difficulties experienced by Gillard. Results showed that, relative to those who read the generic article, female participants high on conformity to feminine norms displayed lower desire to be involved in politics after reading about Gillard §s gender based difficulties, while low conformers showed greater desire to be involved in politics. For male participants, those high on conformity to masculine norms showed greater belief in their own leadership capabilities after reading about Gillard §s gender based difficulties than when reading about generic difficulties, while low conforming men showed the opposite pattern. Implications for achieving gender equality are discussed. " 2042 44 7 2014 Prior research established that when ingroup leaders commit serious transgressions, such as breaking enforceable rules or engaging in bribery, people treat them leniently compared with similarly transgressive regular group members or outgroup leaders (transgression credit ). The present studies test a boundary condition of this phenomenon, specifically the hypothesis that transgression credit will be lost if a leader §s action implies racist motivation. In study 1, in a corporate scenario, a transgressive ingroup leader did or did not express racism. In study 2, in a sports scenario, an ingroup or outgroup leader or member transgressed rules with or without a racist connotation. Both studies showed that ingroup transgressive leaders lost their transgression credit if their transgression included a racial connotation. Wider implications for constraining leaders §s transgressions are discussed. 2043 44 7 2014 We examined associations between two psychological constructs, analytic cognitive style and the personality facet Openness to Experience , and several dimensions of religiosity: religious affiliation, strength of faith and spiritual epistemology. In a relatively large (N=1093), older community sample (M=55.4years), analytic cognitive style was associated with a lower probability of affiliating with a religious denomination and a higher probability of possessing strong religious faith. Overall, openness was also associated with a lack of religious affiliation but was positively related to possessing a spiritual epistemology. A path analytic model revealed that openness had a positive relationship to both faith and religious denomination that was mediated by spiritual epistemology, but negative direct relationships with religiosity after the meditational effects were taken into account. Taken together, these results extend previous findings on the effect of cognitive style on religiosity and provide a new perspective on the complex relationship between cognitive and personality factors and different dimensions of religiosity. 2044 44 7 2014 Numerous studies indicate that ego depletion increases the occurrence of self benefiting dishonest behaviour by undermining resistance to short term temptations associated with dishonesty. Turning this phenomenon around, we examined whether ego depletion can, counterintuitively, reduce dishonest behaviour in a context where dishonesty serves to benefit others. Specifically, based on the notion that ego depletion reduces commitment to long term/abstract goals and interferes with self control, we proposed and found in an experiment that ego depleted people are less likely to display dishonest behaviour that spares another person from an unpleasant truth. These findings have implications for the study of dishonesty and moral dilemmas in interpersonal settings. 2045 44 7 2014 This work explores the motivational dynamics of social identity management. Following social identity theory, we hypothesized that a threat to a positive social identity elicits specific negative emotions (i.e., outgroup directed anger) and motivates identity management. Successful identity management restores a positive social identity and decreases outgroup directed anger. However, when a successful identity management is blocked (e.g., because of limited cognitive resources), identity management will be unsuccessful and outgroup directed anger will remain at a higher level. This effect of unsuccessful identity management on outgroup directed anger should be particularly strong for group members who highly value their group (i.e., high group based self esteem). A negative comparison outcome is discrepant with these group members §s positive view of the ingroup, and therefore, unsuccessful identity management should especially elicit negative emotions (i.e., anger) towards the threatening outgroup. Two studies tested these predictions. Study 1 (N=110) showed that participants §s outgroup directed anger increased when threatened under cognitive load. Study 2 (N=99) demonstrated that this was particularly true for participants high ingroup based self esteem. The results §s implications for research on the motivational processes underlying social identity management are discussed. 2046 44 7 2014 Ninety six male fraternity members (Study 1), 112 female voters (Study 2), and 219 undergraduates (Study 3) read scenarios in which a group representative forgave, retaliated, or left a romantic partner after the partner §s sexual infidelity was publically revealed. Observers rated a victim who forgave his or her partner to be as mature as a victim who ended the relationship, but also as weaker and less competent. They rated a victim who forgave to be more mature but almost as weak and incompetent as a victim who retaliated. Symbolic concerns that the victim §s behaviour violated shared values (all three studies) or damaged the group §s power/status (Study 3) mediated the relationship between victim behaviour and victim ratings. These data demonstrate how the symbolic concerns that shape observers §s judgments of an offender can extend to observers §s judgments of the victim. 2047 44 7 2014 In the present research, we examined the hypothesis that low avoidance enables the activation of the caregiving system, and therefore, among people low in avoidance, caregiving would affect relationship satisfaction, whereas among people high in avoidance, caregiving would not affect relationship satisfaction. One hundred seventy nine Israeli adults, currently involved in romantic relationships, participated in Study 1, in which we examined whether attachment avoidance moderated the associations between caregiving and relationship satisfaction. In Study 2, we sought to replicate this finding in a sample of Israeli couples (N=194). Finally, in Study 3 (N=44), we examined links between attachment, caregiving, and relationship satisfaction over a period of 1year among Israeli married couples. Results indicated that caregiving deactivation and/or hyperactivation predicted lower relationship satisfaction, yet only among people low in avoidance or among people whose partners were low in avoidance. Results are discussed in relation to the important interplay between behavioural systems on individual and dyadic levels. 2048 44 7 2014 Identifying with a group can contribute to a sense of well being. The mechanisms involved are diverse: social identification with a group can impact individuals §s beliefs about issues such as their connections with others, the availability of social support, the meaningfulness of existence, and the continuity of their identity. Yet, there seems to be a common theme to these mechanisms: identification with a group encourages the belief that one can cope with the stressors one faces (which is associated with better well being). Our research investigated the relationship between identification, beliefs about coping, and well being in a survey (N=792) administered in rural North India. Using structural equation modelling, we found that social identification as a Hindu had positive and indirect associations with three measures of well being through the belief that one can cope with everyday stressors. We also found residual associations between participants §s social identification as a Hindu and two measures of well being in which higher identification was associated with poorer well being. We discuss these findings and their implication for understanding the relationship between social identification (especially with large scale group memberships) and well being. We also discuss the application of social psychological theory developed in the urban West to rural north India. 2049 44 7 2014 Researchers recently introduced a refined theory of 19 basic human values. They demonstrated its utility and discriminant validity through associations with attitudes and beliefs, but not with behaviours. We assess the discriminant and predictive validity of the theory by examining associations of each value with everyday behaviours in a Russian sample. Two hundred sixty six respondents reported their values and the frequency with which they performed each of the 85 everyday behaviours during the past year. We derived indexes of 19 latent value factors and of 19 latent behaviour factors using confirmatory factor analysis. A confirmatory multidimensional scaling analysis arrayed the values, excepting benevolence, on the circular motivational continuum of the theory. Structural equation modelling analyses supported the discriminant and predictive validity of the theory. Of the 19 values, 18 correlated more positively with the behaviour chosen a priori as likely to express it than with any other behaviour, and all values correlated negatively with behaviours chosen to express motivationally opposed values. The patterns of correlation between the values and behaviours approximated the sinusoid curve implied by the motivational continuum of values in almost all cases. The study suggests that the same motivational compatibilities and conflicts that structure value relations largely organize relations among value expressive behaviours. The study examines moderation of value behaviour relations by gender and tests the normative pressure explanation of variation in the strength of value behaviour relations across value domains. 2050 45 1 2015 Research shows that personal discrimination and group discrimination have distinct effects on personal self esteem. Specifically, whereas personal discrimination negatively impacts self esteem, group discrimination increases it. We suggest that this pattern is dependent on the socio structural context in which individuals experience discrimination. To test this hypothesis, we manipulate intergroup permeability and examine its impact on the link between personal/group discrimination and personal self esteem. Results show that a control condition replicates previous research, that is, a positive association between group discrimination and self esteem and a negative association for personal discrimination. The positive association of group discrimination disappeared in a permeable context and reversed when the context was presented as impermeable. Moreover, the deleterious effect of personal discrimination on self esteem vanished in impermeable contexts. Results are discussed in light of the literature on stigmatization. 2051 45 1 2015 Recent research suggests that inducing fixed (rather than malleable) beliefs aboutgroups leads to more negative attitudes toward outgroups. The present paper identifies the underlying mechanism of this effect. We show that individuals with a fixed belief aboutgroups tend to construe intergroup settings as threatening situations that might reveal shortcomings of their ingroup (perceived threat). In the present research, we measured (Study 1) and manipulated (Study 2) participants §s lay theories aboutgroup malleability. We found that the extent to which individuals had an entity (versus an incremental) group theory influenced the level of threat they felt when interacting with outgroup members, and that perceived threat in turn affected their level of ethnocentrism and prejudice. These findings shed new light on the role of lay theories in intergroup attitudes and suggest new ways to reduce prejudice. 2052 45 1 2015 In three studies, we examined the effect of intergroup status on group members §s tendencies to characterize the ingroup §s relationship with an outgroup as conflictual following outgroup action. Findings from all three studies supported the prediction that the intergroup relationship would be characterized as less conflictual when the ingroup had relatively high rather than low status. Consistent with the hypothesis that the effect of status reflects strategic concerns, it was moderated by the perceived relevance of the outgroup §s action to intergroup status relations (study 1), it was sensitive to audience (study 2), and it was partially mediated by status management concerns (study 3). The role of strategic, status related factors in intergroup relations is discussed. 2053 45 1 2015 Individual differences in disgust sensitivity have been linked to social attitudes and ideology, but the generalizability of this effect and the nature of the political issues implicated remain unclear. In two studies using large Dutch samples, we find that disgust sensitivity predicts political attitudes for issues in several domains related to physical/spiritual purity and pathogen risk. Sensitivity to disgust was significantly associated with attitudes for a general physical and spiritual purity factor, as well as specific issue factors regarding sex and sexual minorities, immigration, and foreign outgroups. Additionally, disgust sensitivity was associated with greater likelihood of voting for the socially conservative Freedom Party (Partij Voor de Vrijheid). These results suggest that the tendency to experience disgust influences a specific subset of social and political attitudes across cultures. 2054 45 1 2015 Although moral courage is a highly desirable behaviour whose determinants need to be understood, research has largely neglected the emotions involved in moral courage. Does anger about the norm violation or (anticipated) guilt enhance such interventions even if general mood does not? As previous studies have often failed to overcome the limitations of self reported emotions and the use of behaviour intention measures, we used a multimethod emotion measurement while observing real behaviour. By realizing a real theft scenario in the laboratory (N=68), we found that anger but neither guilt nor general mood predicted intervention behaviour. Our findings complement and expand previous studies by showing that people who experience and express anger more strongly are able to overcome the psychological barrier of potential negative (social) consequences in a situation in which a fast and immediate intervention is needed, whereas others stand and watch. 2055 45 1 2015 Nostalgia is a resource that functions, in part, as a response to self discontinuity and a source of self continuity. We tested and supported this regulatory role of nostalgia in the tradition of establishing a causal chain. In Study 1, we examined the naturalistic association between events precipitating self discontinuity and nostalgia. Self discontinuity, especially when stemming from negative life events, was associated with higher proneness to nostalgia. In Study 2, we experimentally induced negative self discontinuity (i.e. relatively disruptive), positive self discontinuity (i.e. relatively non disruptive) or self continuity (i.e. neutral non disruptiveness) and subsequently assessed state levels of nostalgia. Only negative self discontinuity evoked heightened nostalgia. In Study 3, we experimentally induced nostalgia (versus ordinary autobiographical recollection) and assessed self continuity. Nostalgia augmented self continuity. In Study 4, we experimentally induced nostalgia (versus ordinary autobiographical recollection versus positive autobiographical recollection) and assessed self continuity. Again, nostalgia augmented self continuity and did so above and beyond positive affect. Here, we ruled out demand characteristics as a rival hypothesis. Taken together, the findings clarify the role of nostalgia in the dynamic between self discontinuity and self continuity and elucidate the restorative properties of nostalgia for the self system. 2056 45 1 2015 Three studies were conducted to examine the impact of being a numeric majority or minority in Hawaii i and U.S. mainland on the ethnic identity and self esteem of Asian and European Americans. Results of Study 1 (N=214, M age=19.85years) and Study 2 (N=215, M age=18.20years) showed that Asian Americans who grew up on the U.S. mainland, where they are a numeric minority, reported higher ethnic identity than did Asian Americans who grew up in Hawaii i, where they are a numeric majority. In addition, ethnic identity was significantly associated with self esteem for Asian Americans from the U.S. mainland and European Americans from Hawaii i (numeric minority), but not for Asian Americans from Hawaii i and European Americans from the U.S. mainland (numeric majority). Study 3 (N=88, M age=18.12) examined ethnic identity and self esteem among Asian and European Americans who had moved from the U.S. mainland to attend a university in Hawaii i over a 1 year time period. The results showed significant relations between ethnic identity and self esteem for Asian Americans when they initially moved to Hawaii, but this relation decreased after they had lived in Hawaii i for 1 year. The findings highlight contextual variations in ethnic identity and self esteem for members of both minority and majority groups in the U.S. 2057 45 1 2015 The present investigation examined the effect of sexual objectification on women §s intention to affiliate with men. We predicted that women would perceive an objectifier as less likable following sexual objectification and thus would distance themselves from the perpetrator. Study 1 found that objectification led female participants to perceive their male partner as less likable and to be less willing to affiliate with the partner. Study 2 replicated Study 1 in a concurrent interpersonal interaction and extended these effects to a man having a similar background with the perpetrator. Study 3 showed that power moderated the effect of sexual objectification on women §s interaction intention such that only women with equal or low power (as compared to the objectifier) decreased their affiliation intention toward the objectifier, whereas high power women did not show this effect. Implications of these findings were discussed. 2058 45 1 2015 This article examines how people recall and describe instances of hypocrisy in their own and others §s behaviour. Participants (N=302) provided two written examples. The first example recalled a time when someone called the participant a hypocrite, whereas the other recalled an instance when the participant perceived someone else §s behaviour as hypocritical. The first goal of the study was to discover if real world examples of hypocrisy reflect only mere inconsistency, consistent with the construct §s narrow use in psychology, or if they contain other distinctive defining features. A typology was used to code the examples, based loosely on Crisp and Cowton §s philosophical distinction between four forms of hypocrisy: direct inconsistency, pretense, blame, and complacency. The second goal was to uncover reliable actor observer differences in perceptions of hypocrisy. Results indicated that the four forms occur in real world examples of both self and others §s hypocrisy. Interestingly, a new fifth form, indirect inconsistency, emerged from the data, adding nuance to the initial hypothesis. Finally, several actor observer differences in perceptions of hypocrisy arose and are discussed. The results indicate that hypocrisy is a much more complicated phenomenon than previously considered and provide the impetus for new areas of research. 2059 45 1 2015 "In a series of studies, we examined the influence of people §s mind set (construal level (CL): abstract versus concrete) on their risk taking behaviour. We measured differences in CL (study 1, CL as trait) and manipulated CL (studies 1 5, CL as state) with different priming methods, which were unrelated to the dependent variable of risk taking behaviour (studies 1, 3, 4, and 5: Balloon Analog Risk Task; study 2: Angling Risk Task). In all studies, abstract CL resulted in greater risk taking compared with concrete CL, which led to lower risk taking. Risky and safe game strategies mediated the CL effect on risk taking. A concrete mind set increased the safe game strategy, whereas an abstract mind set increased the risky game strategy. Furthermore, different potential mediators were explored (i.e., focus on payoffs and probabilities, prevention versus promotion focus, attention to pros versus cons, and mood). A concrete mind set increased prevention strategies and a negative mood when compared with an abstract mind set. In turn, an abstract mind set increased attention to pros (of an action). " 2060 45 1 2015 Recent research has highlighted the importance of differential attribution of uniquely human characteristics in dehumanization and prejudice. Relatively little is known, however, about the importance of perceiving dissimilarities between the ingroup and outgroup in different types of values (beyond prosocial values), or the role of preference for consistency (PFC). This study investigated values, perceived dissimilarities in values, and PFC, in dehumanization of and prejudice toward asylum seekers in Australia. Results from a survey of 140 Australians revealed a strong relationship between dehumanization and prejudice. Individuals with stronger conservation and self enhancement values, and greater perceived dissimilarity to asylum seekers on self transcendence and self enhancement values, dehumanized asylum seekers more and were more prejudiced toward them. The relationships between perceived self transcendence and self enhancement dissimilarities and prejudice were mediated by dehumanization, whereas PFC moderated the relationship between conservation value differences and dehumanization. These findings offer important insight into the conditions that promote dehumanization and prejudice, which may in turn help explain the negative perceptions of asylum seekers in Australia. 2061 45 1 2015 Although research has revealed a trend toward liberalization of attitudes toward homosexuality in Western countries, acceptance of homosexuality differs remarkably among individuals and across countries. We examine the roles of individual value priorities and of national laws regarding homosexuality and the interaction between them in explaining approval of homosexuality. Data are drawn from the European Social Survey and include representative national samples of 27 European countries in 2010. As hypothesized, individuals who prioritized openness to change and universalism values approved of homosexuality more, whereas those who prioritized conservation and power values exhibited more disapproval. Approval was greater in countries whose laws regarding homosexuality were more progressive. In addition, legal regulation of homosexuality moderated the associations of individual value priorities. In countries with more progressive laws, both the positive effect of openness to change values and the negative effect of conservation values on approval of homosexuality were weaker. However, the positive effect of universalism values and the negative effect of power values did not vary as a function of national laws regarding homosexuality. 2062 45 2 2015 Members of conflicting groups often engage in competitive victimhood , that is, they are motivated to gain acknowledgment that their ingroup is the conflict §s true victim. The present study found that compared with a control group, Israeli Jews and Palestinians reassured that their ingroup had won the victim status showed increased willingness to reconcile with the outgroup and held less pessimistic, fatalistic views of the conflict. Moreover, for members of the stronger party Israeli Jews winning the victim status also led to increased group efficacy and consequent readiness to take action toward resolution. These findings extend previous theorizing about the positive effects of addressing group members §s need for acknowledgement of their victimization. 2063 45 2 2015 "Past research has demonstrated the importance of colour in a variety of social contexts, including human mating. For example, red increases heterosexual men §s feelings of attraction toward women. In the current work, this basic red attraction link is qualified by the initial attractiveness of female faces. In two experiments, red enhanced men §s ratings of female attractiveness, but only for faces pre rated as attractive; red had no influence on perceptions of initially unattractive faces. Additionally, Experiment 1 manipulated how long participants viewed attractive and unattractive faces as an exploratory test of when colour and face features are integrated. The findings show that initial female attractiveness moderates the influence of red on judgments of attractiveness even when the faces are viewed for extremely short exposures. The present findings identify an important boundary condition of the red attractiveness effect and provide an initial indication of where in the processing stream colour impacts social judgments. " 2064 45 2 2015 The present meta analysis tested the effectiveness of contact based interventions for the reduction of ethnic prejudice. Up to now, a meta analysis summarizing the results of real world interventions that rest on the intergroup contact theory has been missing. We included evaluations of programs realizing direct (i.e., face to face) and/or indirect (i.e., extended or virtual) contact in real world settings outside the lab. The interventions §s effectiveness was tested shortly after their end (k=123 comparisons, N=11371 participants) and with a delay of at least 1month (k=25, N=1650). Our data show that contact interventions improve ethnic attitudes. Importantly, changes persist over time. Furthermore, not only direct but also indirect contact interventions are successful. In addition, contact programs are effective even in the context of a serious societal conflict (e.g., in the Middle East). Although changes are typically larger for ethnic majorities, there is an impact on minorities, too. Finally, contact interventions not only improve attitudes toward individuals involved in the program, their effects also generalize to outgroups as a whole. In sum, social psychology provides an intervention for prejudice reduction that can be successfully implemented in the practical field. 2065 45 2 2015 People living with HIV are a stigmatized group in our society, especially homosexual people living with HIV. One of the behavioural manifestations of stigmatization is an increased interpersonal distance kept during social interactions. Immersive virtual environment technology enables the experimental study of social interactions in an accurate and relatively unobtrusive manner. Using a virtual hospital room, we measured to what extent diagnosis (HIV, cancer or broken leg) and sexual orientation (homosexual or heterosexual) were related to approach behaviour (based on the interpersonal distance and the speed of approach), and the degree patients were looked at (as was obtained from an additional exploration of our head orientation data). Moreover, implicit and explicit attitudes were predicted to moderate this relationship. Participants (N=50) were healthy, heterosexual students. A main effect of diagnosis revealed larger interpersonal distances from patients with HIV than from patients with cancer. Also, an interaction effect demonstrated that distances were largest when the HIV patient was homosexual. Furthermore, a main effect of diagnosis showed that HIV and cancer patients were approached more slowly than broken leg patients, an effect that was larger for HIV than for cancer patients. In addition, head orientation analyses revealed that patients with HIV were relatively looked at more often as well as relatively looked away from less often than patients with cancer and patients with a broken leg. None of these effects however were found to be moderated by implicit and explicit attitudes. These findings provide behavioural evidence for the stigmatization of people living with HIV and homosexuals with HIV in particular. 2066 45 2 2015 Previous research has focused on the importance of leaders being seen to be of the group (i.e. to be prototypical of a group) but less on the impact of leaders §s own degree of identification with the group. Also, little is known about the combined impact of leader prototypicality and leader identification on followers §s responses. This paper reports two studies that address these lacunae. Study 1 shows experimentally that perceived leader identification and prototypicality interact to determine followers §s personal identification with leaders and their perceptions of leader charisma. Findings indicate that high identification can compensate for low prototypicality such that high identified leaders are able to inspire followership when leaders are low prototypical. Study 2 replicates these findings in the field by examining followers §s responses to workgroup leaders. In addition, results demonstrate that the aforementioned responses are more pronounced for highly identified followers. The present research extends social identity theorizing by demonstrating that leaders §s inability to inspire followership derives as much from their failure to project a sense of we and us as part of their self concept as from a failure to exemplify group typical attributes. 2067 45 2 2015 According to the democracy as value hypothesis, democracy has become an ideological belief system providing social value to democratic individuals, groups and institutions, granting legitimacy to their actions (even if dishonest or violent), and protecting them from consecutive punishments. The present research investigates the extent to which this legitimizing process is based on the individual endorsement of democratic principles. Across four experiments, following the misdeed of a (few) group member(s), respondents who valued democratic group organization and democracy in general expressed more lenient retributive justice judgments towards democratic (as compared with nondemocratic) offender groups. These findings shed light on the ways in which democratic ideology infuses justice judgments. 2068 45 2 2015 "Social issues are important dividing lines in the culture wars between the political left and right. Despite much research into social issue stance and ideology, little research has explored these with Relational Models Theory (RMT). RMT proposes four distinct models that people use to construe social relations, each entailing distinct moral considerations. In two studies, participants read summaries of the models, rated how relevant each was to their positions on several social issues (e.g. Capital punishment), and expressed issue positions. In Study 1, Communal Sharing and Equality Matching construals predicted prototypical liberal positions across a range of issues; Authority Ranking and Market Pricing construals predicted prototypical conservative positions. By using multilevel modelling in Study 2, individual differences in average Communal Sharing and Authority Ranking construals predicted prototypical liberal and conservative positions, respectively, independent of several factors known to predict social issue stance. In issue specific analyses (e.g. Focusing on euthanasia), all models showed effects independent of self reported ideology, while for certain issues (same sex marriage, animal testing, gun control, and flag burning), issue construal using different models predicted opposing positions, implicating relational models in moral disagreement. This paper provides novel tests of Relationship Regulation Theory and suggests that RMT is relevant in understanding political ideology, social issue stance, and moral judgement. " 2069 45 2 2015 Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) has been found to improve self regulation across many life domains. The present research investigates whether MCII can benefit time management. In Study 1, we asked students to apply MCII to a pressing academic problem and assessed how they scheduled their time for the upcoming week. MCII participants scheduled more time than control participants who in their thoughts either reflected on similar contents using different cognitive procedures (content control group) or applied the same cognitive procedures on different contents (format control group). In Study 2, students were taught MCII as a metacognitive strategy to be used on any upcoming concerns of the subsequent week. As compared with the week prior to the training, students in the MCII (vs. format control) condition improved in self reported time management. In Study 3, MCII (vs. format control) helped working mothers who enrolled in a vocational business program to attend classes more regularly. The findings suggest that performing MCII on one §s everyday concerns improves time management. 2070 45 2 2015 "We explore whether the known preference for default options in choice contexts default effects occur in altruistic contexts and the extent to which this can be explained through appeal to social norms. In four experiments, we found that (i) participants were more likely to donate money to charity when this was the default option in an altruistic choice context; (ii) participants perceived the default option to be the socially normative option; (iii) perceptions of social norms mediated the relationship between default status and charitable donations; and (iv) a transfer effect, whereby participants translated social norms they inferred from the default option in one domain into behaviour in a second, related domain. Theoretically, our analysis situates default effects within a comprehensive body of social psychological research concerning social norms and the attitude behaviour relationship, providing novel empirical predictions. Practically, these findings highlight that the way donation policies are framed can have an important impact on donation behaviour: in our third study, we found that 81% donated half of their earnings for taking part in the experiment to charity when this was the default option, compared with only 19% when keeping the money was the default. Our work suggests that making use of default effects could be an effective tool to increase altruistic behaviour without compromising freedom. " 2071 45 2 2015 This research investigates the relation between informal help and subjective well being and its underlying mechanisms using a cross national perspective. We focus on two potential mechanisms derived from the self determination theory and conformity to the social norms literature. From the standpoint of self determination theory, helping others is good for well being if it is intrinsically motivated, rather than driven by the expectation of reciprocity. On the other hand, from the perspective of the conformity literature, helping others is associated with a higher well being when it is linked to the benefits of social conformity, such as social approval. We tested these hypotheses using the data from a total of 23 countries. The results provided support for both mechanisms. First, we found that the lower individuals §s beliefs in reciprocity are, the stronger is the positive effect of self reported helping behaviour on their well being. Second, helping behaviour was more strongly related to life satisfaction in countries where providing help represents a strong social norm (measured with two different cultural indicators). We conclude that both individual and culture level mechanisms account for the relation between prosocial behaviour and well being. 2072 45 2 2015 Previous research has demonstrated that death reminders influence how we perceive art. In the context of terror management theory, this has been explained by the death transcending quality of art to convey cultural meaning. In two studies, we examined psychological and neurocognitive responses to naturalistic and surrealistic art when death was primed. We found that naturalistic paintings were evaluated similarly in terms of personal reassurance in both mortality salience and control condition, whereas surrealistic paintings were evaluated as more reassuring in the mortality salience condition than in the control condition. Using high field functional magnetic resonance imaging in a second study, we found a similar pattern of results, showing specific activation in the precuneus, a brain area associated with self related operations, in all prime conditions for the viewing of naturalistic paintings, but only in the death and disgust prime conditions when viewing surrealistic paintings. Our results suggest motivated self reference when viewing both naturalistic and surrealistic artworks under mortality salience. 2073 45 2 2015 Belief in life after death offers potential comfort in the face of inevitable death. However, afterlife belief likely requires not only an awareness of death but also body self dualism the perception that the self (e.g., the mind) is distinct from the physical, undeniably mortal, body. In turn, we hypothesized that mortality salience (MS) should heighten afterlife belief only when dualism is facilitated. Study 1 found that MS increased belief for people high, relative to low, in trait mind body dualism. In Study 2, MS only increased belief when people first wrote about their thoughts and personality, which a pilot study confirmed facilitated dualistic belief, relative to thinking about the physical self. Study 3 used the brain computer interface technology to induce a dualistic experience: MS increased belief when participants accurately typed without the use of their external body (i.e., no hands). Together, these findings support the position that mortality awareness and body self dualism constitute a why and how of afterlife belief. 2074 45 3 2015 In the Internet age, people who feel alone can use online social media to restore a sense of social connectedness. In the present experiment, participants were either excluded or included in Cyberball, a virtual ball tossing game. Afterwards, a Facebook icon or a control icon (Flash Player) was shown on the margin of a computer screen during a filler task. In the control condition, excluded (vs. included) participants subsequently expressed greater interest in social contact. This response to exclusion was absent after the subtle exposure to the Facebook icon. The effect of icon presentation was moderated by relational Facebook use: The interest in further social contact after exclusion was particularly low in participants who reported employing Facebook to maintain relationships to a greater (vs. lower) extent. In sum, our findings suggest that Facebook can dispense with compensatory affiliation attempts after exclusion, especially in more socially minded Facebook users. 2075 45 3 2015 The privacy paradox states that online privacy concerns do not sufficiently explain online privacy behaviours on social network sites (SNSs). In this study, it was first asked whether the privacy paradox would still exist when analysed as in prior research. Second, it was hypothesized that the privacy paradox would disappear when analysed in a new approach. The new approach featured a multidimensional operationalization of privacy by differentiating between informational, social, and psychological privacy. Next to privacy concerns, also, privacy attitudes and privacy intentions were analysed. With the aim to improve methodological aspects, all items were designed on the basis of the theory of planned behaviour. In an online questionnaire with N=595 respondents, it was found that online privacy concerns were not significantly related to specific privacy behaviours, such as the frequency or content of disclosures on SNSs (e.g., name, cell phone number, or religious views). This demonstrated that the privacy paradox still exists when it is operationalized as in prior research. With regard to the new approach, all hypotheses were confirmed: Results showed both a direct relation and an indirect relation between privacy attitudes and privacy behaviours, the latter mediated by privacy intentions. In addition, also an indirect relation between privacy concerns and privacy behaviours was found, mediated by privacy attitudes and privacy intentions. Therefore, privacy behaviours can be explained sufficiently when using privacy attitudes, privacy concerns, and privacy intentions within the theory of planned behaviour. The behaviours of SNS users are not as paradoxical as was once believed. 2076 45 3 2015 Using the framework of the self determination theory continuum, we investigated the influence of the distinct autonomous and controlled motivational regulations for engaging participants in online and offline support of charitable events for the causes of breast cancer and homeless youth. Participants were exposed online to Facebook event pages appealing to helping others. When the often omitted integrated autonomous regulation was included in the model, it was the strongest predictor of supportive intentions. Without integrated regulation in the model, we would have overestimated the relatively minor influence of controlled introjected regulation. Furthermore, rather than one overall measure of autonomous intrinsic regulation, we assessed the differential influences of three separate dimensions (to experience stimulation, to learn and to accomplish). Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation had a unique influence on online and offline supportive intentions. Such was not the case for the dimensions of to learn or to accomplish. Follow up meditation analyses of self reported behaviours confirmed that autonomous integrated and intrinsic to experience stimulation regulations led to stronger intentions to support online behaviours, which, in turn, increased the likelihood of actual online engagement. The findings in a social media context highlight the importance of analysing distinct regulatory styles within the self determination theory continuum. 2077 45 3 2015 "Anecdotes of past social movements suggest that Internet enabled technologies, especially social media platforms, can facilitate collective actions. Recently, however, it has been argued that the participatory Internet encourages low cost and low risk activism slacktivism which may have detrimental consequences for groups that aim to achieve a collective purpose. More precisely, low threshold digital practices such as signing online petitions or liking the Facebook page of a group are thought to derail subsequent engagement offline. We assessed this postulation in three experiments (N=76, N=59, and N=48) and showed that so called slacktivist actions indeed reduce the willingness to join a panel discussion and demonstration as well as the likelihood to sign a petition. This demobilizing effect was mediated by the satisfaction of group enhancing motives; members considered low threshold online collective actions as a substantial contribution to the group §s success. The findings highlight that behaviour that is belittled as slacktivism addresses needs that pertain to individuals §s sense of group membership. Rather than hedonistic motives or personal interests, concerns for the ingroup §s welfare and viability influenced the decision to join future collective actions offline. " 2078 45 3 2015 "Honour means high respect; esteem, but it has different associations for different cultures. In honour cultures (Turkey), esteem depends on one §s own perception of self worth and on other people §s opinions. In those cultures, honour is easily lost and difficult to regain. In dignity cultures (northern America), esteem mainly depends on the individual and cannot be taken away by others. One way to lose honour in Turkey is through behaviours that may be seen as potentially improper. Thus, we expected that posting pictures of such behaviours on Facebook (e.g.,at a party; with one §s boyfriend/girlfriend) and letting others see them would be less likely in Turkey than in the northern United States. Moreover, we investigated whether honour endorsement was the reason for this difference. We examined participants §s posting intentions and actual Facebook behaviours. As expected, Turkish participants were less willing to post and let others (especially their relatives) see their potentially improper pictures compared with northern Americans. Moreover, honour endorsement negatively predicted the willingness to post such pictures only in Turkey, especially for women. This suggests that in honour cultures, the concern for losing honour could be the underlying reason for avoiding social media postings that could be potentially perceived as improper. " 2079 45 3 2015 People tend to judge others to be more similar to themselves than themselves are to others. This self other similarity judgment asymmetry was often explained by a cognitive model. However, some findings were inconsistent with this model, implying that there might be complementary processes underlying such asymmetry. Although a motivational explanation has been proposed to account for the asymmetry, little evidence has been accumulated to verify this explanation and differentiate it from the cognitive model. The current research tested both the core assumption of the motivational explanation as well as a hypothesis derived only from it. Results suggest that the perception of oneself as being similar to others was more threatening to people §s uniqueness than the perception of others as being similar to oneself. Individuals with high need for uniqueness exhibited greater asymmetry than did individuals with low need. 2080 45 3 2015 Masculine honour is an important cultural code in the south of Italy. Italian criminal organizations (COs) manipulate and exploit this code to maintain legitimacy among local populations and exert social control in the territory where they operate. This research tested the hypothesis that different levels of identification the region and the nation would have opposite associations with male honour related values and, indirectly, with intentions to oppose COs collectively. Results from a sample of young southern Italians (N=170) showed that regional identification positively predicted endorsement of male honour related values, which in turn were associated with lowered intentions to oppose COs. In contrast, national identification negatively predicted male honour related values, associated in turn with stronger intentions to oppose COs. These results also held when perceived risk and social dominance orientation were taken into account. Directions for future research are discussed. 2081 45 3 2015 This article investigates the ways in which players of massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs) internalize being a player into their self concept. In accordance with the social identity framework, we assume that being a player and being a member of a guild within the game can both shape the social identity of members. In two studies, we survey players inside or outside the MMORPG. Players are interviewed either at an interguild comparison level or at the more inclusive level of MMORPG players. Study 1 (n=84) reveals favouritism for the ingroup guild in a within game context, and Study 2 (n=200) shows that valuation of and identification with the ingroup are moderated by the interview context and the level of category inclusion: Inside the game, the guild is more valued and identification is emphasized. In contrast, valuation of and identification with MMORPG players is not influenced by the interview context. Together, by examining both valuation and identification processes, this research reveals that playing online games may be self involving because being a player, but also being a member of a guild, directly contribute to the social identity. 2082 45 3 2015 Kony2012 was a viral Internet video that attracted unprecedented online interest in promoting a campaign to arrest the leader of an African militant group. The current research considers the social psychological bases of social media based collective action. In three cross sectional surveys (N=304) collected before, on, and after the key action date of 20 April 2012, we consider the nature (opinion based or global) and function (emergent or transforming) of social identity in modern forms of social action. Multigroup structural equation modelling showed that Kony2012 action was best captured by an emergent opinion based social identity. Moreover, the same factors that predicted Kony2012 action generally also predicted engagement in new repertoires of protest (involving the use of social media) and an observable traditional socio political action (signing a letter to a government minister). The results suggest that there is no sharp dividing line between traditional and new forms of collective action and that both may be understood as valid expressions of collective selfhood. 2083 45 3 2015 "Although income and inequality (objective measures of deprivation and the distribution of income within a defined area, respectively) predict people §s self appraisals, the psychological mechanisms underlying these relationships are largely unknown. We address this oversight by predicting that feeling individually deprived (individual based relative deprivation [IRD])a self focused appraisal mediates the relationship between these two objective measures and self esteem. Conversely, believing that one §s group is deprived (group based relative deprivation [GRD])a group focused appraisal mediates the relationship between these two objective measures and ethnic identity centrality. We examined these predictions in a national sample of New Zealand adults (N=6349). As expected, income negatively correlated with IRD and GRD; in turn, IRD negatively correlated with self esteem, and GRD positively correlated with ethnic identity centrality. Moreover, after accounting for between level variability in income, neighbourhood level inequality had indirect effects on self esteem and ethnic identity centrality through IRD and GRD, respectively. Thus, income and inequality independently predicted self esteem and strength of ingroup identification through distinct mechanisms. " 2084 45 3 2015 "Although it is well known that many people possess fundamental desires for both social affiliation and power, research has only begun to investigate the interplay between these two core social motives. The current research tested the hypothesis that an individual §s level of power would influence that person §s level of social affiliative motivation. We predicted that, compared with participants in a control condition, (1) individuals who possess power would exhibit less social affiliative motivation; and (2) individuals who lack power would display greater social affiliative motivation. Although we found little evidence to support the former prediction, we observed consistent evidence across two experiments that supported the latter. In Experiment 1, priming participants with low power (versus control) led them to display greater interest in joining a campus service aimed at fostering new friendships among students. In Experiment 2, placing participants in a position of low power (versus control) led them to seek greater proximity to a partner. Together, these results suggest that lacking power motivates people to seek social affiliation. " 2085 45 3 2015 The combination of multiple social identities into a coherent ingroup construal is of immediate relevance in today §s complex and diverse societies. This paper proposes a conceptual and operational framework to examine how individuals subjectively construe their ingroup in the context of multiple, cross cutting group memberships. The subjective combination of multiple social identities is described in terms of structure (social identity structure) and inclusiveness (social identity inclusiveness (SII)). Two studies assess SII and social identity structure in community samples to whom the subjective combination of multiple, cross cutting ingroups is of particular relevance: a sample of Turkish Belgian Muslims (Study 1) and Turkish Australian Muslims (Study 2). Across both studies, SII uniquely predicted attitudes toward a range of outgroups, over and above identification with singular ingroups. Moreover, a wide range of social identity structures were identified, further attesting to broad individual differences in the construal of the perceived ingroup. 2086 45 4 2015 Although intergroup contact is an effective way of reducing prejudice, negative expectancies about interacting with outgroup members often create a barrier to intergroup contact. The current study investigated cognitive appraisals by which negative expectancies may arise. Specifically, we examined whether increasing Anglo Australians §s appraisals of their knowledge about Muslims would reduce their negative expectancies about an (ostensible) upcoming interaction with a Muslim Australian. Participants (89 Anglo Australians) completed a test that provided positive feedback either on their knowledge about Muslims or on their general knowledge (control). As predicted, Anglo Australians who received positive feedback on their knowledge about Muslims had a lower threat appraisal and expected to feel less anxious during the intergroup interaction compared with those who were in the control condition. This provides support for the precursory role outgroup knowledge may have as a resource that is appraised upon the prospect of an intergroup interaction. 2087 45 4 2015 Two experiments investigated the effect of forming implementation intentions on transfer of training in two training programs. In the first experiment (N=37), trainees who formed implementation intentions implemented active listening skills sooner, and to a greater degree, than those in the control group. In the second experiment (n=28), conducted in the field, trainees who formed implementation intentions received a higher performance score for implementing the trained behaviour compared with those in the control condition. Results from both experiments provide empirical evidence suggesting that forming implementation intentions at the end of a training program increases the likelihood of using the newly acquired skills. 2088 45 4 2015 "This research follows up on a study by Schultz et al. (), in which the effect of a social norm intervention on energy consumption was examined. The present studies included control groups to examine whether social norm effects would persist beyond regression to the mean. Both studies had a 2 (baseline consumption: below mean versus above mean)x2 (message condition: no message control versus norm message) design. Based on baseline fruit (Study 1) or unhealthy snack (Study 2) consumption, students were classified as above mean or below mean for consumption. One week later, half of the students in the above mean and below mean groups received normative feedback; control groups did not. Neither study showed an effect of norm messages on behaviour relative to control, providing evidence for regression to the mean as an alternative explanation. Findings highlight the importance of control groups to distinguish social norm intervention effects from mere regression to the mean." 2089 45 4 2015 Identification With All Humanity (IWAH) relates to higher levels of concern and supportive behaviour toward the disadvantaged, stronger endorsement of human rights, and stronger responses in favour of global harmony. So far, IWAH has been reconceptualised as a one dimensional construct describing the degree with which one identifies with all humans as a superordinate ingroup. However, recent group identification models suggest a multi dimensional model to provide a more differentiated approach toward the understanding of the highest level of social identification. Using principal axis (Study 1) and confirmatory (Study 2) factor analyses, we suggest that IWAH sub divides into two dimensions global self definition and global self investment. Study 2 revealed that global self investment was a stronger predictor for both convergent measures (e.g., social dominance orientation and authoritarianism) and behavioural intentions than global self definition. Finally, in Study 3, we manipulated IWAH to test its causal effect on donation behaviour. Participants in the experimental condition, compared with the control condition, showed higher global self investment, which in turn predicted greater giving to global charity. These findings suggest that two dimensions with different behavioural outcomes underlie IWAH. 2090 45 4 2015 "We propose that guilt leads to forgiveness of others §s transgressions. In Study 1, people prone to experience guilt (but not shame) were also prone to forgive others for past misdeeds. In Study 2, we manipulated harm and inequity based guilt; both increased forgiveness of others §s transgressions. Further, the effect of guilt on forgiveness was mediated by identification with the transgressor. In Study 3, we replicated the guilt forgiveness relationship and examined three other plausible mediators: capability for similar wrongdoing, empathic understanding, and general identification; only identification with the transgressor satisfied the criteria for mediation. In Study 4, we induced guilt by asking participants to harm a friend or stranger. Guilt induced by harming a friend led to greater forgiveness of third party transgressors, and again, identification with the transgressor mediated the effect. We discuss the implications of these results for understanding how the prosocial effects of guilt extend beyond the boundaries of a single interpersonal relationship." 2091 45 4 2015 Statistical tests of indirect effects can hardly distinguish between genuine and spurious mediation effects. The present research demonstrates, however, that mediation analysis can be improved by combining a significance test of the indirect effect with assessing the fit of causal models. Testing only the indirect effect can be misleading, because significant results may also be obtained when the underlying causal model is different from the mediation model. We use simulated data to demonstrate that additionally assessing the fit of causal models with structural equation models can be used to exclude subsets of models that are incompatible with the observed data. The results suggest that combining structural equation modelling with appropriate research design and theoretically stringent mediation analysis can improve scientific insights. Finally, we discuss limitations of the structural equation modelling approach, and we emphasize the importance of non statistical methods for scientific discovery. 2092 45 4 2015 "Theorists have long argued that two forms of relative deprivation exist: individual based relative deprivation (IRD) whereby a person feels deprived relative to other individuals and group based relative deprivation (GRD) whereby a person feels his/her ingroup is deprived relative to other groups. Combinations of IRD and GRD are therefore assumed to produce four response profiles: (i) high on IRD and GRD (i.e. doubly deprived ); (ii) high on IRD, low on GRD; (iii) low on IRD, high on GRD; or (iv) low on IRD and GRD. The existence of these profiles, however, has never been assessed. We address this oversight by using latent profile analysis to identify distinct response patterns to measures of IRD and GRD. Across two studies, we found no support for this typology, nor the oft assumed doubly deprived profile. Rather, response patterns showed moderate levels of IRD across discrete profiles accompanied by considerable variability in GRD." 2093 45 4 2015 We investigated the psychological adaptation of Ingrian Finnish migrants from Russia to Finland between 2008 and 2013. Pre migration data (N=225) were collected at the Finnish language courses that were part of the immigration training program. The three post migration follow ups were conducted half a year (N=155), and 2 (N=133) and 3years (N=85) after migration. Well being was assessed with measures of Life Satisfaction and Self Esteem. Life Satisfaction increased from pre migration to the first post migration measurement point, after which it stabilized. Self Esteem decreased throughout the study. Variables reflecting adjustment to the event of migration (e.g., acculturation stress, socio cultural adaptation) were primarily associated with well being at the first post migration measurement point. More general determinants of well being (e.g., social support and subjective economic situation) were more consistently associated with well being throughout the study. The results suggest that migration can be beneficial to some but detrimental to other types of well being. 2094 45 4 2015 Collective memory theories propose that groups §s remembrances of their past depend upon their current social situation. In Belgium, a significant proportion of Dutch speakers share a collective memory of past victimisation by French speakers and fight for an ever larger autonomy of their region. Yet, as the respective economic, political and social situations of the linguistic regions of Belgium recently evolved with a reversal of fortunes, the current experience of younger Dutch speakers does not fit the traditional memory anymore. We thus predicted that the collective memories of victimhood would decline amongst them, thus bringing changes in intergroup attitudes and political aspirations. Three generations were compared in a survey of 1226 French speaking and 1457 Dutch speaking individuals. For both groups, younger generations evidenced less regionalist and more integrative positions than older ones. However, these effects were stronger for Dutch speaking respondents, and for them, collective memory of victimhood mediated the relation linking age and identification with Belgium, intergroup attitudes and political aspirations. We concluded that the current social context has decisive consequences for collective remembrances, which, in turn, impact intergroup relations and political attitudes and choices. 2095 45 4 2015 "There is considerable evidence that psychological membership of crowds can protect people in dangerous events, although the underlying social psychological processes have not been fully investigated. There is also evidence that those responsible for managing crowd safety view crowds as a source of psychological danger, views that may themselves impact upon crowd safety; yet, there has been little examination of how such disaster myths operate in practice. In a study of an outdoor music event characterized as a near disaster, analysis of questionnaire survey data (N=48) showed that social identification with the crowd predicted feeling safe directly as well as indirectly through expectations of help and trust in others in the crowd to deal with an emergency. In a second study of the same event, qualitative analysis of interviews (N=20) and of contemporaneous archive materials showed that, in contrast to previous findings, crowd safety professionals §s references to mass panic were highly nuanced. Despite an emphasis by some safety professionals on crowd disorder, crowd participants and some of the professionals also claimed that self organization in the crowd prevented disaster. Key message Crowd safety in a dangerous §s event can be enhanced by the social relational transformations, such as increased trust and expectations of support, that flow from shared social identity." 2096 45 5 2015 This Agenda article first considers whether social psychology is in the best or worst of times and suggests that we are instead in extraordinary times, given exciting agendas and potential policy relevance, if we are careful. The article illustrates with two current research agendas the hybrid vigor of multiple categories and the psychology of social class that could inform policy. The essay then reflects on how we know when our work is indeed ready for the public arena. Regarding hybrids: world immigration, social media, and global businesses are increasing. How will this complicate people §s stereotypes of each other? One agenda could build on the existing social and behavioural science of people as social hybrids, emerging with a framework to synthesize existing work and guide future research that better reflects our changing world. Policy implications already emerge from our current knowledge of hybrids. Regarding the social psychology of social class: We do not know enough yet to give advice, except to suggest questioning some common stereotypes, for example, about the economic behaviour of lower income people. Before the budding social psychology of class can be ready for policy export, the research results need replication, validation, and generality. Overall, principles of exportable policy insights include peer reviewed standards, honest brokering, nonpartisan advice, and respectful, trustworthy communication. Social psychology can take advantage of its extraordinary times to be innovative and useful. 2097 45 5 2015 In recent years, a growing number of researchers have examined the watching eyes phenomenon (i.e., increased prosocial and decreased antisocial behaviour when subtle watching eyes are present in the environment). Somewhat surprisingly, the questions of how and under what conditions subtle cues of being watched operate have been unanswered so far. The present contribution addresses this research gap. In two studies, we document that (a) subtle cues of being watched induce a sense of being seen and (b) chronic public self awareness moderates the watching eyes phenomenon in that specifically individuals with strong chronic public self awareness show more prosocial behaviour under conditions of watching eyes. The applicability of subtle cues of being watched in research on social presence is discussed. 2098 45 5 2015 Previous research has suggested that dual and superordinate identities are not only prerequisites of collective action among minority group members but they can also be associated with greater acceptance of the ingroup §s disadvantaged position. In this three wave study among Ingrian Finnish migrants from Russia to Finland (N=153(T1) 85(T3)), we tested the indirect association between superordinate national identification (T1) and support for collective action (T3), via perceived permeability of group boundaries (T2). Support for collective action was operationalized as one §s personal willingness, and the perceived need of the Russian speaking community, to engage in it. When controlling for the direct association between Russian minority identification and support for collective action, perceived permeability was shown to mediate the negative association between Finnish national identification and support for community §s collective action. Thus, being close to the majority may make immigrants perceive group boundaries as more permeable and be less inclined to improve their group §s position. 2099 45 5 2015 Three studies investigated the phenomenon of goal projection in everyday life considering three moderators: goal commitment, the perceived similarity of the target person, and goal attainment. Moviegoers §s (Study 1) highly committed to see a particular movie projected this goal onto other movie patrons. Commuters (Study 2) highly committed to catch a certain train projected this goal onto other commuters, given that these commuters were perceived as similar. Shoppers (Study 3) projected buying a particular item when both their goal commitment and the perceived similarity of another shopper were high, and the goal was not yet attained. The results imply that goal projection is part of our everyday life and is fostered by high goal commitment, perceiving others as similar, and ongoing goal striving. 2100 45 5 2015 Self interested behaviour may have positive consequences for individual group members, but also negatively affects the outcomes of the group when group level and individual level interests are misaligned. In two studies, we examined such self interested, group undermining behaviour from the perspective of regulatory focus theory. We predicted that when individual and group interests are out of alignment, individuals under promotion focus would be more likely than individuals under prevention focus to pursue individual success at the expense of their group. Two studies provided support for this prediction. Promotion oriented individuals were more willing to act in their self interest (at the expense of their group) than individuals under prevention focus when self interested goals were not compatible with cooperation. No effect of regulatory focus on group loyalty was found when cooperation formed the only viable route to individual success. We discuss how these findings extend our understanding of the role of regulatory focus in social situations and of the practice of ensuring loyalty in contexts where individual and group goals are misaligned while cooperation is an important part of group success. Key Message The results of two studies show that the adoption of a promotion (vs. prevention) focus causes group members to become more willing to pursue individual success at the expense of their group when group and individual interests are misaligned. 2101 45 5 2015 It is often expected that the first women to advance in male dominated fields will promote other women who follow them. Two studies test the hypothesis that some women show this expected pattern of promoting women but that others show the opposite pattern, favouring men over women. In two studies, women §s gender identification moderated the extent to which they favoured men over women when they advanced in a male dominated field. Specifically, the weaker women §s gender identification, the more favouritism they showed for a male relative to a female subordinate. Gender identification did not moderate women §s behaviour in a context in which women were not underrepresented, pointing to the power of the situation in eliciting this relationship. Implications for the advancement of women in male dominated fields are discussed. Key Message Sometimes female leaders in male dominated fields undermine the advancement of other women. Compared with strongly gender identified female leaders, those who are weakly gender identified hinder the advancement of other women in male dominated domains by giving preferential treatment to men. 2102 45 5 2015 When other ingroup members behave immorally, people §s motivation to maintain a moral group image may cause them to experience increased threat and act defensively in response. In the current research, we investigated people §s reactions to others §s misconduct and examined the effect of group membership and the possible threat reducing function of moral opportunity the prospect of being able to re establish the group §s moral image. In Study 1, students who were confronted with fellow students §s plagiarism and who received an opportunity to improve their group §s morality reported feeling less threatened than students who did not receive such opportunity. In Study 2, students reacted to a recent academic fraud case, which either implicated an ingroup (scholar in their own discipline) or an outgroup member (scholar in another discipline). Results indicated that participants experienced more threat when an ingroup (versus an outgroup) member had committed the moral transgression. However, as hypothesized, this was not the case when moral opportunity was provided. Hence, the threat reducing effect of moral opportunity was replicated. Additionally, participants generally were more defensive in response to ingroup (versus outgroup) moral failure and less defensive when moral opportunity was present (versus absent). Together, these findings suggest that the reduction of threat due to moral opportunity may generally help individuals take constructive action when the behaviour of fellow group members discredits the group §s moral image. 2103 45 5 2015 Communicators often tune their message about a target to the audience §s attitude toward that target. This tuning can shape a communicator §s own evaluation of the target, which reflects the creation of a shared reality with the audience. So far, evidence for shared reality creation has been confined to one specific target. In two experiments, we examined whether and when a shared reality would generalize to other targets. In Experiment 1, shared reality creation about an ambiguous sexist target generalized to the evaluation of a new ambiguous sexist target for which no audience attitude was provided. However, this happened only when there was high (vs. low) commonality with the audience regarding previous judgments. In Experiment 2, we investigated conditions for the temporal persistence of generalization. One week after message tuning to a high commonality audience, a shared reality generalized to a new ambiguous sexist target when participants recalled the shared reality creation about the initial target, but it did not generalize in conditions without such recall. Also, no generalization occurred for non ambiguous or non sexist targets. Results suggest that shared reality generalization depends on perceived commonality with the audience, recollection of shared reality at time of judgment, and similarity between new and initial targets. 2104 45 5 2015 "In two studies, we tested the relationship between non immigrant individuals §s perceptions of deviant behaviour carried out by Muslims and foreigners and discriminatory intentions towards these outgroups. Based on a longitudinal and a representative cross sectional sample, we showed that two different types of perceived deviant behaviour (Study 1, Muslims §s unwillingness to integrate; and Study 2, foreigners §s hostility towards the non immigrant majority group) are related to increased intergroup threat, which in turn is related to increased intentions to show passive discrimination (i.e., avoidance) towards these outgroups. In line with theorizing about an increased sensitivity for threat in authoritarian individuals, the relationship between perceptions of deviant behaviour and threat was especially strong among high authoritarian individuals. Theoretical and practical implications of our results are discussed." 2105 45 5 2015 Knowing that fellow ingroup members have cross group contact can affect how people think, feel, and behave towards an outgroup. Previous research on extended contact focused almost exclusively on positive cross group interactions, neglecting the fact that extended contact can also be negative. In this contribution, we introduce negative extended contact and investigate how both forms of extended contact predict direct cross group contact and intergroup attitudes. In two cross sectional studies (N 1=286, N 2=237), we found evidence that positive and negative extended contact uniquely predict intergroup attitudes, and that direct cross group contact mediates this effect. In Study 2, we also provide initial evidence that extended contact might either prepare for or impair direct contact by changing ingroup norms and intergroup self efficacy, which in turn influence feelings of intergroup anxiety. 2106 45 6 2015 "This study tests a new integration of central core theory with subjective group dynamics theory. Specifically, we hypothesized that the type of opinions shared within a group (central vs. peripheral; i.e. central core theory) can moderate the typical processes of the black sheep effect (i.e. subjective group dynamics theory). Our study focused on students expressing opinions with regard to their social representation of studying. We predicted that an ingroup member expressing an opinion against central opinions of the group (but not against peripheral ones) would be judged more negatively than an outgroup member expressing the same opinion. In line with central core theory, the results showed that central opinions, but not peripheral opinions, lead to the typical processes of the black sheep effect. Our findings show that the central elements of a social representation are key to defining the social identity of a group. Future research should thus focus on understanding the socio representational nature of cognitions involved in intra group and inter group relations." 2107 45 6 2015 Parental gender stereotyped perceptions of newborns particularly their physical characteristics have been discussed as important determinants of sex role socialization from birth on. However, corresponding empirical evidence is inconclusive. We propose that inconsistent findings on gender correlated perceptions are due to whether or not actual physical differences between newborn girls and boys are properly (statistically or experimentally) taken into account. In our study, 55 mother father pairs rated both their own and two unknown newborns, labelled either female or male. Although we successfully replicated the typical gender correlated perceptions of own newborns §s physical characteristics, all effects were explainable by actual physical sex differences in length and weight at birth. Similarly, no gender specific rating differences emerged as a function of labelled gender of unknown children matched in actual physical characteristics. Altogether, the findings demonstrate the vital importance of considering existing sex differences between newborn girls and boys for drawing valid conclusions on gender stereotyping of newborns. 2108 45 6 2015 "Research into the relationship between religion and anti gay attitudes frequently focuses on Christianity. We explored the role of religiosity dimensions, previous contact, and factors in the dual process motivation model as predictors of explicit and implicit anti gay attitudes in samples of Muslims and Atheists. The explicit and implicit attitudes of Muslims were more negative than the attitudes of Atheists. Explicit attitudes were more negative towards gay men than lesbians; implicit attitudes were negative towards gay men but were unexpectedly positive towards lesbians. In regression analyses, religious fundamentalism and extrinsic religious orientations (Study 1), and contact and right wing authoritarianism (Study 2) were strong significant predictors of explicit anti gay attitudes. Interestingly, none of the factors of interest predicted implicit anti gay attitudes. These findings reveal a strong link between Islam and explicit anti gay attitudes, but suggest that the relationship between religion and implicit anti gay attitudes may be more complex than previously thought." 2109 45 6 2015 Much work has been carried out on sexist attitudes, but only little on sexist behaviours. The goal of the present research was to close this gap by testing how a variety of benevolent and hostile sexist behaviours correlate with implicit and explicit sexist attitudes. In Study 1 (N=126), we developed implicit association tests for benevolent sexism and hostile sexism and illustrated that implicit and explicit benevolent sexist beliefs, as well as implicit and explicit hostile sexist beliefs, were positively correlated. In Study 2 (N=83 of Study 1), we tested whether implicit and explicit benevolent and hostile sexist attitudes correlate with benevolent and hostile sexist behaviours. As expected, explicit benevolent (but not hostile) sexist attitudes predicted benevolent sexist behaviour, whereas explicit hostile (but not benevolent) sexist attitudes predicted hostile sexist behaviour. Implicit sexist attitudes did not predict sexist behaviour. The implications of these findings are discussed. 2110 45 6 2015 Property evaluations rarely occur in the absence of social context. However, no research has investigated how intergroup processes related to prejudice extend to concepts of property. In the present research, we propose that factors such as group status, prejudice and pressure to mask prejudiced attitudes affect how people value the property of racial ingroup and outgroup members. In Study 1, White American and Asian American participants were asked to appraise a hand painted mug that was ostensibly created by either a White or an Asian person. Asian participants demonstrated an ingroup bias. White participants showed an outgroup bias, but this effect was qualified. Specifically, among White participants, higher racism towards Asian Americans predicted higher valuations of mugs created by Asian people. Study 2 revealed that White Americans §s prejudice towards Asian Americans predicted higher valuations of the mug created by an Asian person only when participants were highly concerned about conveying a non prejudiced personal image. Our results suggest that, ironically, prejudiced majority group members evaluate the property of minority group members whom they dislike more favourably. The current findings provide a foundation for melding intergroup relations research with research on property and ownership. 2111 45 6 2015 In recent years, ethnic minorities have experienced an increase in acts of exclusion. In two studies, we demonstrated how ingroup members §s felt shame about such immoral behaviour explained their desire to pro socially object to this immorality by distancing from the perpetrating ingroup and by wanting to support the affected minorities. We showed how the desire to pro socially object varies as a function of national identification. As expected, nationally attached identifiers §s felt shame for the immoral behaviour was linked with greater willingness to pro socially object to it. The opposite pattern was found for nationally glorifying identifiers. In the second study, we found that anger directed at the ingroup partially explained the relationship between group based shame and the pro social desire to object. The results contribute to the literature on shame and pro social motivations by showing that distancing from the perpetrating ingroup can be considered as a pro social strategy rather than a defensive one. 2112 45 6 2015 People §s perceptions are often distorted in a way that aligns with their desires and goals. We argue that having a goal to affiliate changes the perception of interpersonal distance in a way that may help to fulfil this affiliation goal. As other people are goal relevant when having an affiliation goal, we expected that people with affiliation goals would estimate the distance between themselves and another person as smaller than people with no affiliation goals. In two studies, we manipulated affiliation goals by priming participants with affiliation or control words. Our main dependent variable was the estimated interpersonal distance between themselves and the experimenter. Results showed that participants primed with affiliation estimated the interpersonal distance as smaller compared with participants primed with control words. We did not obtain reliable differences between the affiliation and control conditions on other distance and height estimations. Our results suggest that having or not having affiliation goals influences people §s perception of the distance between them and other people. 2113 45 6 2015 Recent research has found that ego depletion undermines self control by motivating cognition that justifies conservation of mental resource. One potential cognitive mechanism is reduction of self efficacy. Specifically, we propose that ego depletion might demotivate self control by making people believe that they are inefficacious in exerting self control in subsequent tasks. Three experiments support the proposal. First, we demonstrated that (a) ego depletion can reduce self efficacy to exert further control (Experiments 1 to 3) and (b) the temporary reduction of self efficacy mediates the effect of depletion on self control performance (Experiment 2). Finally, we found that (c) these effects are only observed among participants who endorse a limited (versus non limited) theory of willpower and are, hence, more motivated to conserve mental resources (Experiment 3). Taken together, the present findings show that decrease in self efficacy to exert further self control is an important cognitive process that explains how ego depletion demotivates self control. This research also contributes to the recent discussion of the psychological processes underlying ego depletion. 2114 45 6 2015 Public discussions about the harmfulness of violent media are often held in the aftermath of violent felony. At the same time, we know little about whether and how experiencing real life violence impacts the way laypersons perceive and evaluate debates about virtual violence. In Study 1, we provided data indicating that both real life violence and violent video games are perceived as morally threatening by people who regard nonviolence to be an important moral value (i.e., pacifists). In Study 2, we hypothesized and found that when pacifists perceive threat from the presence of real life violence, they are especially susceptible to scientific and political claims indicating that violent video games are harmful. Our findings are in line with the value protection model and research on the psychological consequences of threat. Implications of the present findings are discussed with regard to a better understanding of the violent video games debate in the general public. 2115 45 6 2015 From a folk perspective, gossipers (individuals who talk about the behaviours of others) are considered to be immoral individuals, doing harm to those they discuss. However, this folk perspective sits uneasily with recent claims that gossipers may actually do some good. In particular, it has been suggested that gossipers who share diagnostic information about the morality of social targets may help audiences to identify targets who are trustworthy and those who are not. In this way, gossipers may help audiences adaptively regulate their relationships. In this paper, we examined whether audience perceptions of gossiper morality are influenced by their perceptions that the content of gossip is able to help them regulate their relationships. Participants in two scenario studies and a realistic interaction study were presented with gossip items drawn from a pool of 24 unique behavioural descriptions and asked to rate their perceptions of the gossiper and the content of the gossip item. As predicted, participants perceived gossipers as more moral when gossipers shared the diagnostic morality gossip that participants perceived to serve relationship regulatory functions. 2116 45 7 2015 The process of globalisation has gained tremendous momentum over recent decades, resulting in unprecedented human interconnectedness and awareness of global concerns. The current special issue of the European Journal of Social Psychology brings together 10 papers that address this development. This special issue showcases different perspectives on the psychological processes that underlie the cognitive and behavioural responses to the global challenges humankind has created and is now facing. In introducing these contributions, we identified three emerging topics for social psychological theorising and application vis a vis globalisation and global concerns: (i) supranational identification and attachment, (ii) political and ideological responses to globalisation and global concerns, and (iii) global protest and change. We integrate these topics by highlighting some future prospects of this emerging field of research and its significance for understanding social change in these tumultuous times. 2117 45 7 2015 In two studies, we examined the interrelationships and relative utility of several recent measures of global human identification. In Study 1, McFarland, Webb, and Brown §s () Identification With All Humanity (IWAH) and Malsch and Omoto §s () Psychological Sense of Global Community (PSGC) scales overlapped substantially, but each contributed in regression analyses to predicting humanitarian concerns. Each measure consists of multiple factors, and most factors contributed to predicting these concerns. For Study 2, a measure of World Citizenship was added, derived from similar measures by Reese, Proch, and Cohrs () and Reysen and Katzarska Miller (). Study 2 largely replicated the Study 1 results while extending them to an added humanitarian concern for global poverty. Overall, the Global Self Investment subscale of the IWAH most consistently predicted humanitarian concerns. The measure of World Citizenship correlated with all humanitarian concerns but did not contribute in predicting them beyond the IWAH and PSGC. 2118 45 7 2015 The Occupy movement made a series of local sit ins §s in cities across the world in response to financial and political injustices. Prior to the movement §s emergence, the Internet provided a transnational forum for people across the world to discuss their opinions and coalesce about the financial and political contexts. Here, we analyse 5343 posts on the #OccupyWallStreet Facebook event page to identify linguistic markers of shared social identity formation. Results suggest that discussants formed a shared identity if they agreed on both the desired change (the injunctive norm, revoke corporate personhood ) and the predefined action (Occupy Wall Street). Lines of consensus and dissensus on injunctive norms and actions delineated the development of both affirmational ingroup and negational outgroup identities. We conclude that online discussion can create both ingroups and outgroups through (in)validating ideas about social reformation and delineating shared psychological spaces. 2119 45 7 2015 Global environmental degradation creates and exacerbates social injustices. Using relative deprivation (RD) theory, we investigate whether people perceive environmental degradation in Australia, and extend RD theory by connecting it to the construct of place attachment (PA) at multiple scales. We surveyed 5163 Australians, measuring RD, PA, personal and collective environmental behaviours, and policy support. About one third believed environmental quality is worsening and felt angry about it. We regressed each of the behaviour and policy support measures onto the RD and PA measures. Collective environmental behaviours and policy support were more strongly predicted, in each case by RD and just one of the PA measures. RD partially mediated the association between PA and each of the behavioural measures. Responses to global environmental degradation are an admixture of injustice and place attachments at multiple scales. Efforts to promote environmentally relevant behaviours require attention to local and global attachments and identities. 2120 45 7 2015 Through an experiment included in a nationwide survey conducted prior to the 2014 European elections, we investigated whether citizens §s agreement with policies dealing with the global issue of climate change depends on how such policies are framed and citizens §s identification with the national or supranational entities enacting them. Participants were presented with different versions of a statement proposing investments in renewable energy sources, manipulated in terms of hedonic consequences (benefits of adoption vs adverse effects of non adoption), regulatory concern (growth vs safety) and policy actor group membership (national vs supranational actor). Participants §s national/supranational identification was also measured. Participants §s agreement with the policy was stronger for congruently framed messages (i.e. messages framed in terms of positive growth related consequences and negative safety related consequences) than for incongruently framed messages. The effect of framing was further enhanced when the policy was attributed to a national or supranational actor with whom participants identified. 2121 45 7 2015 Ecosystems are under pressure due to global climate change. Empirical evidence showing how people can reduce their ecological footprint is needed. It has been shown that a consequence of the perception of climate change is an increase in ecologically responsible behaviour, but little is known about the antecedents of this relationship. In two field studies, we examined whether an emotion regulation strategy (i.e., cognitive reappraisal) predicted both climate change perception and pro environmental behaviour. Undergraduate students at two university campuses participated in Study 1 (n=299). We found that individuals with a stronger tendency for habitual use of cognitive reappraisal showed both increased global climate change perception and a greater extent of pro environmental behaviour compared with individuals with a lower such tendency. As expected, our results also showed the mediating role of climate change perception in the relationship between people §s habitual use of cognitive reappraisal and pro environmental behaviour. These findings were replicated in Study 2 (n=81) with a non student sample. Implications for future studies and environmental risk communication strategies are discussed. 2122 45 7 2015 This study proposed a new perspective to look at the consequences of the formation of immigrant communities in globalized societies, by investigating the impact of two forms of group indispensability on majority attitudes towards immigrants. Specifically, it explored whether perceived indispensability of different immigrant groups to the national identity and their contributions to the functioning of the host society are related to the development of more positive attitudes towards them. We also explored whether such effects would be mediated by the inclusion of immigrants within the national common identity and whether these effects would be stronger among host country members with a stronger civic than ethnic conception of national citizenship. Results supported these predictions among a sample of native Portuguese citizens (N=118). As predicted, these effects were driven by perceptions of different types of indispensability for three immigrant groups in Portugal, who differed in their historical relations with the host society. 2123 45 7 2015 Globalization is an object of debate as it affects many groups worldwide. Two studies examined perceptions of globalization in the Greek context based on scholarly debates, and how these perceptions are grounded in political positioning and ideological understandings of the nation state, economy, and culture. In student and non student samples, perceptions of globalization were organized around the dimensions of global modernization, global cooperation, and global power inequalities. In a second study, the pro globalization views of modernization and cooperation were both associated with right wing positioning and fair market ideology, but the two views were associated with different preferred economic roles and policies of the state. The left leaning factor of power inequalities was negatively associated with fair market ideology and positively with preference for redistributive and pro left wing state policies. Implications of these differences and similarities among globalization views are discussed for sociopsychological theories of lay ideology, political discourse, and collective action. 2124 45 7 2015 This paper argues that a fundamental antagonism between democracy and nondemocracy organises lay thinking on global issues. We review key findings of a long standing experimental research programme that examined the Democracy as value hypothesis across a variety of political and social contexts. This hypothesis contends that democracy is an ideological belief system that provides value to democratic individuals, groups, and institutions and thereby grants legitimacy to their actions. Based on procedural justice theories and social representations theory, we contend that western lay perceivers associate democracy with procedural equality and individual autonomy, whereas nondemocracy is associated with ingroup hierarchy and conformity. We discuss how idealised representations of democracy justify global power arrangements and emphasise the paradoxical justification function of democratic values through which nondemocratic forms of social regulation based on physical force are legitimised with the very democratic norms that call for peaceful resolution of conflicts. 2125 45 7 2015 The processes of globalization that have characterized recent decades have prompted social psychology to rethink some everyday life concerns and local problems at a global level. This article presents an explanatory model of collective action aimed at fighting poverty with a proposal to integrate the Encapsulated Model of Social Identity in Collective Action (EMSICA) with some antecedents from both the psychology of volunteerism and authority relationship literature. A self report questionnaire was administered to 783 Italian participants, and through structural equation modelling, we demonstrated that moral reasoning, engagement values, and prosocial disobedience function as antecedents of the EMSICA model and, thus, are elements in the global fight against poverty. 2126 45 7 2015 Today §s global challenges necessitate the cooperation of the international community. In two studies, this paper investigates global identity and absolute moral standards as two important predictors of solidarity and collective action intentions. In Study 1 (N=450), we found evidence for parallel direct effects of global identity and absolute standards on intergroup solidarity and indirectly on collective action intentions. Similar, albeit weaker, effects were found for real behaviour (a donation). Study 2 (N=124) experimentally manipulated participants §s moral standard. Participants in the absolute standard condition were more willing to participate in collective action than participants who were experimentally focused on a gradual standard. Additionally, Study 2 replicated the indirect effects of global identity and absolute moral standards that we found in Study 1. The results show the important role of global identity and absolute moral standards as independent motivators of collective action. 2127 46 1 2016 This study extends research on dual identity and ingroup projection by considering category prototypicality and indispensability, and by focusing on ethnic minority members and their attitudes towards the native majority and minority outgroups. Among a sample of 491 participants of the three largest immigrant origingroups in the Netherlands, it was found that the minority ingroup was seen as relatively more prototypical and relatively more indispensable for the national category in comparison with minority outgroups, but not in comparison with the native majority. In support of the ingroup projection model, stronger dual identity was associated with higher relative ingroup prototypicality and relative ingroup indispensability in comparison with the majority and, via both these relative perceptions, to a less positive attitude towards the native Dutch. In addition and in support of the common ingroup identity model, dual identity was associated with more positive minority outgroup feelings via higher minority outgroup prototypicality and indispensability. It is concluded that dual identity can have both positive and negative consequences for intergroup relations depending on perceived (relative) prototypicality and indispensability, and depending on whether the outgroup is the majority or other minorities. 2128 46 1 2016 In the current research, we suggest that shared reality, the belief that one perceives the world the same way as another group, can predict attitudes towards that group. We tested shared reality theory in the context of American ethnic minority groups §s (i.e., African Americans, Asian Americans, and Latinas/os) attitudes towards White Americans. In surveys of two samples recruited from different geographical locations in the USA, we tested predictions derived from different theories of intergroup relations. Using mediational analysis, we defined models to assess the extent to which shared reality theory predicted directly and indirectly prejudicial attitudes towards Whites. We tested the model derived from shared reality theory against other theoretical alternatives. Taken together, the results of the research indicated that shared reality predicts attitudes towards White Americans among these three ethnic groups. Thus, shared reality is a relevant, though largely overlooked, factor in intergroup dynamics. 2129 46 1 2016 Reactions to globalized Western culture (GWC) are influential in shaping intergroup relations and social issues worldwide. GWC is conceptualized here as an inclusionary cultural value system but a simultaneously exclusionary social identity. Whereas GWC §s inclusive values may promote the civil liberties and fair treatment of gay people, for instance, as a social identity, groups may use their alignment with GWC to buttress ingroup superiority over less aligned outgroups. Three studies (one correlational and two experimental in design) probe these opposing vectors in samples of Jewish Israelis, who are generally highly aligned with GWC. Results demonstrate that GWC alignment is associated with decreased anti gay prejudice (Studies 2 and 3) but exclusionary responses towards Arab individuals and groups (Studies 1, 2, and 3), who are perceived to be less aligned with GWC. Conducted during the 2014 Israeli Palestinian war, Study 3 notably demonstrated that a GWC identification prime reduced Jewish Israelis §s willingness to offer humanitarian assistance to Palestinian civilians in need. This may suggest that in some contexts, GWC §s divisive function as a social identity supersedes its more inclusionary humanistic values. These contrary effects of GWC alignment by social target are discussed, alongside their implications on national, regional, and international levels. 2130 46 1 2016 This paper aims to improve our understanding of demonstrators §s atmosphere perceptions, that is, demonstrators §s affective state, which is induced by the protest environment. We examined how demonstrators perceive protest atmosphere, why they do so, and whether atmosphere perceptions influence demonstrators §s future collective action preparedness. We hypothesized that demonstrators §s atmosphere perceptions diverge on a dimension of pleasure, and relate to their grievance (i.e., perceived societal intolerance), group identification, empowerment, and perceived police aggression. A pleasant atmosphere perception was expected to stimulate a demonstrator §s future action preparedness. We tested these hypotheses with a mixed methods dataset of two Dutch protests, staged by Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and Transgenders and anti monarchists. Our analyses revealed that demonstrators §s atmosphere perceptions diverge on a dimension of pleasure, and relate to group identification, empowerment, and, for anti monarchists, perceived societal intolerance. A pleasant atmosphere perception deters a demonstrator §s future action preparedness and also stimulates his or her group identification and empowerment, which, then, stimulate his or her action preparedness. 2131 46 1 2016 Ingroups, member coordination is influenced by a complex set of factors including who has what knowledge (which implies who is responsible for different task domains) as well as the differing incentives associated with performing within those domains. We show that the distribution of members §s expert roles interacts with the desirability of different task domains to impact member perceptions of the task, coordination, and performance. Group members who have expertise in a highly desirable domain (i.e., key experts) perceive the task differently than members who do not and report that their approach to the task is determined to a greater extent by an attention to capturing highly desirable contributions for the group than do other members. Furthermore, when a group lacks a key expert, groups divide the work involved within a highly desirable domain across multiple members. This results in the group doing well in the highly desirable domain itself, but overlooking other domains and performing poorly, overall. We discuss the theoretical implications of this research as well as its practical applications. 2132 46 1 2016 Power has long been linked to the stigma of corruption. Three studies indicated that different power concepts have different implications for corruption behaviour and perception. The personalized power concept relates to using power to pursue self centered goals for one §s own benefit, whereas the socialized power concept relates to using power to pursue other focused goals for benefiting and helping others. Three studies were conducted to explore the effect of these two types of power concepts on corrupt intention or practice. The power concepts were measured in Study 1, primed through previous experience in Study 2, and utilized within a specific context in Study 3, respectively. Taken together, the three studies indicate that the personalized (vs. socialized) power concept increases (vs. decreases) self interested behaviour and tolerance towards others §s (especially high position others §s ) corrupt practices. 2133 46 1 2016 In this article, we investigate the influence of responsibility, moral emotions, and empathy on help giving for stigmatized persons in need. Both characteristics of the recipient of help and the help giver are analysed within a general theoretical framework. Based on an online study (N=332), structural equation models confirm and extend an attributional explanation of help giving, based on a thinking feeling acting model. Conditions promoting help giving are identified: (i) A potential help giver who regards himself or herself as responsible for the recipient §s misfortune is likely to experience guilt, regret, and shame, thus increasing the likelihood of help. (ii) A potential recipient of help who is regarded as being not responsible for his or her plight elicits sympathy and is thus more likely to receive help. In contrast, when the person in need is regarded as being responsible for his or her plight, anger and even schadenfreude are elicited, and likelihood of help giving decreases. (iii) Different aspects of empathy as a stable personal characteristic exert direct and indirect (i.e., emotionally mediated) effects on help giving. Using structural equation modelling, we outline an attributional model of helping conceptualizing helping behaviour within an actor observer system integrating a variety of moral emotions involved in help giving. 2134 46 1 2016 The apology acceptance script that may prevail during the victim offender mediation process suggests that victims may feel obliged or pressured to accept an offender §s offer of an apology. Violations of this expectation in terms of rejection of an apology or no recognition of it may influence the outcomes of mediation in several ways. Two experiments examined the effects of a victim §s response to an offender §s offer of a full apology on offenders §s perceptions of the victim §s response, emotional reactions, perceptions of the victim, attitudes towards the dispute and attitudes towards mediation. Experiment 1 compared the effects of a rejection, acceptance and no recognition of an apology, and Experiment 2 further investigated the effects of an acceptance versus no recognition of an apology. It was found that offenders who had their apology rejected considered the victim §s response as least appropriate and were least satisfied by it. Rejected offenders felt more anger towards the victim and had more negative impressions of the victim. Offenders who had their apology accepted felt more guilt and shame. They were, however, also more willing to reach an agreement and were more likely to perceive the conflict as being resolved. Accepted offenders were also more likely to participate in mediation in the future and more willing to recommend mediation to others. The present research also demonstrated that no recognition of an apology has adverse effects similar to a rejection of an apology. 2135 46 1 2016 The present research investigated whether self threat biases memory via retrieval induced forgetting. Results show that people under self threat whose goal is to restore their self worth by making prejudicial judgments that deprecate others are more likely to exhibit an enhanced RIF effect for positive items and a reduced RIF for negative items ascribed to a stereotyped target (i.e., homosexual). Overall, the present findings are consistent with the view that motivation can affect the magnitude of RIF effects in person memory and that, in turn, they can serve as mechanisms for justifying desired conclusions. 2136 46 2 2016 We interrogated historical continuity and change in discourses of enlightenment and racism through the analysis of 160 years of New Zealand Speeches from the Throne (1854–2014, 163 speeches). Enlightenment discourses of benevolence and perfectibility were prevalent in all periods, much more so than racism. Old fashioned racism took the form of an assumed civilizational superiority (including accusations of barbarism ) during colonization, with modern racism taking forms like blaming Maori for not productively using the land. Both declined to almost zero by the 20th century, undermining the idea of old fashioned versus modern racism. Utilitarian discourses peaked in the late 19th to early 20th centuries as justification for Maori land alienation. Master discourses of enlightenment consisted of a central core of social representations that changed at the periphery, with a gradual expansion of symbolic inclusion of Maori in discourses of national identity to the point where biculturalism is the dominant discourse for elites today. 2137 46 2 2016 This article provides a comparative study of the discursive construction and use of Otherness among anti immigration populist radical right politicians in Sweden and Finland. Based on rhetorical and critical discursive psychology, our analyses of discourse within nine political blogs identified three distinct representations of Otherness. These representations of a deviant group of people, of a threatening ideology and of inner enemies are highly familiar from previous research on radical right discourse. However, what seems to characterize populist radical right discourse in the Nordic context is the strong reliance on the rhetorical juxtaposition between the welfare system and immigration. Our study furthermore highlights how populist radical right politicians exploit the digital discursive tools provided by political blogging. These tools, first, create a sense of connectedness and mutual understanding between blogger and reader and, second, allow the blogger to convey messages that are hostile towards immigrants and ethnic minorities without expressing an explicit personal opinion. In combination, the features provided by political blogging and the discursive and rhetorical strategies that deny racism make discourse within a populist radical right political blog especially powerful and convincing. We conclude that research must be sensitive to this digital discourse , as it reaches a public far beyond the sphere of a political blog through its potential to spread and influence mainstream media. 2138 46 2 2016 In this paper, we present findings on lay constructions of racism from a focus group study (11 groups, n = 72) with a mixed sample of secondary school students in England. We show that racism was, on the whole, othered : It was located in other times, places, and people or was denied altogether. We show that this way of talking about racism had different uses depending on the identity stakes involved in different interactional contexts. Even in the cases where racism was constructed as common, participants worked hard to make an irrefutable argument, which suggests that they were anticipating reputational damage by making a claim for the persistence of racism. We discuss these findings with regard to the different levels of analysis involved in constructions of racism (micro interactional, local and broader normative context) and with regard to an end of racism discourse that appeared to provide the normative framework for participants §s accounts. 2139 46 2 2016 Misinformation encountered after witnessing an event is known to influence subsequent memory reports about this event. In most research, misleading information was introduced impersonally, for example, by means of a written description, but it is now well established that delivering it in a social interaction is effective as well. Less is known about the relative effectiveness of impersonal post event misinformation compared with a socially presented one. The present research provides a direct empirical comparison between social, para social, and impersonal methods of delivering misinformation. Results indicate that the way in which post event information is provided does not affect the number of false recall items, source monitoring, or remember–know distinction, with a high Bayesian probability of the obtained no difference effects. Results show that the social conformity factor does not significantly influence the impact of misleading post event information. The paper also provides a theoretical comparison of the two effects. 2140 46 2 2016 We report novel research investigating memory distortion as an alternative route to cognitive balance, comparing it with attitude change as a well known balancing mechanism. Participants received statements from multiple communicators about a controversial topic (national pride in Study 1 and climate protection in Study 2) and remembered these statements immediately or 1 week later. This resulted in initially balanced or unbalanced combinations of the liking for individual communicators and the communicators §s statements and in subsequent balance increases due to liking change or misremembering of statements. The contribution of memory distortion to balance was significant but weaker and less efficient than that of liking change, and the contributions were empirically independent (i.e., uncorrelated and differentially related to third variables specifically, memory strength and individual cognitive consistency motivation). They also had a different temporal trajectory (liking change fast and memory distortion slow). We discuss theoretical and practical implications. 2141 46 2 2016 Survivors of disasters commonly provide each other with social support, but the social psychological processes behind such solidarity behaviours have not been fully explicated. We describe a survey of 1240 adults affected by the 2010 Chile earthquake to examine the importance of two factors: observing others providing social support and social identification with other survivors. As expected, emotional social support was associated with social identification, which in turn was predicted by disaster exposure through common fate. Observing others §s supportive behaviour predicted both providing emotional social support and providing coordinated instrumental social support. Expected support was a key mediator of these relationships and also predicted collective efficacy. There was also an interaction: social identification moderated the relationship between observing and providing social support. These findings serve to develop the social identity account of mass emergency behaviour and add value to disaster research by showing the relevance of concepts from collective action. 2142 46 2 2016 Dozens of studies have shown that authoritarian people are ethnocentric. They are described as nationalistic, prejudiced, and hostile toward ethnic/national outgroups. However, it can be argued that this critical claim remains unproven, as researchers do not take into consideration the very conservative right wing views typical of authoritarian people. To address this problem, two theoretical approaches were contrasted: the most commonly used right wing authoritarianism (RWA) approach and the group authoritarianism approach. Both approaches define authoritarianism as the covariance of submission, aggression, and conventionalism, but they differ in that the former is inextricably related to right wing ideology while the latter is not. This paper presents the results of two survey studies conducted on samples of 600 and 400 respondents. In Study 1, it was found that RWA and group authoritarianism had different patterns of relationships with ingroup and outgroup national attitudes, providing strong evidence in support of the hypothesis that the right wing ideology generated ethnocentric national attitudes. Study 2 showed a strong direct effect of right wing ideology on ethnocentric national attitudes, while the impact of pure authoritarian covariance is marginal and sometimes even seems to be negative (e.g., ethnic prejudices). These findings suggest that authoritarianism has little to do with ethnocentric national attitudes. It is not the covariance of authoritarian attitudes that results in growing ethnocentrism. The true perpetrator can be found in the large component of right wing ideology contained in such measurement instruments as the RWA scale. 2143 46 2 2016 We examined whether homophobic epithets (e.g., faggot) function as labels of deviance for homosexuals that contribute to their dehumanization and physical distance. Across two studies, participants were supraliminally (Study 1) and subliminally (Study 2) exposed to a homophobic epithet, a category label, or a generic insult. Participants were then asked to associate human related and animal related words to homosexuals and heterosexuals. Results showed that after exposure to a homophobic epithet, compared with a category label or a generic insult, participants associated less human related words with homosexuals, indicating dehumanization. In Study 2, we also assessed the effect of a homophobic epithet on physical distance from a target group member and found that homophobic epithets led to greater physical distancing of a gay man. These findings indicate that homophobic epithets foster dehumanization and avoidance of gay people, in ways that other insults or labels do not. 2144 46 2 2016 Public discourse often portrays Islam as the main obstacle for Muslim minorities §s integration, paying little attention to the contextual factors hindering this process. Here, we focus on islamophobia as one destructive factor that hinders the mutual integration between Muslim minority and Western majority members, affecting both groups. In Study 1, the more islamophobic majority members were, the more they expected Muslims to give up their heritage culture and the less they wanted them to integrate. In Study 2, only when Muslims experienced substantial religious discrimination did religious identity negatively relate to national engagement and particularly positively relate to ethnic engagement. Together, the studies suggest that religious prejudice in the form of islamophobia is a major obstacle to Muslims §s integration because it increases the incongruity between majority and minority members §s acculturation attitudes. 2145 46 2 2016 Previous research revealed that mouth movements influence attitudes. Covert subvocal articulations inducing muscular contractions resembling ingestion movements were preferred over expectoration like movements, unveiling a relationship between vocal muscles §s wandering and motivational states such as approach and avoidance. These findings, explained in terms of embodied cognition, suggest that specific movements are directly connected to, and more importantly, automatically activate concordant motivational states. The oral approach avoidance effect was replicated using the original stimulus set and a new set of stimulus developed for Portuguese. Results from two high powered (total N = 407), independent replications, revealed that the preference for inward words (over outwards) exists in both sets but to a greater extent in the pool phonetically adapted for Portuguese. 2146 46 3 2016 In the present contribution, the author investigated the idea that messages communicating inclusion by others lead to stronger conspiracy beliefs about impactful societal events than messages communicating exclusion by others. These effects of belongingness, however, were expected only among people who experience high levels of self uncertainty. In Study 1, a manipulation of belongingness predicted belief in conspiracy theories only among people with unstable self esteem (an individual difference indicator of self uncertainty), while controlling for self esteem level. In Study 2, a manipulation of belongingness influenced belief in conspiracy theories only among participants who were experimentally induced to feel uncertain about themselves. It is concluded that among self uncertain people, inclusion breeds suspicion about the causes of impactful and harmful societal events. 2147 46 3 2016 Experimental exclusion manipulations may induce exclusion in a way that participants perceive as unfair. Groups often use exclusion punitively to correct inappropriate behaviour, however, which may lead to perceptions that it is potentially justified or fair. The current studies examined if individuals §s perceptions of fairness with respect to an exclusion experience moderated their reactions. Participants wrote about or imagined a time in which they were excluded after they did something wrong (fair exclusion) or excluded even though they did nothing wrong (unfair exclusion) or about a mundane experience unrelated to exclusion (control). Compared with fair exclusion, unfair exclusion resulted in significantly weaker efficacy needs satisfaction (Studies 1, 2, and 4), greater antisocial intent (Study 3), and greater sensitivity to signs of interpersonal acceptance and rejection in a visual search task (Study 4). These results suggest that it is important to consider the role of perceived fairness in shaping responses to exclusion. 2148 46 3 2016 Social identities are known to improve well being, but why is this? We argue that this is because they satisfy basic psychological needs, specifically, the need to belong, the need for self esteem, the need for control and the need for meaningful existence. A longitudinal study (N = 70) revealed that gain in identity strength was associated with increased need satisfaction over 7 months. A cross sectional study (N = 146) revealed that social identity gain and social identity loss predicted increased and reduced need satisfaction, respectively. Finally, an experiment (N = 300) showed that, relative to a control condition, social identity gain increased need satisfaction and social identity loss decreased it. Need satisfaction mediated the relationship between social identities and depression in all studies. Sensitivity analyses suggested that social identities satisfy psychological needs in a global sense, rather than being reducible to one particular need. These findings shed new light on the mechanisms through which social identities enhance well being. 2149 46 3 2016 "For all the well established benefits of forgiveness for victims, when and how is forgiving more likely to be beneficial? Three experimental studies found that forgiving is more likely to be beneficial when victims perceived reparative effort by offenders such that offenders deserve forgiveness. Deservingness judgements were elicited by manipulating post transgression offender effort (apology/amends). When offenders apologized (Study 1; recall paradigm) or made amends (Study 2; hypothetical paradigm) and were forgiven relative to transgressors who did not apologize/make amends but were still forgiven forgiving was beneficial. These findings that deserved forgiveness is more beneficial for victims than undeserved forgiveness were replicated when forgiving itself was also manipulated (Study 3). Moreover, Study 3 provided evidence to indicate that if a victim forgives when it is not deserved, victim well being is equivalent to not forgiving at all. Of theoretical and practical importance is the mediating effect of deservingness on relations between post transgression offender effort and a victim §s personal consequences of forgiving. " 2150 46 3 2016 Individuals consider abstract values and principles important aspects of their identities. Nonetheless, they often make judgments and decisions that contradict these values and principles for the sake of pragmatic benefits. Assuming that the process of weighting idealistic and pragmatic concerns is context sensitive, the present research argues that affect influences the relative weight of idealistic versus pragmatic concerns in decision situations owing to its influence on the level of abstraction at which individuals represent situations mentally. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrate that more positive affect increases the prominent weighting of idealistic over pragmatic concerns while less positive affect leads to less differentiation between the relevance of idealistic and pragmatic concerns. Studies 3 and 4 test the assumption that affective influences on mental abstraction are crucial for affect dependent shifts in the weighting of idealistic and pragmatic concerns. By bringing together theorizing on affect and cognition with recent theorizing on the role of mental abstraction for decision processes, this article highlights a mechanism through which decisions can be influenced by feelings that goes beyond the mechanisms that have typically been discussed in the affect and cognition literature so far. 2151 46 3 2016 Connectedness to one §s community relates to positive psychological and behavioural outcomes. But what implications do connectedness to distinct communities the criminal community and the community at large have for inmates about to be released from jail? This study (N = 383) prospectively examined connectedness to the criminal community and community at large prior to release from jail and functioning at 1 year post release. Connectedness to the community at large positively predicted community adjustment, whereas connectedness to the criminal community positively predicted recidivism. Targeting both types of community connectedness may enhance interventions intended to undermine recidivism and increase positive outcomes for inmates. 2152 46 3 2016 "People with high perceived support have better mental health, but how this occurs is not well understood. We tested hypotheses from relational regulation theory that the main effect between perceived support and affect primarily reflects ordinary conversation and shared activity. In two studies (n = 193; n = 149), students rated three important network members and psychological reactions to each. In a third study (n = 72) strangers shared an activity in a round robin design. Affect was strongly determined by with who participants were interacting or thinking about. Perceived support, ordinary conversation, and shared activity were strongly linked, and each was related to high positive affect, low negative affect, perceived similarity, and few negative thoughts. Perceived support §s link to affect emerged when strangers shared a brief activity. Thus, much of perceived support §s main effect with affect could be explained as resulting from ordinary conversation and shared activity. " 2153 46 3 2016 The current research question sought to examine political psychology as it relates to evolutionary mismatch. The basic hypothesis is that people will be more cognitively prepared to think about political situations that are relatively small in scale compared with political situations that are large in scale. This research also examined the effects of whether the political situation is highly relevant to oneself. To test these questions, 49 young adults were presented with four sets of instructions. They were asked to write paragraphs describing (i) a large scale, self relevant political situation, (ii) a large scale non self relevant political situation, (iii) a small scale self relevant political situation, and (iv) a small scale non self relevant political situation. Paragraphs generated by the participants were analysed using Tyler §s () Writing Sample Readability Analyser. Results demonstrated that paragraphs designed for large scale political situations had more sentences and were less readable than paragraphs designed for small scale situations while paragraphs designed for small scale political situations were relatively readable and included more words per sentence, suggesting that, consistent with the core hypothesis, participants had an easier time processing information related to small scale political situations than large scale political situations. Implications for the nature of modern politics are discussed. 2154 46 3 2016 Two studies were conducted to examine the influence of ease of recall on state gratitude and satisfaction with close relationships among college students from Mexico. Participants were randomly assigned to remembering and writing down two versus six acts for which they should be grateful. Participants then completed a battery of questionnaires measuring state gratitude, negative affect, satisfaction with close relationships, ease of recall and trait gratitude and extroversion (for Study 2 only). Results from both studies showed that recalling two acts was perceived as easier than recalling six acts. This experience of ease of recall had a positive influence on state gratitude, even after controlling for the effects of trait gratitude and extroversion, which then had positive relationship with satisfaction with close relationships. 2155 46 3 2016 Across two experiments involving four conditions, Sklar et al. (2012) found that complex subtraction equations can be solved without awareness of the equations. These findings challenge the current position that consciousness is necessary for performing abstract, rule following tasks. Given the important implications of their work, we directly replicate Sklar §s findings using a larger sample (n = 94) from a different population. Using Continuous Flash Suppression, we investigated if people were able to solve an equation after subliminal (1300 ms) exposure to it. We found evidence for unconscious addition but not subtraction. The effect of unconscious addition was eliminated when participants reported subjective awareness of the primes. Critical review of our results and implications for further research are discussed. 2156 46 3 2016 An experimental study was carried out in order to explore two aspects of the terror management theory that have received little attention until now. The first objective was to see whether the different procedures to arouse mortality awareness have the same effects in certain dimensions included within the general construct of worldviews (namely, commitment to life after death beliefs, Eurocentrism and xenophobia, European identity and the importance attached to the family and offspring in personal growth). The second objective was to study the role played by three mediators (emotions, death thoughts accessibility and self esteem) in the effects of mortality awareness on worldviews. The results revealed that different death reminders influenced different worldview dimensions and that emotions played a major role in the process. 2157 46 4 2016 The main goal of this research was twofold. First, we aimed at determining how acculturation preferences and emotions were related to specific intergroup behavioural tendencies towards majority and minority groups. Second, we aimed at developing an intergroup behavioural tendencies scale that differentiates between valence (facilitation and harm) and intensity (active and passive). The role of intergroup contact was also examined, as it is a known predictor of intergroup prejudice. In order to fulfil these goals, we carried out two studies. In Study 1, Spanish participants (N = 279) answered a questionnaire about Moroccans (a devalued group) or Ecuadorians (a valued group) by reporting their acculturation preferences for immigrants, their positive and negative emotions, quantity of contact with them and behavioural tendencies towards them. In Study 2, Moroccans (N = 92) and Ecuadorians (N = 87) assessed Spaniards on these measures. Results confirmed the structure of the new behavioural tendencies scale across four groups of participants. Overall, findings also showed that acculturation preferences and quantity of contact indirectly predicted behavioural tendencies through positive emotions. This research contributes to knowledge on how the majority and minority §s acculturation preferences are related to their emotions and specific dimensions of intergroup behavioural tendencies, confirming the predominant mediating role of positive emotions in this process. 2158 46 4 2016 The Dual Process Model (DPM) of social attitudes and prejudice proposes that Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) reflect two distinct motivational processes. In two studies, we investigated how political involvement moderates the impact of social worldviews and value based dimensions on SDO and RWA. We proposed that political involvement constrains SDO, RWA and their antecedents into a tighter left–right ideological dimension, therefore transforming the double dissociation pattern of the DPM into a double additive pattern. As expected, for stronger political involvement, Study 1 (N = 237) showed that SDO and RWA were a function of both the competitive jungle and the dangerous world worldviews, whereas Study 2 (N = 143) pointed out that SDO and RWA were both connected with the value dimensions of self enhancement and conservation. 2159 46 4 2016 Although previous literature has revealed the effect of a single social identity on trust, only few studies have examined how multiple social identities affect trust in others. The present research examined the effects of trustors §s social identity complexity on their level of trust toward another person (interpersonal trust), outgroup members (outgroup trust), and ingroup members (ingroup trust). Study 1, which was a correlational study, indicated that trustors §s social identity complexity was positively related to their interpersonal and outgroup trust. Three experimental studies were performed to identify causal relationships. Study 2 found that activating trustors §s high social identity complexity produced high levels of interpersonal trust, and Studies 3 and 4 found that this effect was more pronounced when the trustee was an outgroup member (outgroup trust) rather than an ingroup member (ingroup trust). The implications of these results for social harmony are discussed. 2160 46 4 2016 Identity integration, and more specifically, the subtractive pattern of cultural identification, is investigated in this article. This pattern is hypothesized to occur when individuals integrate a new group identity of higher and legitimate status than their original identity, resulting in lower identification with the original group. The first study examined how relative status predicts the subtractive pattern of identification in immigrants living in Canada. Studies 2 and 3 conducted among Kyrgyz and Canadian participants extended these results by measuring the impact of legitimacy on the subtractive pattern of identification. Results support the hypothesis that the subtractive pattern of identification takes place when the new identity has a higher and legitimate status compared with the original one, highlighting the possible different patterns of identity integration. 2161 46 4 2016 "Two studies examined the effect of exposure to sexism on implicit gender bias, focusing specifically on stereotypes of men as competent and women as warm. Male and female participants were exposed to sexism or no sexism. In both Experiment 1 (Implicit Association Task; N = 115) and Experiment 2 (Go/No go Association Task; N = 167), women who had been exposed to sexist beliefs demonstrated less implicit gender stereotype bias relative to women who were not exposed to sexism. In contrast, exposure to sexism did not influence men §s implicit gender stereotype bias. In Experiment 2, process modelling revealed that women §s reduction in bias in response to sexism was related to increased accuracy orientation and a tendency to make warmth versus competence judgments. The implications of these findings for current understandings of sexism and its effects on gender stereotypes are discussed. " 2162 46 4 2016 Past research has shown that attachment orientations shape sexual processes within relationships. Yet, little has been done to explore the opposite direction. In the present research, we examined whether sexual desire and emotional intimacy reduce attachment insecurities over time in emerging relationships. In an 8 month longitudinal study, we followed 62 newly dating couples across three measurement waves. At Time 1, romantic partners discussed sexual aspects of their relationship and judges coded their displays of sexual desire and intimacy. Participants also completed measures of relationship specific attachment anxiety and avoidance in each wave. The results indicated that men §s displays of desire predicted a decline in their own and their partner §s relationship specific insecurities. Conversely, women §s displays of desire inhibited the decline in their partner §s relationship specific insecurities, whereas women §s displays of intimacy predicted a decline in their partner §s relationship specific insecurities. These findings suggest that different sex related processes underlie attachment formation in men and women. 2163 46 4 2016 Across four experiments, we show that when people can serve their self interest, they are more likely to refrain from reporting the truth (lie of omission) than actively lie (lie of commission). We developed a novel online Heads or Tails task in which participants can lie to win a monetary prize. During the task, they are informed that the software is not always accurate, and it might provide incorrect feedback about their outcome. In Experiment 1, those in the omission condition received incorrect feedback informing them that they had won the game. Participants in commission condition were correctly informed that they had lost. Results indicated that when asked to report any errors in the detection of their payoff, participants in the omission condition cheated significantly more than those in the commission condition. Experiment 2 showed that this pattern of results is robust even when controlling for the perceived probability of the software error. Experiments 3 and 4 suggest that receiving incorrect feedback makes individuals feel more legitimate in withholding the truth, which, in turn, increases cheating. 2164 46 4 2016 Religiosity often positively correlates with well being. Some orientations towards religion may, however, adversely affect well being by decreasing perceptions of personal locus of control a critical antecedent of mental health. We examined this possibility in a New Zealand based national sample of religiously identified adults (N = 1486). As predicted, fundamentalism had a negative indirect effect on life satisfaction, but a positive indirect effect on psychological distress. Conversely, people §s intrinsic religious orientation had a positive indirect effect on life satisfaction, but a negative indirect effect on psychological distress. Notably, all four indirect effects were transmitted through personal, but not God, locus of control. These results highlight the diversity of religious orientations and show that religious orientations that deemphasize people §s personal locus of control have negative consequences for well being. 2165 46 4 2016 We investigated the effect of family identification (one §s subjective sense of belonging to and commonality with the family) on self reported ill health in 206 Valencian undergraduates, with eight months between Time 1 (T1) and Time 2 (T2). While greater family identification T1 predicted lower ill health T2, ill health T1 did not predict family identification T2. Family contact T1 (one §s intensity of interaction with family) was unrelated to ill health T2. This shows that family identification impacts positively on health over time (rather than health impacting positively on family identification over time), and this is not reducible to effects exerted by family contact. These findings indicate that encouraging patients to engage ingroup activities might produce negligible health gains unless the patient identifies with the group in question. 2166 46 4 2016 The present study examined how levels of construal affect retrieval induced forgetting. Higher level construal is associated with the focus on the similarities among stimuli, suggesting that high level construal promotes relational processing. Based on this fact, retrieval induced forgetting may be reduced or eliminated under high level construal condition because of the effect of relational processing. Two experiments were conducted using a retrieval practice paradigm with different stimuli while priming the level of construal. A meta analysis synthesizing the results showed that retrieval induced forgetting occurred under the low level construal condition, whereas forgetting did not occur under the high level construal condition. These results suggest that abstract thinking can eliminate retrieval induced forgetting because of relational processing, demonstrating the role of the levels of construal on memory inhibition. 2167 46 4 2016 Reflecting the egocentrism that permeates contemporary society, people often believe they stand out in the eyes of others (i.e., the spotlight effect), a conviction that is entirely misplaced. Although considerable efforts have focused on elucidating the consequences of the spotlight effect, much less is known about factors that may attenuate this illusory perception. Accordingly, the current study explored the possibility that, via shifts in perspectives on the self (i.e., first person vs. third person), brief mindfulness based meditation may reduce a future oriented variant of this bias. The results revealed that, compared with responses in the control conditions (i.e., control meditation or no mediation), brief mindfulness based meditation fostered the adoption of a third person vantage point during mental imagery and diminished perceptions of personal salience. 2168 46 5 2016 We examine whether aggressive forms of collective action are predicted by their perceived efficacy and the perceived efficacy of peaceful collective action, and whether the two predictors interact. We present data from surveys examining support for and tendencies toward aggressive collective action among university students who are opposed to increases in tuition fees in Britain (Study 1) and support for suicide bombings against Israeli civilians among Palestinians during the Second Intifada (Study 2). Our results reveal an interaction between the efficacy of peaceful and aggressive collective actions: The more efficacious aggression is perceived to be, the greater its appeal and the less it is assuaged by the efficacy of peaceful action. This implies that (i) people may consider aggressive action whenever it works, even if peaceful action is efficacious, and (ii) people may consider aggressive action even when it seems unpromising, if peaceful action is not efficacious, in an apparent nothing to lose strategy. 2169 46 5 2016 Most research on threat documents its negative consequences. Similarly, most research on intergroup contexts has emphasized their negative behavioural effects. Drawing on the Meaning Maintenance Model and recent perspectives on the potential for positivity in intergroup conflict, we predicted that meaning threat can produce both antisocial and prosocial responses to intergroup conflict, depending on people §s preexisting meaning frameworks. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that under meaning threat, low ingroup glorifiers strengthened their support for peaceful conflict resolution, whereas high ingroup glorifiers strengthened their support for military based conflict resolution. In the context of the Israel–Palestinian conflict, Study 3 found that low glorification was associated with greater support for peace during hot (but not cold) conflict, because hot conflict reduced their meaning in life. These findings are consistent with the notion that when meaning is threatened, people affirm their preexisting values whether prosocial or antisocial even in the context of intergroup conflict. 2170 46 5 2016 The present research investigates the interrelation between two widely studied dimensions of social group identity ingroup affect and centrality. Specifically, we test the validity of a quadratic curvilinear relation between ingroup affect and identity centrality. We propose that group members who feel either decidedly positive affect or decidedly negative affect towards their group are more likely to feel that their identity is a central component of their self concept relative to group members with neutral affect. We find evidence for a quadratic relation between ingroup affect and identity centrality with respect to people §s cultural identity (N = 512), ethnic identity (N = 462), religious identity (N = 61, N = 384) and racial identity (N = 3600, N = 2400). Theoretical and practical implications for the measurement and conceptualization of group identification are discussed. 2171 46 5 2016 "Research indicates that university student sportspeople are a high risk subgroup for hazardous alcohol consumption. Adopting a social identity perspective, we explored the social and psychological processes linking sports participation and alcohol use. Twentytwo individual semi structured interviews were conducted with UK student sportspeople (male: 12; female: 10). A deductive thematic analysis identified three core themes: social identification and sports group membership, identity processes in (alcohol) behaviours and sport context specific significance of alcohol. Results suggest that the consumptive practices among student sportspeople were strategic activities underpinned by social identity processes, and which served to provide a positive sports experience at the group level. Our findings highlight the interactions between the sport environment, the social structure of sport participation and the multipurpose function of alcohol in this context. We discuss the implications of these results in support of a social identity approach to sport related drinking. " 2172 46 5 2016 In a series of six studies, we examined the role that perceived collective continuity (PCC) plays in intergroup attitudes. While the extant literature focuses on attitudes toward ingroups, the current studies chose to expand upon this research by concentrating on three types of outgroups (national, religious, and organizational). Results indicated that for groups perceived as neutral or positive, increased PCC was associated with more positive attitudes, while for enemy groups, increased PCC was associated with more negative attitudes. Entitativity played a mediating role such that as the outgroup was perceived as more continuous, it was also seen as more entitative. Higher entitativity led to less negative attitudes toward a past ally but more negative attitudes toward a past enemy. Results held whether past conflict and PCC were measured or manipulated, further supporting our findings. PCC has negative or positive implications for judgments of outgroups depending on intergroup history. 2173 46 5 2016 This article analyses the influence of accent on discrimination against immigrants by examining the hypothesis that accent leads to discrimination only in more prejudiced individuals, merely because people speaking with a native accent are perceived to be better qualified than those whose accent is non standard. In Study 1 (N = 71), we found that only prejudiced individuals use accent to discriminate against immigrants. In Study 2 (N = 124), we replicated this effect and found that the influence of accent on discrimination is mediated by the perceived quality of the accent. Study 3 (N = 105) replicated the previous results even after controlling for the effect of stereotyping. These results are the first experimental illustration of the hypothesis that accent triggers intergroup discrimination only among prejudiced individuals because they evaluate native accents as being qualitatively better than accents of immigrants, thereby legitimizing ingroup bias. 2174 46 5 2016 Our daily interactions are influenced by the social roles we endorse. People however underestimate these role constraints in their everyday explanation relying on individual dispositions to make sense of behaviours. Two studies investigated whether this bias is exacerbated when role structure is legitimated and when power matches the advantages conferred by the social roles of a quiz game. Legitimacy as well as power increased the tendency for both advantaged (questioner) and disadvantaged (answerer) actors (Study 1) as well as naïve observers of the quiz game (Study 2) to attribute to ability the behaviours elicited by social roles. These results extend previous findings. People are more prone to explain constrained behaviours by differences in ability when role structure is legitimated and when power asymmetry matches role structure. Legitimacy and power may then play an important role in the translation of role constraints into inferences about ability. 2175 46 5 2016 Across four studies, we demonstrate that effects obtained from the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure, like those obtained from other indirect procedures, are not impervious to strategic manipulation. In experiment 1, we found that merely informing participants to fake their performance without providing a concrete strategy to do so did not eliminate, reverse, or in any way alter the obtained outcomes. However, when those same instructions orientated attention toward the core parameters of the task, participants spontaneously derived a strategy that allowed them to eliminate their effects (experiment 2). When the participants were provided with a viable response strategy, they successfully reversed the direction of their overall Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure effect (experiment 3). By refining the nature of those instructions, we managed to target and alter individual trial type effects in isolation with some success (experiment 4). 2176 46 5 2016 The influence of construal level on political ideology is unclear. Some research says that abstraction polarizes political attitudes by making liberals more liberal and conservatives more conservative. Other research instead argues that an abstract construal causes people to exhibit similar political attitudes as each other. The current research presents two experiments in which abstraction polarizes political attitudes on issues of social inequality. However, abstraction also increases traditionalism, and so it increases a preference for maintaining the societal status quo, such as by increasing one §s disagreement with or opposition to homosexuality. The dual impacts of abstraction parallel the two distinct dimensions of political ideology (i.e., acceptance of social inequality and preference for the status quo), both of which prior research on construal level has not yet considered. Overall, the current findings indicate that the effects of construal level and the dimensions underlying political ideology need to be teased apart to fully understand the exact relationship between the two. 2177 46 6 2016 The present research intends to shed light on the processes enabling political minorities to transition into normatively acceptable groups, by investigating how a previously marginalised far right movement (the French National Front) is progressively becoming mainstream. Drawing on the social representations approach, we argue that perceived social norms play a pivotal role in this process. Using a longitudinal and experimental design, the study (N = 233) was implemented in the ecological context of the 2012 French presidential election at a Parisian university campus, a traditional anti far right bastion. We tested whether the electoral campaign altered the perceptions of social norms, whether the perceived social norms were easily malleable in this specific context and, most important, whether they influenced people §s willingness to speak out in public against the far right movement. The findings support affirmative answers to all three questions. We conclude that, in periods of collective uncertainty, changing perceptions of social norms might play an important role in the weakening of public opposition to far right movements. This, in turn, helps to explain the recent transition to mainstream recognition of a number of previously marginalised political movements in Europe and around the globe. 2178 46 6 2016 "Many people in the major Western economies (e.g., United States, UK, and Germany) subscribe to free market ideology (FMI), which claims that institutional oversight of the market is unnecessary for public reaction can force corporations to regulate their own behaviour. The question then becomes how people §s belief in FMI affects their reactions to corporate transgressions. Given its ingroup centered values, we hypothesized that FMI beliefs would bias reactions to corporate transgressions. We report results of a pilot study showing that FMI beliefs are predicted by selfishness, tradition, conformity, and lack of universalism. We then report three experiments, which showed that stronger FMI beliefs predict weaker demands to redress corporate injustices committed by ingroup (but not outgroup) corporations (Studies 1–3), especially when victims of corporate wrongdoings belong to an outgroup (rather than the ingroup; Study 3). The findings inform our conceptual understanding of FMI and give insights about its implications for market justice. " 2179 46 6 2016 Boredom makes people attempt to re establish a sense of meaningfulness. Political ideologies, and in particular the adherence to left versus right wing beliefs, can serve as a source of meaning. Accordingly, we tested the hypothesis that boredom is associated with a stronger adherence to left versus right wing beliefs, resulting in more extreme political orientations. Study 1 demonstrates that experimentally induced boredom leads to more extreme political orientations. Study 2 indicates that people who become easily bored with their environment adhere to more extreme ends of a political spectrum compared with their less easily bored counterparts. Finally, Study 3 reveals that the relatively extreme political orientations among those who are easily bored can be attributed to their enhanced search for meaning. Overall, our research suggests that extreme political orientations are, in part, a function of boredom §s existential qualities. 2180 46 6 2016 This study integrates three theoretical perspectives provided by social identity theory, realistic group conflict theory, and social dominance theory to examine the relationship between religious identification and interreligious contact. It relies on a unique dataset collected among Christian and Muslim students in ethnically and religiously diverse regions of Indonesia and the Philippines, where social cleavages occur along religious lines. Religious identification directly predicts a higher quality of interreligious contact, whereas it indirectly predicts a lower quantity and quality of contact, mediated by higher perception of group threat, and a higher quality of contact, mediated by lower social dominance orientation. Furthermore, these direct and indirect relationships are moderated by religious group membership and relative group size. We conclude that religious identification functions as a double edged sword predicting both higher quality and lower quantity and quality of interreligious contact through various pathways and with a varying strength depending on intergroup context. 2181 46 6 2016 When only a handful of members from a disadvantaged group occupy positions of power, they are considered tokens. Previous research suggests that observers tend to consider tokenism as an egalitarian practice. Given its ambiguous nature, we hypothesized that reactions to tokenism would be shaped by individuals §s sensitivity to inequality. In Study 1, we showed that women (vs. men) and individuals low (vs. high) on social dominance orientation differentiated more between a token and an egalitarian decision in the context of gender related practices. Similar findings were observed in Study 2, which involved gender and feminist identification as independent variables. Additional support, particularly for the role of social dominance orientation, was found in Study 3, which involved an ethnic token. Together, results demonstrate the role of individuals §s chronic sensitivity to inequality in shaping their reactions to token practices. Theoretical and practical implications regarding the effect of tokenism on individuals §s valuations and responses to inequality are discussed. 2182 46 6 2016 "The purpose of this research was to examine the joint impact of leader achievement goals and hierarchical position of the voicer of creative ideas (subordinate vs. superior) on the extent to which leaders (intent to) integrate these voiced creative ideas with their own ideas (integrative idea management). In a scenario based survey (study 1; N = 189), in which we measured participants §s achievement goals, we found that the relationship between leaders §s performance goals and their intention to integrate voiced creative ideas is contingent on the hierarchical position of the idea voicer. Similarly, in an experimental study (study 2; N = 94), in which we experimentally induced achievement goals, we found that leaders display lower integrative intentions when ideas are voiced by a subordinate rather than a superior, but this was only true for leaders pursuing performance goals. Furthermore, the results of an additional, exploratory analysis suggest that the hierarchical position of the voicer of creative ideas had an indirect effect on integrative behaviour through integrative intentions for performance goal leaders and no effect for mastery goal leaders. Together, these findings advance our understanding of how middle management leaders are influenced by their own achievement goals when managing the creative ideas voiced by subordinates and superiors. " 2183 46 6 2016 The Centipede game is an abstract model of reciprocal relationships in which two individuals alternate in helping each other at relatively small personal cost. Whereas mutual cooperation can benefit both individuals in the long run, a paradoxical but logically compelling backward induction argument suggests that cooperation is irrational. Empirical studies have reported reliable deviations from the non cooperative backward induction solution, but their exclusively quantitative methods allow only a limited range of predefined motives to be explored. Our study uses verbal ( think aloud ) protocols and qualitative data analysis to identify motives for cooperation in the Centipede game. The results provide little evidence for sophisticated backward induction reasoning. Instead, a wide range of motives emerged, their relative saliences varying according to the stage of the game. Activity bias affected decisions mainly at the beginning of the game, whereas cooperative and altruistic social value orientations most frequently accounted for cooperation towards its natural end. 2184 46 6 2016 We tested both Rogers §s hypothesis that listening enables speakers to experience psychological safety and our hypothesis that the benefit of listening for psychological safety is attenuated by avoidance attachment style. We tested these hypotheses in six laboratory experiments, a field correlational study, and a scenario experiment. We meta analysed the results of the laboratory experiments and found that listening increased psychological safety on average but that the variance between the experiments was also significant. The between experiment variance in the effect of listening manipulation on psychological safety exposes a methodological challenge in choosing a research paradigm of good versus normal listening, as opposed to normal versus poor listening. More importantly, we found, as expected and across all designs, that the higher the avoidance attachment style was, the lower the effect of listening on psychological safety. This finding has implications both for practice and for placing a theoretical boundary on Rogers §s theory. 2185 46 6 2016 Based on system justification theory, we hypothesized that men and women would perform in accordance with gender stereotypes mainly when justification of the system is necessary. In this research, system justification motivation was triggered using a system dependency manipulation. Study 1 shows that when feeling highly (vs. less) dependent on the system, people endorsed system justifying beliefs more. In Study 2, men performed better in math than in verbal domains, while women showed the reverse pattern, but only when they felt highly dependent on the system. Similar results were obtained on performance self evaluation. 2186 46 6 2016 We present the results of a study in which we measured automatic intergroup behaviour and evaluations in ethnic majority and minority group members. We focus our attention on the level of segregation and diversity of immediate life contexts as indicators of outgroup exposure. Specifically, Dutch ethnic minority and majority students enrolled at ethnically segregated and diverse schools completed a measure of automatic approach and avoidance behaviour and reported explicit intergroup attitudes. The research is framed into prevailing theories in the field: Social Identity Theory and System Justification Theory. Results of our study suggest that segregation of minority group members §s immediate life context may be an important moderator of evaluations as well as approach and avoidance behaviour toward ingroup and outgroup. In particular, minority members in segregated schools showed an approach bias towards their ingroup, whereas minority members in diverse schools showed an approach bias towards the majority outgroup. 2187 46 7 2016 Campaigns against reckless driving often mention the risk of dying. Research on terror management theory indicates that death claims may backfire and foster reckless driving. Here, we studied such mortality salience effects in a motorcyclist sample. Two moderating variables, particularly interesting regarding the sample of motorcyclists, were considered: group riding (vs. riding alone) and driving related self esteem. Motorcyclists were exposed to a campaign, either highlighting mortality or not. Orthogonally, cyclists were primed with riding in a group (vs. riding alone). Driving related self esteem was assessed via a questionnaire. We predicted that reminders of riding in a group would buffer against ironic mortality effects. Supporting this hypothesis, mortality salience effects interacted with the group prime. The results indicate that death appeals are likely to backfire with cyclists riding alone rather than cyclists riding in a group, especially if motorcycling is relevant to the self. 2188 46 7 2016 Research indicates that death relevant thoughts (mortality salience) have a nuanced effect on judgments of life §s meaningfulness. Thoughts of death diminish meaning in life only among people who lack or do not readily engage psychological structures that confer meaning. Building on this past research, the current research examined how an important source of meaning, long term goal progress, affects the ways that death relevant cognitions impact judgments of life §s meaning. In Study 1 (N=118), mortality salience decreased perceptions of meaning in life only among participants who were induced to feel closer to (vs. farther from) completing a long term goal. Study 2 (N=259) extended these findings by demonstrating the moderating influence of individual differences in locomotion. Mortality salience again decreased perceptions of meaning in life among participants who felt closer to accomplishing a long term goal, but it only did so among people who do not quickly adopt new goals to pursue (i.e., those low in locomotion). The implications of these findings for better understanding how people maintain meaning in the face of existential concerns and how aspects of goal pursuit affect these processes are discussed. 2189 46 7 2016 Actively considering an individual outgroup member §s thoughts, feelings, and other subjective experiences perspective taking can improve attitudes toward that person §s group. Here, we tested whether such member to group generalization of implicit racial attitudes is more likely when perspective taking targets are viewed as prototypical of their racial group. Results supported a gendered race prototype hypothesis: The positive effect of perspective taking on implicit attitudes toward Black people and Asian people, respectively, was stronger when the perspective taking target was a Black man or Asian woman (gender race prototypical) versus a Black woman or Asian man (gender race nonprototypical). These findings identify a boundary condition under which perspective taking may not improve intergroup attitudes and add to a growing literature on social cognition at the intersection of multiple social categories. 2190 46 7 2016 A great deal of research has investigated gender related objectification. In the current work, we aim to extend the empirical research on this phenomenon to the working domain. Consistent with several theoretical assumptions, we expected that factory workers would be objectified as a consequence of their work. In Study 1, we showed that each of the critical features of factory work (i.e., repetitiveness of movements, fragmentation of activities and dependence on the machine) significantly affected the view of the worker as an instrument (vs. a human being) and as less able to experience human mental states. Coherently, we found that factory workers, unlike artisans, were perceived as more instrument like (Study 2) and as less able to experience mental states (Study 3) when participants were asked to focus on the target §s manual activities rather than on the target as a person. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are considered. 2191 46 7 2016 Colourblindness is a popular diversity ideology promoted as a means to intergroup harmony in ethnically diverse nations. While some research suggests that colourblindness reduces intergroup bias, other work suggests that colourblindness may increase it. The present research utilizes a national sample of European New Zealanders to examine whether the relationship between colourblind endorsement and outgroup attitudes is moderated by perceivers §s individual differences in social dominance orientation (SDO). Data revealed that for participants low in SDO, colourblind beliefs predicted more negative attitudes toward ethnic minorities. However, for those high in SDO, colourblind beliefs predicted more positive attitudes toward ethnic minorities. Taken together, these findings suggest that colourblindness is not all good or bad for intergroup relations instead, its effects may depend on perceivers §s own egalitarian sentiments. 2192 46 7 2016 "Recent research points to Chinese people §s elevated tendency to make positive self evaluations, despite the general claim that East Asians do not self enhance. We present three studies in support of a novel prediction that sociocultural change in China plays an important role in augmenting self enhancement. We operationalized self enhancement primarily in terms of the better than average effect (BTAE) and accounted for trait desirability or importance. We found that: (i) compared with Chinese Canadians, Chinese showed a stronger BTAE; (ii) within the Chinese, identification with contemporary Chinese culture uniquely predicted a stronger BTAE; and (iii) priming contemporary (vs. traditional) Chinese culture led to a stronger BTAE. Finally, we provided further evidence that motivation, in part, underlies the rising Chinese BTAE. We conclude by discussing the importance of both socioeconomic and cultural perspectives for understanding how and when of self enhancement in contemporary China and other societies undergoing social change." 2193 46 7 2016 Intuition is associated with a global processing style, whereas deliberation is associated with a local processing style. Drawing on previous research on the effects of decisional fit on the subjective value attached to chosen alternatives, we examined the possibility that a fit between processing style and decision mode results in greater subjective value than a lack of fit. In three experiments employing various combinations of naturally occurring and experimentally manipulated processing styles and decision modes, we found that when congruence was high (i.e., global processing style and intuitive judgment, or local processing style and deliberative judgment) participants judged their chosen item to be more expensive than when congruence was low. These findings indicate that increased fit resulted in higher estimated value. We discuss implications for judgment and decision making. 2194 46 7 2016 Reminders of existential threat increase people §s desire for offspring. In line with terror management theory, we explain these effects by the motivation to transcend the self via offspring which complements biological accounts of reproduction motivation under threat. Accordingly, Study 1 shows that mortality salience increases self transcendence motivation but not other parenthood motivations. Furthermore, mortality salience increased willingness to adopt children (Study 2) or a 14 year old child (Study 3) only for those participants who were told that the personality of children is the product of nurture (and thus determined by their parent §s self). In addition, mortality salience increased general willingness to adopt, irrespective of whether nurture or genetic influence was made salient in Study 3, where participants imagined being unable to have biological offspring. We discuss how these findings contribute to explaining increased reproduction intentions under existential threat and processes of terror management. 2195 46 7 2016 This study examined the relative contribution of psychological and socioeconomic resources to explaining qualitative individual differences in life satisfaction development. We used growth mixture modelling and a cohort sequential design to investigate life satisfaction development from age 25 to 65, in a nationally representative panel (the SOEP). Eighty three percent of the participants experienced stability in life satisfaction. In a subgroup of individuals (10%) life satisfaction declined. This subgroup lived under less favourable economic conditions, and reported downward moves on an index of socioeconomic status. In another subgroup (7%) life satisfaction was low at age 25, and increased up to age 65. This group was also socioeconomically disadvantaged, but scored higher on adaptive personality traits and experienced upward social mobility. Generally, personality traits explained level differences in life satisfaction better than economic conditions. However, economic conditions explained non normative life satisfaction development better than generalized control beliefs and the Big Five traits.